Chapter 21: Logic and Life

=1. LOGIC GIVEN A PLACE IN A SECONDARY COURSE.=

“To prepare for complete living” seems to be the ultimate aim of education, and any school subject which does not aid to this end must be eliminated from the courses of study. “Knowledge for the sake of knowledge” will not do in this age of practical efficiency. _A subject in order to survive must show indications of doing its share in this larger business of man building._ If it can be made evident that logic lends itself in no undecided terms to such an aim, then may its incorporation in a secondary course of study be not only justified but more highly appreciated.

=2. MAN’S SUPREMACY DUE TO POWER OF THOUGHT.=

That man is the supreme agent of intelligent progress is due to three factors: First, to the existence of the natural world; second, to the existence of man himself; third, to man’s ability to think. Given life and the world as a place to evolve that life, and it is barely possible that man might have _survived_, but without _thought_ he could never have become _supreme_. _Man is king of the animal kingdom because of his power of thought._ Let us illustrate:

Ages ago when England was a part of the main land; when there was no North Sea nor English Channel; we are told that there lived in the forest tracts there about many large and ferocious animals; such as the elephant, the lion, and the tiger. There lived also in the region a _smaller_ and apparently a _weaker_ animal. This creature had no tusks to hook with, no great jaws to crunch with, and no claws to tear with; and an eye witness would have said “Such a weakling has no possible chance against these enemies of his; he and his descendants will succumb and the species will become extinct.” The region was tropical; but, of a sudden, a cataclysmic twist changed the temperature from a torrid to a frigid state. What happened? The large and ferocious animals either migrated to the south or froze to death; _but this weakling put on furs, built fires, and remained in the jungle as its king_. His name was man, and though he had no horns to hook with, he possessed a _brain to think with_; this gave him supremacy over the forces of nature.

From the beginning the adaptation of the lower animals has been physical; whereas man’s has been more or less intellectual. By means of deliberative thought man made the bow and arrow which could kill at a distance of 200 yards; then he invented the repeating rifle which may kill a mile away. _Thought_ has taught man to harness the forces of nature in the form of all kinds of invention. _Thought_ has given man the power to build bridges and palaces, to paint pictures, to chisel angels. _Thought_ has pierced the fog of ignorance and brought light to the dark spots of the globe. _Thought_ has build nations and established the spirit of good will on earth. Through the long years, _thought_ has been the _one tool of conquest_ which has enabled man to build for himself, out of the furnishings of nature, _a heaven on earth_.

Can you recall a department of life which thought has not embellished? Can you recall a single factor that has been raised to the nth power of efficiency without thought? Steam and electricity _plus thought_ lights the world, unites the world, feeds and clothes the world. To-day, as in the olden time, men who think are ever at a premium. This holds true from the Shopkeeper to the Magnate of Wall Street; from Basil, the Blacksmith, to Edison, the King Inventor; from Reuben, the Farmer, to Burbank, the Wizard.

=3. IMPORTANCE OF PROGRESSIVE THOUGHT.=

Man not only thinks but he thinks _progressively_. The _average horse_ of to-day, for example, is probably no more intelligent than was the average equine of the time of Alexander the Great, whose war horse, Bucephalus, attained historical fame. Yet, intellectually, the _average man_ of to-day is _far_ above the average man of Alexander’s time. “Horse-knowledge” is more or less stationary. Through instinct each generation makes use of the knowledge of its ancestors without any noticeable accretions. But “man-knowledge” is a growing product of progressive thought. Man appropriates all the knowledge of his forbears, and then adds to this a bit of his own. By being able to think progressively, man is enabled to _stand upon the shoulders of his ancestors_ and thus to take advantage of a broader vision.

We are now led to the conclusion that man’s supremacy is due not only to his ability to think, but to his power of _progressive_ thought.

=4. NECESSITY OF RIGHT THINKING.=

In the main, man’s thinking has been for his good, that is, in the long run, it has contributed to his general progress. If this had not been so, long since would he have dropped back to the level of the non-thinking animals.

Thinking has been defined as the process of affirming or denying connections. Right thinking is, therefore, a matter of affirming the right connections or denying the wrong connections. To put it differently: right thinking is the process of adjusting the best means to a right end; whereas wrong thinking is a matter of overlooking the best means, or directing improper means to a wrong end. Right thinking involves _proper adjustment_; wrong thinking _improper adjustment_. In the intellectual world as in the physical, _improper adjustment_ means extinction. Illustrations of this:

(1) A contractor undertakes to build a skyscraper. In the excavation an old wall is discovered. The thought of the contractor is, “I must make a pot of money out of this job, and since this old wall is in the right spot I will build on it, and thus save me ‘five hundred’.” In the course of ten years, without warning, the building topples over and fifty women and children are killed. The contractor is convicted and sent to prison for life. If the builder had thought the right thought; namely, “I want to put up a building that will stand for generations,” he would have survived the competition of his fellows and entered his long home with success etched upon his soul.

(2) Two school teachers, A and B, are working in the same system. A’s ambition is to be promoted and she uses “pull” as the means. For a time she succeeds in pulling the wires, and likewise in pulling the “wool” over the eyes of the Board of Education. B aspires to professional growth, using as the means every opportunity for genuine improvement. In time both are known as they really are, not as they seem to be. A is denominated a “shirk,” a politician, a _mere school keeper_; whereas B is looked up to as the best equipped worker in the building, a _real school teacher_.

There may seem to be many exceptions to this point of view, and yet in the last analysis we find that these exceptions are only apparent. When we maintain that right thinking means survival and wrong thinking extinction, we assume that the standard adopted is _genuine efficiency_ and not a _certain money basis_. High positions may be _secured_ through wrong thinking, but these cannot be _filled creditably_ without the preponderance of right thinking.

=5. INDIFFERENT AND CARELESS THOUGHT.=

It may be advanced as a plausible hypothesis that man, especially if he is an American, finds much trouble for himself, and makes much trouble for the world because of his indifference to thought. To leap first and look afterwards is the spirit of youth, and America is young. _Think twice before you look and look twice before you leap_ is sound logical doctrine. A logically minded man _rationalizes_ every new proposition before he adopts it. He marshals before the mind the favorable points and then bombards them with every conceivable objection. With the steady eye of an honest, earnest, open minded critic, he weighs the unfavorable against the favorable and then accepts the indications of the balance unequivocally. If logic did nothing else save to inspire young people to thus rationalize every doubtful undertaking, it would do its share toward world betterment.

=6. THE RATIONALIZATION OF THE WORLD OF CHANCE.=

Man seems to be a natural born gambler. He loves to “take a chance” and herein lies much of his unhappiness. Without discussing the evils of the stock exchange, the horrors of the gambling den, and the unbusiness like procedure of the race track, we may merely attempt here to show how _the rationalization of the conception of chance_ may be instrumental in dimming the glare of gambling to the average youth.

(1) The meaning of the term chance.

The term chance implies an inability to find a cause for any particular event. Whenever we trust to luck, we do so through ignorance. In reality every thing in this world is ordered _according to law_, and if we possessed infinite knowledge concerning these laws, then, for us, the word “chance” would have no meaning. One accomplishment of knowledge has been to rationalize superstition and chance. “Not a grain of sand lies upon the beach, but infinite knowledge would account for its lying there; and the cause of every falling leaf is guided by the same principles of mechanics as rule the motions of the heavenly bodies.”――Jevon’s Prin. of Science, vol. I, p. 225.

That chance is a literal confession of ignorance, is a wholesome truth for all to bear in mind. If we were not so ignorant of atmospheric conditions, we would never be caught in the rain without an umbrella; if we knew perfectly the laws of mechanics, we would not speed our car and trust to luck that the car would hold together.

(2) Chance mathematically considered.

The principle of the “calculation of chances” has been discussed elsewhere. It will be sufficient here to illustrate the principle from a mathematical point of view.

Suppose that a jeweller desires to dispose of a ten-dollar watch by a raffle. He may place a hundred numbers in a box, one of which corresponds to the number on the watch. My chance of drawing the right number is one out of a hundred and may be expressed by the fraction 1/100. The fact that I may draw the right number on the first trial or on the last trial is immaterial. The real meaning of the ratio “one out of a hundred” is, that in the long run, I shall _lose 99 times_ where I gain but once. This implies, that if I pay 25 cents for each draw, I shall in the end pay 99 times 25 cents for the watch, or I will have paid $24.75 for a ten dollar watch.

(3) Chance and gambling.

In all forms of gambling no wealth is produced. What one man gains the other man loses. In addition to this the institution which projects the gambling scheme must be supported. In consequence, _more money must be lost than can possibly be gained_. This leads to the conclusion that on the basis of averages he who would gamble must terminate his career “behind the game.” Statistics verify this conclusion.

(4) Chance and investments.

Interest, which is money paid for the use of money, is high when the demand for money exceeds the supply and low when the supply equals or exceeds the demand. The fact that the supply is short is largely due to the lack of confidence on the part of the investor. This means that he is unwilling to take the risk. Thus the principle: “_High rate of interest, great risk; low rate of interest, little risk._”

=7. THE RATIONALIZATION OF POLITICAL AND BUSINESS SOPHISTRIES.=

“Win right or wrong” is a nut shell statement of modern sophistry. Corollaries to this are such aphorisms as “Of two evils choose the lesser”; “Do evil that good may come,” etc. Armed with these platitudes the modern business and political octopus will play the bully and squeeze the life out of the little fellow in the name of economy; will pay for editorials to elect the “right man”; will evade bad laws so-called; institute lobbies; buy votes; and perpetrate a thousand other immoral deeds in the name of “good business” or of “party loyalty.”

Half truths are the most atrocious of all kinds of fallacies in that they are the most misleading. “Do evil that good may come” is but half of the whole truth “Do evil that good may come, _provided there is no other way open_.” Again, “Of two evils choose the lesser, _if a complete enumeration has shown that there is not a third course_.”

A development of a finer ability of discernment under right influence should lead the common citizen to see _through_ these various sophistries practiced by corporate greed, and should enable him by means of the ballot to “blaze a better way.”

The “public is a blunderbuss” because the average man either cannot, or will not, think his own thoughts. By developing greater skill and arousing greater interest in the _thinking process_, the crowd of camp followers will be reduced; selfish bossism will die; and a truer and more efficient democracy will reign supreme.

=8. THE RATIONALIZATION OF THE SPIRIT OF PROGRESS.=

Genuine progress comes through a happy combination of the old with the new. A love for the old only, means _ultra conservatism_; whereas a love for the new only, means _ultra radicalism_; a love for both means _rational liberalism_.

That people love the old way may be attributed to two forces which will receive attention here.

(1) Race instinct.

It may be said that “life is a brief space between two eternities――a path between infinity and infinitude.” “Man is a pedestrian who perambulates along the way.” The eternities concern him not so much as the _path_ which stretches between them. In a former day, one of the striking characteristics of the western plain was the _beaten path_ stretching out along the table-land like an elongated, dust colored serpent; and often following this path would be a herd of buffalo winding its way in single file around boulder and ant hill till shut from view by the distant horizon. Thus has man travelled along the beaten path, following the “foot prints of the ages.” Here and there and everywhere do we see signs of those who have gone on before; father, grandfather, great grandfather; yes, even to the toe marks of those primeval ancestors of ours who shambled along the way, nobody knows how many years ago. From the dark recesses of the cave, have our forbears thrown a lasso of blood about our necks, and it seems as if we _must_ follow the old, old way. “Being acorns of the ancestral oak,” we grow similar oak tree tendencies, living over again the life of our progenitors. “There lies in every soul the history of the universe.”

(2) Imitation.

But there is another reason for this ultra conservative spirit and it is that nature’s chief mode of instruction is by means of _imitation_. To every living thing of wood or field nature seems to say, “Your parents are always right, do as they do for this is the best way to learn the lessons of life.” A man thinks, feels and wills his way through life in a certain manner largely because his father did likewise. Moreover, we not only imitate those who have gone on before, but we counterfeit each other; fashion is another name for world wide mimicry. We imitate our friends and those whom we admire; we talk like them, we walk like them, we live like them.

It now appears that we are held to the path of the past by means of _race instinct_ and the _power of imitation_, and we are thus prone to believe that the old way is good enough. It is evident that to get out of the beaten path is dangerous. The wild animal that deserts the habits of the race dies a premature death, and the man who possesses the temerity to struggle through the thicket of new things must, of necessity, shorten his span of life. To follow the “same old rut” is easiest for the teacher; to be loyal to the “grand old party” is safest for the politician. But to the contrary, if every man of every generation had followed the beaten path blindly――without deviation, the human race would now be a horde of simians. Because man has possessed the power of progressive thought, he has developed the spirit of radicalism and has thereby made himself supreme.

“The old way anyway――the old way right or wrong” has been the world’s biggest stumbling block. Every innovation must fight for its life. Every good thing has to be condemned in its day and generation. It is Huxley who suggests three stages for the course of a new idea: First, it is revolutionary; second, it will make little difference; third, _I have always believed in it_. On the other hand, the new way anyway; “we must have a change whether or no”; “we must have something different despite the cost,” have ever been the slogans of waste and destitution. The wars which have not resulted from the prejudice of ultra conservatism have been brought about through the thoughtlessness of ultra radicalism. The revolutionist, the freak and the anarchist, products of impulse and the spirit of discontent, spring from an unwise love of change.

The world needs conservatism and radicalism not so much as it needs _rationalism_. It needs men who can hold to the _good of the old_ and adopt the _best of the new_; men who neither “rust out” nor “waste out”; but _wear out_. That rational progress may obtain, there must be a perfect dovetailing of the old with the new. Man must leave the beaten path not altogether, but at times. He needs to blaze out a _new_ way not so much as he needs to straighten the bends, tunnel through the mountains, and fill in the swamps of the _old_ way. _A rational “liberalism” implies a willingness to follow the old path with a view to improving the imperfections thereof._

=9. A RATIONALIZATION OF THE ATTITUDE TOWARD WORK.=

On the assumption that true happiness is the ultimate aim of life, we may conclude that anything which does not contribute to this end functions as a curse and not as a blessing. Happiness involves physical comfort and mental joy. To have comfort of the body implies moderate means. The poor cannot be happy because of bodily want. When “physical-man” is not given proper nourishment for healthy growth, then does he _goad_ “spiritual-man” with the pricks of appetite and pain till his wants are appeased. This is a law of nature. On the other hand happiness is not attained through acquisition; neither the millionaires, nor the scholars, nor the famous are the happiest. This is a fact apparent to all. Over worry and over excitement follow closely the heels of much money and high position. Too little brings unhappiness through want; too much brings unhappiness through worry. Therefore man is _cursed by his work_ when the remuneration is not enough for comfort of body, or when the income is too much for poise of mind.

Unless the organs of the body are used they atrophy. Every cell of the physical makeup demands exercise. Work which is not drudgery; work which causes the organs of the body and the powers of the mind to function normally; work which gives comfort without luxury; work which forces one to the highest actualization of his physical and spiritual powers is _man’s greatest blessing_. In and through such work will man attain his highest state of happiness.

=10. THE LOGIC OF SUCCESS.=

We may now hope to show that material aggrandizement, the adopted standard of success, is one of the illogical factors of modern life.

The tree of the forest always grows toward the light. It pushes its way through the darkness of the soil into the shadow of the underbrush and finally out into the unobstructed light of the sun. This parallels the progress of the race. From the darkness of _savagery_ into the shadow of _barbarism_, and finally out into the full light of _civilization_. Thus has man grown steadily and continually toward better things. But “better things” is a relative term and has changed with the development of the race. “A good healthy idea may not live longer than twenty years.” In consequence growth toward the light has been in accordance with man’s _conception_ of a higher and a better life; which conception is ever changing.

Moreover, growth toward the best is always rewarded by real happiness. It therefore follows that the _right road to real happiness_ extends along the way of _better things_ as conceived by the traveller, _man_.

Any force which tends to lift the world up toward more light is a blessing, and any personality which contributes to this end is a success. When one drops a pin it falls _down_ toward the earth, at the same time the earth comes _up_ to meet the pin. This is according to the universal law of gravitation. It is true that the earth moves the pin through a much greater space than the pin moves the earth, and yet the fact remains that the pin _does move the earth_. The extent to which the smaller body is able to move the larger, depends on the two factors of _weight_ and _relative position_. If the pin were lighter or farther away it would influence the earth so much the less. In like manner does the “pin-man” influence the “human-world.” The extent of this influence is controlled by man’s _weight_, or his “lifting power,” and the _position_ which he occupies; just as the attraction of the pin for the earth is controlled by _weight_ and _position_.

The facts of history have proved that man’s power to lift depends not so much upon what he _has_ as upon what he _is_. In short, lifting power is directly in proportion to _personal worth_. Moreover, man’s ability to draw humanity up may be increased or decreased by the position which he occupies. Such a position must function for the best good of the world, and at the same time must elicit the highest development of the man.

TO SUMMARIZE:

Individual success involves these three elements:

First――_A man of personal worth._

Second――_A position which draws out the best in the man._

Third――_A work which definitely contributes to the uplift of the world._

A definition is now in order:

_Success is the right man in the right place doing his best for the highest good of the world._

=11. OUTLINE.=

LOGIC AND LIFE.

(1) Logic given a place in a secondary course.

(2) Man’s supremacy due to power of thought.

(3) Importance of progressive thinking.

(4) Necessity of right thinking.

(5) Indifferent and careless thought.

(6) The rationalization of the world of chance.
(1) Meaning of the term chance.
(2) Chance mathematically considered.
(3) Chance and gambling.
(4) Chance and investments.

(7) The rationalization of business and political sophistries.

(8) The rationalization of the spirit of progress.

(9) A rationalization of the attitude toward work.

(10) The logic of success.

=12. SUMMARY.=

(1) To justify its having a place in any course of study, logic must lend itself to character building.

(2) Man is king of the animal kingdom because of his power of thought. From the beginning his adaption has been more or less intellectual and his chief weapon of conquest has ever been his thinking brain.

(3) Man’s supremacy has been due not only to his ability to think, but also to his power of _progressive_ thought.

(4) Right thinking is the process of adjusting the best means to a right end. Wrong thinking involves improper adjustment, which in turn results in extinction.

(5) A “logically-minded” man _rationalizes_ every new proposition before he adopts it. That is, he analyzes with the utmost care and with unprejudiced frankness all the favorable and unfavorable situations; he then throws them into the balance of honest judgment and adopts the indications of said balance, unequivocally.

(6) Chance is a confession of ignorance. If man possessed infinite knowledge, the term chance would have no place in his vocabulary.

The games of chance are money making schemes supported by the gambling fraternity. On the basis of averages, the gambler, in the long run, must terminate his career “behind the game.”

High rate of interest implies great risk; low rate of interest little risk.

(7) “Win right or wrong” epitomizes the teachings of modern sophistry. With the coming of better thinking, a more efficient democracy will obtain.

(8) Rational progress combines the best of the old with what seems to be the best of the new.

Blind love for the old, or ultra conservatism, is due to the two forces of race instinct and power of imitation.

An adherence to the “old way anyway” may mean retrogression; whereas following the new way, simply because of its newness, may involve unnecessary waste.

(9) Work which is not drudgery; work which causes the organs of the body and the powers of the mind to function normally; work which gives comfort without luxury; work which forces one to the highest actualization of his physical and spiritual powers is man’s greatest blessing.

(10) Logically considered personal aggrandizement is not a true standard of success. Success involves personal worth rather than personal holding.

Success is measured by man’s ability to help the world on toward better things.

Success is the right man in the right place doing his best for the highest good of the world.

=13. REVIEW QUESTIONS.=

(1) What is the ultimate aim of education? Show that logic
contributes to this end.

(2) Prove that man’s power of thought has ever been his best weapon
of conquest.

(3) Exemplify the distinction between non-progressive and progressive
thinking.

(4) Define right thinking. Illustrate.

(5) “A logically-minded man rationalizes every new project before
undertaking it.” Give a concrete instance in explanation of this.

(6) “Chance is a literal confession of ignorance.” Demonstrate this.

(7) Give a mathematical illustration proving that schemes of chance
are simply money making devices for the benefit of those who
project them.

(8) The average gambler must terminate his career behind the game.
Prove this.

(9) Why should high rate of interest imply great risk?

(10) Show that a half truth is a most misleading fallacy.

(11) Illustrate a business sophistry. Explain.

(12) Write a brief theme on “The Rationalization of the Spirit of
Progress.”

(13) Under what conditions may work become man’s greatest blessing?

(14) Define success. Illustrate.

(15) In the light of your definition of success discuss the following:
“The only failure is not to try.”

=14. QUESTIONS FOR ORIGINAL THOUGHT AND INVESTIGATION.=

(1) “To prepare for complete living” is the end of education.
Interpret and discuss this quotation from Spencer.

(2) Mention some discovery or invention which represents the power
of progressive thought.

(3) “Man’s adaptation has been largely intellectual while the
adaptation of the camel has been physical.” Explain.

(4) Interpret the expression, “The son stands upon the shoulders of
the father.”

(5) Illustrate instances where man’s thinking has not been for his
best interests.

(6) Indicate how wrong thinking led to the Civil War.

(7) Distinguish between legitimate speculation and gambling.

(8) Name and explain the logical elements involved in a low rate of
interest.

(9) How may training in right thinking lead to more efficient
citizenship?

(10) “There lies in every soul a history of the universe.” Show the
truth of this.

(11) Show by illustration that imitation is one of nature’s chief
modes of instruction.

(12) Explain the meaning of drudgery.

(13) Mention instances where work is a curse.

(14) Is success possible when the right man is found doing his best
in the wrong place?

(15) Whom do you consider the most successful American? Give reasons.

GENERAL EXERCISES IN TESTING THE
VALIDITY OF CATEGORICAL ARGUMENTS.

_Let the student give attention to the fallacies in meaning as well as to the fallacies in form._

1. None but those who are contented with their lot in life can
justly be considered happy. But the truly wise man will always
make himself contented with his lot in life, and, therefore he
may justly be considered happy. Keynes.

2. Suffering is a title to an excellent inheritance; for God
chastens every son whom he receives. Keynes.

3. No young man is wise; for only experience can give wisdom, and
experience comes only with age. Keynes.

4. Dr. Johnson remarked that “a man who sold a penknife was not
necessarily an iron-monger.” Against what logical fallacy was
this remark directed? Explain. Keynes.

5. This pamphlet contains seditious doctrines, the spread of
which may be dangerous to the state; hence the pamphlet must
be suppressed. Keynes.

6. Good workmen do not complain of their tools: my pupils do not
complain of their tools; therefore, my pupils are probably good
workmen. Keynes.

7. Knowledge gives power; consequently, since power is desirable,
knowledge is desirable. Keynes.

8. Some who are truly wise are not learned; but the virtuous alone
are truly wise; the learned, therefore, are not always virtuous.
Keynes.

9. The spread of education among the lower orders will make them
unfit for their work; for it has always had that effect on those
among them who happen to have acquired it in previous times.
Keynes.

10. Slavery is a natural institution and therefore ought not to be
abolished. Russell.

11. The yardstick of success is the dollar, and you have made your
millions.

12. “All who talk well are not necessarily intelligent, and A is
certainly a spell-binder.”

13. Gold and silver are the wealth of a country; consequently,
the diminution of gold and silver by exportation must mean the
diminution of the wealth of a country. Russell.

14. A miracle is unbelievable, because it fails to conform to known
laws of nature.

15. Improbable events happen every day; now, what happens every day
is a probable event; therefore, improbable events are probable
events.

16. What fallacy did Columbus commit when he made the egg stand on
end by breaking one end?

17. Some holder of a ticket is sure to draw the prize; and, as I am
a ticket holder, I am sure to draw the prize. Russell.

18. All the members of the jury are just men, hence you may trust the
foreman.

19. Select the star players of the country and you will have a team
which cannot be beaten.

20. All the houses on this street present a pretty picture; this
house, therefore, which is on this street, will make a fine
picture.

21. What is the good of all your teaching, for every day we hear of
wrong doing made possible by education.

22. You are not what I am; I am a teacher; hence you are not a
teacher.

23. The student of history is compelled to admit the law of progress,
for he finds that society has never stood still. Russell.

24. This bill must have been designed to bleed the people because it
is supported by the grafters of the state.

25. “To close the saloons on Sunday is contrary to the wishes of the
people of the city; hence those ‘farmer legislators’ should keep
hands off.”

26. Success is the right man in the right place doing his best, and
you are working to the limit.

27. Early to bed and early to rise, makes one healthy, wealthy and
wise. It is, therefore, easy enough to get rich.

28. Honesty being the best policy, I must tell the truth to my
patient, though to tell him that he cannot live will shorten his
life many days.

29. A stitch in times saves nine, hence an ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure.

30. The richest man I know used to sweep his office every morning,
hence it pays to commence at the bottom.

31. Cramming is an injurious habit, since it makes the building of
logical memories practically impossible.

32. A strong will means a trained will; struggle is an indication of
weakness.

33. There is no such thing as a national or state conscience;
therefore, no judgments can fall upon a sinful nation. Hibben.

34. The principles of justice are variable; the appointments of
nature are invariable; therefore, the principles of justice are
no appointment of nature. Aristotle.

35. Intelligence and not sex should be the standard; therefore, let
the women have their way.

36. “War by killing off the men of the country gives the living a
better opportunity to succeed because of reduced competition.”

37. Since you deem yourself a misfit, in the name of common sense,
why do you not change your occupation?

38. The conquest of America by Europeans has been a good thing for
the world; since no eminent historian doubts it.

GENERAL EXERCISES IN TESTING THE VALIDITY OF HYPOTHETICAL,
DISJUNCTIVE AND DILEMMATIC ARGUMENTS.

_The student must remember to give attention to the fallacies in meaning as well as to the fallacies in form._

1. If I speak at length, he is bored; if I speak briefly, he is
offended; therefore I will not speak at all.

2. If virtue is involuntary, vice is also involuntary; but vice is
voluntary, hence virtue is also.

3. If a man cannot make progress toward perfection, he must either
be a brute or a divinity; but no man is either; therefore every
man is capable of such progress. Fowler.

4. If education is popular, compulsion is unnecessary; if unpopular,
compulsion will not be tolerated. Fowler.

5. If you are to recover from this illness, then you will. If you
are not to recover, then you will not, hence what is the use of
calling in a physician?

6. If your act was right, your conscience will approve it; if wrong,
your conscience will prick you. Either your act was right or
wrong, so you can depend upon your conscience.

7. If he is intoxicated then he is not responsible, but he acts like
a sober man.

8. If the Elixir of Life is of any value, those who take it will
improve in health; now my friend who has been taking it has
improved in health, and therefore the elixir is of value as a
curative agent. Hyslop.

9. If you will settle down to business, you may still win out,
because I am confident it is not too late for hard work to be
effective.

10. If the end justifies the means then money used for any object of
charity may be secured in any way.

11. If might is right then money talks, but I find that occasionally
money proves ineffective.

12. If the majority of those who use public houses are prepared
to close them, legislation is unnecessary, but if they are not
prepared for such a measure, then to force it on them by outside
pressure is both dangerous and unjust. Hyslop.

13. If the conscience is infallible in matters of right and wrong,
then sin is just one thing; namely, doing that which is contrary
to one’s conscience. We believe that an educated conscience is
infallible.

14. If the earth were of equal density throughout, it would be about
2½ times as dense as water; but it is about 5½ times as dense;
therefore the earth must be of unequal density. Hyslop.

15. The end of human life is either perfection or happiness; death
is the end of human life, therefore death is either perfection
or happiness. Creighton.

16. That chauffeur either lost his head or was drunk because no sane
man would deliberately run down an innocent child.

17. If you argue on a subject which you do not understand, you will
prove yourself a fool; for this is a mistake which fools always
make. Keynes.

18. If you are a man of your word, you will live up to your
agreement, or if you have any self respect, you will do the manly
thing. Now your neighbors tell me that you are a man in the habit
of making good your promises.

SETS OF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS FOR
TRAINING SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

_Answer ten questions._ Time, 2 hours.

Set I.

1. Define and illustrate obversion and state the principle which
conditions the process.

2. Give directions for making the following propositions logical:
(1) Only first class passengers may ride in parlor cars.
(2) All who claim to be pious are not pious.
(3) “Blessed are the merciful.”

3. Write a theme of 200 words on “Logic and Life.”

4. Put into syllogistic form and test the validity of this argument.
“We are going to have an open winter because the hornets’ nests
are near the ground.”

5. Justify the teaching of logic in an institution which offers
courses in Educational Theory.

6. Correct the following definitions, stating the rules violated:
(1) A man is an organized entity whose cognitive powers
function rationally.
(2) A bird is an animal that flies.
(3) A scholar is an educated man with scholarly attainments.

7. Prove that in the first figure the minor premise must be
affirmative.

8. Investigate a case of habitual tardiness by making use of the
canon of difference.

9. Describe with illustrations the various ways of begging the
question.

10. Why should classification rather than logical division be the
mode of procedure in the case of small children? Illustrate.

11. Illustrate the following:
(1) non connotative term,
(2) undistributed middle,
(3) fallacy of accident.

Set II.

_Answer ten questions._ Time, 2 hours.

Throw the following into the form of a syllogism and criticise, giving reasons:

1. “I do not know how to teach school as I have had no experience.”

2. “Only the honest should be in business and you are not honest.”

3. Why should all teachers study logic? Give arguments in full.

4. Describe Mill’s methods of induction and illustrate one.

5. Give and explain the rules of logical definition.

6. Explain the distribution of terms and illustrate by circles the
meaning of the four logical propositions.

7. Define the following:
(1) teaching,
(2) extension of terms,
(3) obversion,
(4) hypothesis,
(5) relative term.

8. Give a class room illustration of the Complete Method.

9. Distinguish between
(1) distributive and collective terms,
(2) analysis and deduction,
(3) logical division and classification.

10. Illustrate the following:
(1) contradictory proposition,
(2) analogy,
(3) law of identity,
(4) singular term,
(5) univocal term.

11. Convert, if possible, the following:
(1) Some men are honest.
(2) All that glitters is not gold.
(3) All kings are fallible.

Set III.

_Answer ten questions._ Time, 2 hours.

1. Investigate by the Joint Method of Induction this question: “Why
is John absent so often?”

2. Explain and illustrate:
(1) contradictory propositions,
(2) illicit middle,
(3) obversion,
(4) contraversion,
(5) synthesis.

3. State and exemplify the rules of logical division.

4. Write a theme of at least 150 words on one of the following:
(1) Induction as the Discoverer’s Method.
(2) A Rational View of Success.

5. Define logically:
(1) teaching,
(2) deduction,
(3) education,
(4) analysis,
(5) money.

6. Distinguish between the extension and intension of terms.

7. Exemplify:
(1) an absolute term,
(2) the complete method,
(3) non connotative terms,
(4) fallacy of accident,
(5) hypothesis.

8. “Educated among savages, he could not be expected to know the
customs of polite society.” Is this valid? Reasons.

9. “The signs indicate that you are either stupid or unprepared; but
the past proves that you are not the former.” Test the validity.

10. Discuss comprehensively one of the following topics:
(1) The Fallacies.
(2) Thinking.
(3) Abbreviated Arguments.

Set IV.

_Answer ten questions._ Time, 2 hours.

1. Exemplify:
(1) the law of variation in the extension and intension of
terms,
(2) a distributed predicate.

2. Indicate with explanation the logical errors:
(1) A teacher assumes that the “bad boy of the school” is going
to cause trouble in her room.
(2) All the men of the Commission are fair minded men, hence
they will render a fair decision.

3. What experimental method of induction is the most positive in its
conclusion? Illustrate this method.

4. State and illustrate the rules of logical definition.

5. Obvert each of the four logical propositions. Explain the
principle involved.

Test the validity of the following arguments:

6. “Horses, not being human, cannot reason.”

7. “Only the industrious deserve to succeed and you have never done
a hard day’s work in your life.”

8. “If you had been wise, you would have refused to stoop to the
methods of the firm, but you were not wise.”

9. From this premise construct a valid syllogism: “All large cities
owe their size to some commercial advantage.”

10. Define and illustrate the following: analogy, hypothesis,
thinking, connotative term, relative term.

11. Distinguish between:
(1) Analysis and deduction.
(2) Logical division and classification.
(3) Relative and absolute identity.

Set V.

_Answer ten questions._ Time, 2 hours.

Test the validity, giving reasons:

1. All successful teachers are industrious, but you are not
industrious because you are not successful.

2. John was a troublesome boy in the first and second grades,
therefore he is going to make trouble for the third grade
teacher.

3. Teaching is the art of imparting knowledge. Criticise, giving
reasons. Define correctly, pointing out the essentials.

4. Explain the extensional and intensional use of terms and
illustrate the law of variation.

5. Describe Mill’s experimental methods of induction. Symbolize the
joint method.

6. Define the following: analysis, law of identity, obversion.

7. Illustrate the laws of thought.

8. Write on one of the following topics:
(1) Complete Method,
(2) Right Thinking.

9. “The science of logic never made a man reason rightly.” Discuss
this question.

10. Explain and illustrate the enthymeme.

Set VI.

_Answer ten questions._ Time, 2 hours.

1. Exemplify the following:
(1) illicit minor,
(2) begging the question,
(3) law of excluded middle,
(4) inductive method.

2. Write a short theme on one of these topics:
(1) Thinking.
(2) Logical Terms.

Test the validity of the attending arguments, giving reasons:

3. “He who talks much usually says little and you are certainly a
great talker.”

4. “You must be industrious, since only such truly succeed.”

5. Illustrate and give the characteristic marks of the joint method
of induction.

6. Summarize the benefits to be derived from a study of logic.

7. State and illustrate the rules of logical definition.

8. Distinguish between
(1) extension and intension,
(2) opposite and contradictory terms,
(3) analysis and synthesis.

9. Define and illustrate hypothesis, obversion, sorites,
hypothetical argument.

10. Explain and illustrate the three forms of induction.

11. Distinguish logically between a teacher and an instructor.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Aikins. The Principles of Logic. Henry Holt and Co., New York. 1905.

Bain. Logic, Inductive and Deductive. Longmans, Green and Co. 1902.

Bosanquet. The Essentials of Logic. The MacMillan Co., London. 1910.

Bradley. The Principles of Logic. London. 1886.

Creighton. Introductory Logic. The MacMillan Co., New York. 1905.

Dewey. Studies in Logical Theory. The University of Chicago Press.
1903.

Fowler. The Elements of Deductive and Inductive Logic. Oxford. 1905.

Hibben. Logic, Deductive and Inductive. Chas. Scribner’s Sons, New
York. 1906.

Hyslop. Elements of Logic. Chas. Scribner’s Sons, New York. 1905.

Jevons-Hill. Elements of Logic. American Book Co., New York. 1883.

Keynes. Formal Logic. The MacMillan Co., London. 1906.

Lotze. Logic. Translated by B. Bosanquet, 2 vols. Oxford. 1888.

McCosh. Laws of Discursive Thought. Chas. Scribner’s Sons. 1906.

Mill. A System of Logic, 2 vols. Longmans, Green and Co., London. 1904.

Russell. Elementary Logic. The MacMillan Co., New York. 1908.

Ryland. Logic. George Bell and Sons, London. 1900.

Sigwart. Logic. Translated by Helen Dendy, 2 vols. The MacMillan Co.
1895.

Swinburne. Picture Logic. Longmans, Green and Co., London. 1904.

Taylor. Elementary Logic. Chas. Scribner’s Sons, New York. 1911.

Venn. The Logic of Chance. The MacMillan Co., New York.

OUTLINE OF BRIEFER COURSE.

Subject

=I. THOUGHT AND ITS LAWS=
⭘ Logic Defined
⭘ The Thinking Process.
⭘ Stages in Thinking
⭘ The Law of Identity
⭘ The Law of Contradiction
⭘ The Law of Excluded Middle

=II. LOGICAL TERMS=
⭘ All of Chapter 4

=III. EXTENTSION AND INTENSION OF TERMS=
⭘ All of Chapter 5

=IV. DEFINITION=
⭘ All of Chapter 6

=V. LOGICAL DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION=
⭘ All of Chapter 7

=VI. LOGICAL PROPOSITIONS=
⭘ All of Chapter 8 Except Section 7

=VII. IMMEDIATE INFERENCE=
⭘ All of Chapter 10

=VIII. MEDIATE INFERENCE=
⭘ All of Chapter 11 Except Section 8

=IX. FIGURES AND MOODS=
⭘ The Four Figures of the Syllogism
⭘ The Moods of the Syllogism
⭘ Testing the Validity of the Moods

=X. INCOMPLETE SYLLOGISMS=
⭘ Enthymeme
⭘ Polysyllogisms
⭘ Sorites

=XI. CATEGORICAL ARGUMENTS TESTED=
⭘ All of Chapter 14

=XII. HYPOTHETICAL AND DISJUNCTIVE ARGUMENTS=
⭘ All of Chapter 15 except Sections 13,14, 15 and 17

=XIII. LOGICAL FALLACIES=
⭘ All of Chapter 16

=XIV. INDUCTIVE REASONING=
⭘ All of Chapter 17 Except Sections 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9

=XV. MILL’S METHODS OF OBSERVATION AND EXPERIMENT=
⭘ All of Chapter 18

=XVI. OBSERVATION, EXPERIMENT AND HYPOTHESIS=
⭘ All of Chapter 19

INDEX

A

Absolute Terms, 56.

Abstract Terms, 51.

Accent, Fallacy of, 330.

Accident, 81;
Fallacy of, 334.

Affirmative Proposition, 127.

Agreement, Method of, 387.

All――not, Some, Few, Logical Significance of, 133.

Ambiguous Middle, 328.

Amphibology, 329.

Analogy, 368.

Analysis, Definition of, 97;
As a Method, 97;
Induction by, 373.

Analytic Propositions, 138;
Method, 97.

Antecedent, 289.

Apprehension and Thinking, 24.

Arguments, Irregular, 258;
Testing of Categorical, 263;
Incomplete, 247;
General Exercises, 481;
Mistakes of Students in Connection with, 281;
Hypothetical, 288;
Disjunctive, 302;
Dilemmatic, 308.

Argumentum ad populum, 338;
ad hominem, 338;
ad ignorantiam, 338;
ad baculum, 338;
ad verecundiam, 339.

Aristotle’s Dictum, 208.

Art, Definition of, 96.

Auxiliary Elements of Induction, 418.

B

Bain Quoted, 12.

Ballentine Quoted, 359.

Barbara, Celarent, etc., 234.

Begging the Question, 341.

Bibliography, 492.

Bowen Quoted, 12.

Briefer Course, Outline of, 493.

C

Canons of Syllogism, 209;
of Four Figures, 226.

Categorematic Words, 48.

Categorical Arguments, 263;
Tested, 263;
General Exercises, 481.

Categorical Propositions Defined, 121;
Four Elements, 122;
Four Kinds, 126;
Classification of, 128.

Cause, Fallacy of False, 340.

Chance, Rationalization of, 468.

Child, Thinking of, 20.

Circulus in Probando, 343.

Classification Compared with Division, 112;
Kinds, 113;
Rules of, 114;
Use, 114.

Co-extensive Propositions, 142.

Collective Terms, 50.

Comparison, Stages in Thinking, 25.

Complete Method, Three Elements, 97.

Composition, Fallacy of, 331.

Concept, Definition of, 17;
a Thought Product, 21.

Concomitant Variations, 402.

Concrete Terms, 51.

Connotative Terms, Two-fold Function of, 62;
Definition of, 52;
a List of, 65.

Conquest the Desideratum, 447.

Consequent, 289;
Fallacy of False, 339.

Contradiction, Law of, 35.

Contradictory Terms, 53;
Propositions, 167.

Contrary Propositions, 165.

Contraversion, 181;
Fallacies of, 327.

Converse Accident, Fallacy of, 335.

Conversion, 176;
by Limitation, 178;
Simply, 179;
Fallacies of, 327.

Copula, 123.

Creighton Quoted, 4, 387, 485.

D

Deduction, Defined, 96;
as a Method, 97;
Special Function of, 438.

Definition, Importance of, 77;
the Predicables, 77;
Nature of, 82;
Definition of, 83;
Compared with Division, 84;
Kinds of, 85;
When Serviceable, 87;
Rules of, 88;
Terms which Cannot be Defined, 93;
of Common Educational Terms, 94.

Denomination, Stages in Thought, 26.

Denotation and Connotation of Terms, 66.

Descriptive Definition, 86.

Development, Definition of, 94.

Dichotomy, 110.

Difference, Method of, 393.

Differentia, 80.

Dilemma, 308.

Discoverer’s Method, 440.

Disjunctive Arguments, 302;
Rules of, 303;
Logical Disjunction, 303;
Reduction of, 307.

Distribution of Subject and Predicate of Propositions, 145;
Schemes for Remembering, 148.

Division, Definition of Logical, 105;
As Partition, 107;
Compared with Definition, 84;
Distinguished from Enumeration, 106;
Rules of, 108;
Compared with Classification, 112;
Use of, 114;
Fallacy of, 332.

Dressler Quoted, 12.

E

Education, Defined, 94;
Compared with Instruction, 95.

Educational Terms Defined, 94.

Elements of the Logical Proposition, 123.

Elliptical Propositions, 129.

Enthymeme, 247.

Epicheirema, 249.

Episyllogism, 250.

Epithets, Question Begging, 343.

Essential Attributes of Definition, 88.

Etymological Definition, 85.

Euler’s Diagrams, 141.

Evolution and the Thinking Mind, 19.

Examination Questions, 486.

Exceptive Propositions, 135.

Excluded Middle, Law of, 39.

Exclusive Propositions, 136.

Exercises, Testing Arguments, 481.

Experiment as an Element in Induction, 419.

Extension and Intension of Terms, Defined, 63;
Compared, 63;
Used in Comparison, 65;
Other Forms of Expression for, 66;
Law of Variation in, 66.

F

Fact, Defined, 96.

Fallacies, of Deductive Reasoning, 322;
Paralogism and Sophism, 322;
Division of, 323;
of Immediate Inference, 326;
in Form, 194, 199;
Hypothetical, 291;
Disjunctive, 303;
of Language, 328;
in Thought, 334.

False Cause, 340.

False Consequent, Fallacy of, 339.

Figure of Speech, Fallacy of, 333.

Figures of Syllogism, 218;
Special Canons of, 226;
Perfect and Imperfect, 235;
Reduction, 235;
Relative Value of, 239.

Formal Fallacies, 197, 324.

Four Terms, Fallacy of, 329.

Fowler Quoted, 4, 360.

Fundamentum Divisionis, 108.

G

General Exercises in Testing Arguments, 481.

General Terms, 49.

Genus and Species, 78.

Grammatical Subject and Predicate, 125.

Grammatical Sentences, 131.

H

Hamilton Quoted, 4, 12, 131.

Hibben Quoted, 4, 441.

Huxley Quoted, 473.

Hypothetical Arguments, 288;
Kinds, 290;
Rules and Fallacies, 291;
Reduced to Categorical, 293;
Illustrative Exercise in Testing, 297;
General Exercises, 484.

Hypothesis, Defined, 96, 425;
and Theory, 427;
Requirements of, 427;
Uses of, 429.

I

Identity, Law of, 32;
Absolute, 33;
Complete and Incomplete, 33;
Relative, 34.

Illicit Major and Minor, 199;
Illustration of, 215.

Image, Definition of, 17.

Immediate Inference, 159;
by Obversion, 170;
by Opposition, 161;
by Conversion, 176;
by Contraversion, 181;
Epitome of Four Processes, 182;
by Inversion, 183;
Fallacies of, 326.

Imperfect Induction, 361.

Indefinite Propositions, 129.

Individual Proposition, Nature of, 132;
in Opposition, 168.

Induction, Defined, 96;
as a Method, 97;
Reasoning, 355;
and the Hazard, 356;
the Three Forms of, 365;
Perfect, 375;
Special Function of, 438.

Inference, Definition of, 18;
a Thought Product, 24;
Immediate, 159;
Mediate, 192.

Infima Species, 79.

Instruction Defined, 95.

Intension of Terms, 63.

Integration, a Stage in Thought, 26.

Inversion, 183.

Inverted Proposition, 137.

Irregular Arguments, 258.

Irrelevant Conclusion, 337.

J

Jevons Quoted, 4, 25, 387, 468.

Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, 397.

Judgment, Definition of, 17;
a Thought Product, 22;
Most Fundamental Element in Thinking, 23.

K

Keynes Quoted, 481, 485.

Kinds of Definitions, 85.

Knowing, by Intuition and by Thinking, 2;
Knowing and Thinking Compared, 10;
by Intuition, 11;
Habitual, 11.

Knowledge, Defined, 95;
Intuitive, 11.

L

Language and Thought Inseparable, 47.

Law of Variation in Extension and Intension, Stated, 66;
Two Important Facts in, 69;
Diagrammatically Illustrated, 70, 71.

Laws of Sufficient Reason, 40;
of Universal Causation, 361;
of Uniformity of Nature, 362.

Laws of Thought, 32;
Unity of, 40;
Schematic Statement of, 43.

Learning, Defined, 95.

Logic, Defined, 3;
Authentic Definitions of, 4;
Grammar of Thought, 3;
Science of Sciences, 3;
the Value of to the Student, 5;
Related to Other Subjects, 1;
Specific Scope, 2.

Logic in the Class Room, 437.

Logic and Life, 463.

Logic of Success, 475.

Logical Definition, 85, 88.

Logical Disjunction, 303.

Logical Subject and Predicate, 125.

M

Major Term, 196.

Material Fallacies, 323, 324, 325, 328.

Mediate Inference, 192;
the Syllogism, 192;
Rules of Syllogism, 193.

Method Defined, 96;
Inductive and Deductive, 97;
Complete, 97.

Method-Whole Defined, 96.

Middle Term, 192, 193, 196.

Mill Quoted, 5, 359, 361, 387, 393, 397, 402, 406.

Mill’s Experimental Methods, 386.

Miller Quoted, 12.

Mind, the Unity of, 1;
Knowing and Thinking Compared, 10.

Minor Term, 196.

Mnemonic Lines, 234.

Modal Proposition, 139.

Modus Ponendo Tollens, etc., 302.

Moods of Syllogism, 221;
Testing Validity of, 223.

Motivation as Related to Spirit of Discovery, 449.

N

Negative Proposition, 127.

Negative Terms, 53.

Nego-positive Terms, 55.

Non-connotative Terms, 52.

Non Sequitur, Fallacy of, 339.

Not, Bisects the World, 36;
Two Uses of, 36.

Notion, Definition, 14;
Individual, 14;
General, 14;
Distinguished from Knowledge, 15;
Distinguished from Idea, 16;
Psychological Terms Involved in, 16.

O

Observation, 419;
Rules of, 420;
Errors of, 423.

Obversion, Definition of, 170;
Fallacies of, 326.

Opposite Terms, 53.

Opposition, Nature of, 161;
Scheme of, 163;
Square of, 164.

Outline of Briefer Course, 493.

P

Page Quoted, 453.

Particular Propositions, 126;
Affirmative, 143;
Negative, 144.

Partition, 107.

Partitive Propositions, 133.

Percept, Definition of, 17;
Related to Thought, 18.

Perfect Induction, 375.

Petitio Principii, 341.

Plurative Propositions, 132.

Polysyllogism, 250.

Porphyry, Tree of, 111.

Positive Terms, 53.

Predicables. Defined, 77;
Named, 78;
Illustrated, 82.

Predicate, Grammatical and Logical, 125;
Distribution of, 145.

Primary Laws of Thought, 32.

Privative Terms, 55.

Progressive Thought, 465.

Property, 81.

Propositions, Definition of Logical, 120.

Prosyllogism, 250.

Proximate Genus, 79.

Pure Proposition, 139.

Q

Quantity Signs, 123.

Quantity and Quality of Propositions, 126.

Question and Answer, not a Method of Discovery, 457.

Question Begging Epithets, 343.

Question, Complex, 340.

R

Rationalization, of Chance, 468;
of Political and Business Sophistries, 470;
of the Spirit of Progress, 471;
of the Attitude toward Work, 474.

Reasoning, Defined, 24, 355;
Inductive, 355;
Deductive, 355.

Reduction of Figures, 235.

Relation between Subject and Predicate, 140.

Relative Terms, 56.

Residues, Method of, 406.

Right Thinking, 466.

Rules, of Logical Definition, 88;
of Logical Division, 108;
of Classification, 114;
of the Syllogism, 193;
of the Hypothetical Argument, 291;
of the Disjunctive, 303.

Russell Quoted, 481, 482.

Ryland Quoted, 481, 482.

S

Salisbury Quoted, 360.

Science, Defined, 95.

Sensation, Defined, 17;
Related to Thought, 18.

Simple Conversion, 179.

Simple Enumeration, 367.

Singular Terms, 49.

Socrates, 322.

Sorites, 251.

Species, 78.

Square of Opposition, 164.

Subaltern Propositions, 164.

Subcontrary Propositions, 164.

Subject, Logical, 123;
Grammatical and Logical Distinguished, 125;
Distribution of, 145.

Success, Logic of, 475.

Sufficient Reason, Law of, 40.

Summum Genus, 79.

Syllogism, a Product of Inference, 24;
Nature of, 192;
Rules of, 193;
Undistributed Middle, 199;
Illicit Major, 199;
Illicit Minor, 199;
Aristotle’s Dictum, 208;
Canons of, 209;
Mathematical Axioms of, 210;
Four Figures of, 218;
Moods of, 221;
Incomplete, 247.

Syncategorematic Words, 48.

Synthesis, Defined, 97;
as a Method, 97.

Synthetic Proposition, 138.

T

Teaching, Defined, 94;
Compared with Instruction and Education, 95.

Terms, Extension and Intension of, 63;
Used in Extension and Intension, 65;
which Cannot be Defined, 93;
Contradictory and Opposite, 38;
Logical, 47;
Singular and General, 49;
Collective and Distributive, 50;
Concrete and Abstract, 51;
Connotative and Non-connotative, 52;
Positive and Negative, 53;
Contradictory and Opposite, 53;
Privative and Nego-positive, 55;
Absolute and Relative, 56.

Theory Defined, 96.

Thinking, Definition of, 12;
Illustration of Process, 13;
Compared with Knowing, 10;
Compared with Intuition, 2;
the Process, 12;
Groups Many Into One, 18;
in the Sensation and Percept, 18;
Evolution and Thinking Mind, 19;
of the Child, 20;
of the Adult, 20;
and the Concept, 21;
and the Judgment, 22;
and Apprehension, 24;
Stages in, 25;
in the Inference, 24;
Laws of, 32;
Unity of Laws, 40;
Progressive, 465;
Right, Necessity of, 466;
Indifferent and Careless, 467.

Thought and Language, 47.

Thought is King, 437.

Traduction, 377.

Training, Definition of, 95.

Tree of Porphyry, 111.

Truistic Proposition, 139.

Truth Defined, 96.

U

Uberweg Quoted, 4.

Undistributed Middle, 199;
Illustration of, 214.

Uniformity of Nature, 362.

Universal Affirmative Proposition, 140.

Universal Causation, 361.

Universal Negative Proposition, 142.

Universal Propositions, 126.

V

Variations, Method of Concomitant, 402.

W

Watts Quoted, 4.

Weakened Conclusion, 224.

Whately Quoted, 4.

Word-signs of Categorical Propositions, 122.

Footnotes.

1 – NOTE. Sometimes thinking and thought are used
interchangeably. This is confusing. Properly, “thinking”
is always a process of the knowing mind while “thought”
is the product of this process, just as the flour of the
gristmill is the _product_ of the grinding _process_.

2 – Intuitive knowing might be termed habitual knowing.

3 – Mediate Inference.

4 – Intuitive Knowing.

5 – Hyslop’s Elements of Logic (1901), page 100.

6 – Hyslop.

7 – Men do have the power of reason.

8 – Sometimes called contraposition.

9 – From the Greek meaning _to reason with_.

10 – The student may be sufficiently interested to complete the
list.

11 – The student should prove that the last premise may be
affirmative.

12 – This cause, however, need not be a _single_ antecedent, in
fact it seldom is. “This cause, philosophically speaking,
is the sum total of the conditions, positive and negative,
taken together.”――Mill. The cause of the price of food stuff
being high, involves many conditions, or antecedents, so
interwoven that it is impossible to designate any one as
being the chief factor concerned.

13 – Those might be named the Five Special Methods of Induction
by Analysis.

14 – All cases of finding the net proceeds are examples of the
law of residue.

Transcriber’s Notes.

The following corrections have been made in the text:

Page 22:
Sentence starting: First, I may be....
– ‘recignize’ replaced with ‘recognize’
(able to recognize each)

Page 61, Question 16:
Sentence starting: What is the difference....
– ‘differenece’ replaced with ‘difference’
(the difference in meaning)

Page 61, Question 23:
Sentence starting: Argue to the effect....
– ‘non-contotative’ replaced with ‘non-connotative’
(can be non-connotative.)

Page 86:
Sentence starting: A logical definition....
– ‘digerentiæ’ replaced with ‘differentiæ’
(by means of its differentiæ.)

Page 144:
Sentence starting: Here, as in the I,...
– ‘comfined’ replaced with ‘confined’
(knowledge is confined to)

Page 204:
Sentence starting: (6) _If one premise....
– ‘nagtive’ replaced with ‘negative’
(one premise be negative)

Page 240:
Sentence starting: Since, however, the easiest....
– ‘affirmavite’ replaced with ‘affirmative’
(and a particular affirmative)

Page 246:
Sentence starting: (3) Show why it is....
– Printer error: lost end of point (3) and duplicated part of
point (4)

Page 276:
Sentence starting: Other arguments where....
– ‘agruments’ replaced with ‘arguments’
(Other arguments where)

Page 286:
Sentence starting: (4) In the practice....
– ‘analagous’ replaced with ‘analogous’
(custom analogous to giving)

Page 286:
Sentence starting: (4) “The man is guilty....
– ‘(4)’ missing from text
((4) “The man is guilty)

Page 325:
Sentence starting: These fallacies arise from....
– ‘abitrary’ replaced with ‘arbitrary’
(words as arbitrary signs)

Page 326:
Sentence starting: There is little difference....
– ‘fallicies’ replaced with ‘fallacies’
(and fallacies of converse)

Page 371:
Sentence starting: (1) Noting that two....
– ‘sirname’ replaced with ‘surname’
(have the same surname,)

Page 376:
Sentence starting: In the school room....
– ‘generalziation’ replaced with ‘generalization’
(perfectly induced generalization,)

Page 382:
Sentence starting: _Complete_ enumeration gives....
– ‘uncontradiced’ replaced with ‘uncontradicted’
(_incomplete but uncontradicted_)

Page 405:
Sentence starting: It is thus evident that....
– ‘prenomenon’ replaced with ‘phenomenon’
(entirely with the phenomenon.)

Page 422:
Sentence starting: _Reading into the external....
– ‘vivdly’ replaced with ‘vividly’
(what is only vividly internal)

End of Project Gutenberg's A Class Room Logic, by George Hastings McNair