Chapter II: Preface

This treatise is an outgrowth of our class room work in logic.

It has been published in the hope of removing some of the difficulties which handicap the average student.

We trust that the language is simple and definite and that the illustrative exercises and diagrams may be helpful in making clear some of the more abstruse topics.

If a speedy review for examination is necessary, it is recommended that the briefer course as outlined on page 493 be followed and that the summaries closing each chapter be carefully read.

Only the fundamentals of deductive and inductive logic have received attention. Moreover emphasis has been given to those phases which appear to commend themselves because of their practical value.

Further than this we trust that the book may fulfill in some small way the larger mission of inspiring better thinking and, in consequence, of leading to a more serviceable citizenship.

Surely as civilization advances it is with the expectation of giving greater significance to the assumption “that man is a _rational_ animal.”

I am indebted to a number of writers on logic, notably to Mill, Lotze, Keynes, Hibben, Fowler, Aikins, Hyslop, Creighton and Jevons. I am likewise under obligation to that large body of students who, by frankly revealing their difficulties, have given me a different point of view.

For constructive criticism and definite encouragement I owe a personal debt of gratitude to Prof. Charles Gray Shaw of New York University, to Prof. Frank D. Blodgett of the Oneonta Normal School and to Prin. A. C. MacLachlan of the Jamaica Training School for Teachers.

G. H. McN.

City Training School for Teachers,
Jamaica, N. Y. City.
October 3, 1914.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1.――THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF LOGIC.
1. The Mind.
2. Logic Related to Other Subjects.
3. Logic Defined.
4. The Value of Logic to the Student.
5. Outline.
6. Summary.
7. Review Questions.
8. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 2.――THOUGHT AND ITS OPERATION.
1. The Knowing Mind Compared with the Thinking Mind.
2. Knowing by Intuition.
3. The Thinking Process.
4. Notions, Individual and General.
5. Knowledge and Idea as Related to the Notion.
6. The Logic of the Psychological Terms Involved in the Notion.
7. Thought in the Sensation and Percept.
8. Evolution and the Thinking Mind.
9. The Concept as a Thought Product.
10. The Judgment as a Thought Product.
11. Inference as a Thought Product.
12. Thinking and Apprehension.
13. Stages in Thinking.
14. Outline.
15. Summary.
16. Review Questions.
17. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 3.――THE PRIMARY LAWS OF THOUGHT.
1. Two Fundamental Laws.
2. The Law of Identity.
3. The Law of Contradiction.
4. The Law of Excluded Middle.
5. The Law of Sufficient Reason.
6. Unity of Primary Laws of Thought.
7. Outline.
8. Summary.
9. Illustrative Exercises.
10. Review Questions.
11. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 4.――LOGICAL TERMS.
1. Logical Thought and Language Inseparable.
2. Meaning of Term.
3. Categorematic and Syncategorematic Words.
4. Singular Terms.
5. General Terms.
6. Collective and Distributive Terms.
7. Concrete and Abstract Terms.
8. Connotative and Non-connotative Terms.
9. Positive and Negative Terms.
10. Contradictory and Opposite Terms.
11. Privative and Nego-positive Terms.
12. Absolute and Relative Terms.
13. Outline.
14. Summary.
15. Illustrative Exercises.
16. Review Questions.
17. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 5.――THE EXTENSION AND INTENSION OF TERMS.
1. Two-fold Function of Connotative Terms.
2. Extension and Intension Defined.
3. Extended Comparison of Extension and Intension.
4. A List of Connotative Terms Used in Extension and Intension.
5. Other Forms of Expression for Extension and Intension.
6. Law of Variation in Extension and Intension.
6a. Important Facts in Law of Variation.
6b. Law of Variation Diagrammatically Illustrated.
7. Outline.
8. Summary.
9. Illustrative Exercises.
10. Review Questions.
11. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 6.――DEFINITION.
1. Importance.
2. The Predicables.
3. The Nature of a Definition.
4. Definition and Division Compared.
5. The Kinds of Definitions.
6. When the Three Kinds of Definitions are Serviceable.
7. The Rules of Logical Definition.
8. Terms Which Cannot be Defined Logically.
9. Definitions of Common Educational Terms.
10. Outline.
11. Summary.
12. Illustrative Exercises.
13. Review Questions.
14. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 7.――LOGICAL DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION.
1. Nature of Logical Division.
2. Logical Division Distinguished from Enumeration.
3. Logical Division as Partition.
4. Four Rules of Logical Division.
5. Dichotomy.
6. Classification Compared with Division.
7. Kinds of Classification.
8. Two Rules of Classification.
9. Use of Division and Classification.
10. Outline.
11. Summary.
12. Review Questions.
13. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 8.――LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS.
1. The Nature of Logical Propositions.
2. Kinds of Logical Propositions.
3. The Four Elements of a Categorical Proposition.
4. Logical and Grammatical Subject and Predicate Distinguished.
5. The Four Kinds of Categorical Propositions.
6. Propositions which do not Conform to Logical Type.
7. Propositions not Necessarily Illogical.
8. The Relation between Subject and Predicate.
9. Outline.
10. Summary.
11. Illustrative Exercises.
12. Review Questions.
13. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 9.――IMMEDIATE INFERENCE――OPPOSITION.
1. The Nature of Inference.
2. Immediate and Mediate Inference.
3. The Forms of Immediate Inference.
(1) Opposition.

CHAPTER 10.――IMMEDIATE INFERENCE (Continued).
(2) Immediate Inference by Obversion.
(3) Immediate Inference by Conversion.
(4) Immediate Inference by Contraversion.
4. Epitome of the Four Processes of Immediate Inference.
◆ Inference by Inversion.
5. Outline.
6. Summary.
7. Illustrative Exercises.
8. Review Questions.
9. Problems for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 11.――MEDIATE INFERENCE――THE SYLLOGISM.
1. Inference and Reasoning.
2. The Syllogism.
3. The Rules of the Syllogism.
4. Rules of Syllogism Explained.
5. Aristotle’s Dictum.
6. Canons of the Syllogism.
7. Mathematical Axioms.
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Illustrative Exercises.
11. Review Questions.
12. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 12.――FIGURES AND MOODS OF THE SYLLOGISM.
1. The Four Figures of the Syllogism.
2. The Moods of the Syllogism.
3. Testing the Validity of the Moods.
4. Special Canons of the Four Figures.
5. Special Canons Related.
6. Mnemonic Lines.
7. Relative Value of the Four Figures.
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Illustrative Exercises.
11. Review Questions.
12. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 13.――INCOMPLETE SYLLOGISMS AND IRREGULAR ARGUMENTS.
1. Enthymeme.
2. Epicheirema.
3. Polysyllogisms. Prosyllogism――Episyllogism.
4. Sorites.
5. Irregular Arguments.
6. Outline.
7. Summary.
8. Review Questions.
9. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 14.――CATEGORICAL ARGUMENTS TESTED ACCORDING TO FORM.
1. Arguments of Form and Matter.
2. Order of Procedure in a Formal Testing of Arguments.
3. Illustrative Exercise in Testing Arguments which are Complete
and whose Premises are Logical.
4. Illustrative Exercise in Testing Completed Arguments, one or
both of whose Premises are Illogical.
5. Incomplete and Irregular Arguments.
6. Common Mistakes of the Student.
7. Outline.
8. Summary.
9. Review Questions.
10. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 15.――HYPOTHETICAL AND DISJUNCTIVE ARGUMENTS INCLUDING THE
DILEMMA.
1. Three Kinds of Arguments.
2. Hypothetical Arguments.
3. Antecedent and Consequent.
4. Two Kinds of Hypothetical Arguments.
5. Rule and Two Fallacies of Hypothetical Argument.
6. Hypothetical Arguments Reduced to Categorical Form.
7. Illustrative Exercises Testing Hypothetical Arguments of All
Kinds.
8. Disjunctive Arguments.
9. Two Kinds of Disjunctive Arguments.
10. First Disjunctive Rule.
11. Second Disjunctive Rule.
12. Reduction of Disjunctive Argument.
13. The Dilemma.
14. Four Forms of Dilemmatic Arguments.
15. The Rule of Dilemma.
16. Illustrative Exercises Testing Disjunctive and Dilemmatic
Argument.
17. Ordinary Experiences Related to Disjunctive Proposition and
Hypothetical Argument.
18. Outline.
19. Summary.
20. Review Questions.
21. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 16.――THE LOGICAL FALLACIES OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING.
1. A Negative Aspect.
2. Paralogism and Sophism.
3. A Division of the Deductive Fallacies.
4. General Divisions Explained.
5. Fallacies of Immediate Inference.
6. Fallacies in Language (Equivocation).
7. Fallacies in Thought (Assumption).
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Illustrative Exercises in Testing Arguments in Both Form and
Meaning.
11. Review Questions.
12. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 17.――INDUCTIVE REASONING.
1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Distinguished.
2. The “Inductive Hazard.”
3. Complexity of the Problem of Induction.
4. Various Conceptions of Induction.
5. Induction and Deduction Contiguous Processes.
6. Induction an Assumption.
7. Universal Causation.
8. Uniformity of Nature.
9. Inductive Assumptions Justified.
10. Three Forms of Inductive Research.
11. Induction by Simple Enumeration.
12. Induction by Analogy.
13. Induction by Analysis.
14. Perfect Induction.
15. Traduction.
16. Outline.
17. Summary.
18. Review Questions.
19. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 18.――MILL’S FIVE SPECIAL METHODS OF OBSERVATION AND
EXPERIMENT.
1. Aim of Five Methods.
2. Method of Agreement.
3. Method of Difference.
4. The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference.
5. The Method of Concomitant Variations.
6. The Method of Residues.
7. General Purpose and Unity of Five Methods.
8. Outline.
9. Summary.
10. Review Questions.
11. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 19.――AUXILIARY ELEMENTS IN INDUCTION.
OBSERVATION――EXPERIMENT――HYPOTHESIS.
1. Foundation of Inductive Generalizations.
2. Observation.
3. Experiment.
4. Rules for Logical Observation and Experiment.
5. Common Errors of Observation and Experiment.
6. The Hypothesis.
7. Induction and Hypothesis Distinguished.
8. Hypothesis and Theory Distinguished.
9. The Requirements of a Permissible Hypothesis.
10. Uses of Hypothesis.
11. Characteristics Needed by Scientific Investigators.
12. Outline.
13. Summary.
14. Review Questions.
15. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 20.――LOGIC IN THE CLASS ROOM.
1. Thought is King.
2. Special Functions of Induction and Deduction.
3. Two Types of Minds.
4. Conservatism in School.
5. The Method of the Discoverer.
6. Real Inductive Method not in Vogue in Class Room Work.
7. As a Method of Instruction, Deduction Superior.
8. Conquest, not Knowledge, the Desideratum.
9. Motivation as Related to Spirit of Discovery.
10. Discoverer’s Method Adapted to Class Room Work.
11. Question and Answer Method not Necessarily One of Discovery.
12. Outline.
13. Summary.
14. Review Questions.
15. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

CHAPTER 21.――LOGIC AND LIFE.
1. Logic Given a Place in a Secondary Course.
2. Man’s Supremacy Due to Power of Thought.
3. Importance of Progressive Thinking.
4. Necessity of Right Thinking.
5. Indifferent and Careless Thought.
6. The Rationalization of the World of Chance.
7. The Rationalization of Business and Political Sophistries.
8. The Rationalization of the Spirit of Progress.
9. A Rationalization of the Attitude Toward Work.
10. The Logic of Success.
11. Outline.
12. Summary.
13. Review Questions.
14. Questions for Original Thought and Investigation.

GENERAL EXERCISES IN TESTING CATEGORICAL ARGUMENTS.

GENERAL EXERCISES IN TESTING HYPOTHETICAL, DISJUNCTIVE AND
DILEMMATIC ARGUMENTS.

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FOR TRAINING SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

OUTLINE OF BRIEFER COURSE.

INDEX.