Chapter I: Part 1

DRAWN BY JAMES MCQUEEN Glasgow 6th. June 1820.

_Engraved by W. H. Lizars Edinburgh._

_Engraved by W. H. Lizars_

_Edinburgh, Published by Willm. Blackwood 1821._]

A
GEOGRAPHICAL AND COMMERCIAL
VIEW
OF
NORTHERN CENTRAL AFRICA:
CONTAINING A PARTICULAR ACCOUNT
OF THE
Course and Termination
OF THE
GREAT RIVER NIGER IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

* * * * *
BY JAMES M‘QUEEN.
* * * * *

EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH;
T. CADELL, IN THE STRAND, LONDON; AND
W. TURNBULL, GLASGOW.
* * * * *
1821.

* * * * *
Printed by Balfour and Clarke,
Edinburgh, 1821.

TO
HIS GRACE
THE DUKE OF MONTROSE,
THIS WORK
IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,
BY
HIS OBLIGED, MOST OBEDIENT, AND
HUMBLE SERVANT,
JAMES M‘QUEEN.

PREFACE.

* * * * *

The subsequent sheets regarding the Geography and Commerce of Northern Central Africa, are with much deference submitted to the public. They are the results of much labour, long research, and numerous inquiries, carried on with a view to elucidate these important subjects.

When Mr. Park returned from his first journey, I was resident in the Island of Grenada (West Indies). There I had Mandingo Negroes under my charge, who were well acquainted with the Joliba. They knew the name perfectly from hearing me pronounce it in reading Mr. Park’s book. I also knew a Houssa Negro, who said he rowed Mr. Park across the Niger. These things naturally attracted my attention; and being fond of geographical subjects, I endeavoured to collect all the accounts which I could concerning the features of the country on the Upper Niger, as well from Negroes as from gentlemen of my acquaintance, who had obtained their information from similar sources. Though it was scarcely possible to reduce these, standing by themselves, into regular order, yet, connected with other accounts, they became satisfactory, and formed the commencement of my labours and collections on this subject. The narratives of every one were filled with the accounts of high mountains, great rivers, populous countries, and large towns. By these means, my particular attention was fixed upon this interesting subject, and my researches have been pursued day succeeding day, ever since the period above mentioned. Numerous authorities regarding this interesting portion of Africa have been examined with much care, and the most striking facts elicited from their pages. This investigation in the geographical department, has led to the conclusion which is now submitted to the world. It is for the public to judge how far the work has been judiciously and accurately performed.

It is nearly five years, since, in a small treatise, I pointed out that, in the Bights of Benin and Biafra, the Niger certainly entered the ocean. Various travellers, and researches made since that period, have enabled me to delineate with greater accuracy the course of this important river, and its numerous tributary streams through the interior of the country. Perfect accuracy on these subjects is at present unattainable, nor is it here pretended to. The delineation of the general features of the country was all I had in view, and this I flatter myself has been done with sufficient accuracy to establish all the leading points which were contemplated.

The Public will no doubt feel surprised when, considering the number and magnitude of the rivers in the Bights of Benin and Biafra, that no attempt has ever been made to penetrate by means of the chief and most powerful of these streams into the interior of the country. Yet such is the fact. The rivers of interior Africa were believed to be like no other rivers. By one they were stated to run, first increasing, and then diminishing, till the current disappeared altogether. By another, that, flowing in opposite directions, they at last met and stood still; and by a third, that one of the greatest rivers in the world, with all its tributary streams, was swallowed up in a lake, or absorbed by sands. Such were the theories formed; and no farther inquiry was considered necessary. Thus Central Africa has for ages been buried from the eyes of the civilized world, and in a similar manner, unworthy and erroneous theories are at work to mislead the public, and shut up the vast continent of New Holland. The mighty rivers lately discovered in that Continent are also represented as terminating in a lake or swamps, chiefly because it has been said that the Niger does so terminate. Near 600 miles of the coast of New Holland, on the south-west side, remain to be explored. In the north-east corner of the Great Bay, which circumscribes the south-west part of that continent, no doubt is the outlet of all the waters of that vast country, which, flowing from every point of the compass, converge towards that quarter, and after forming a lake or lakes, in all probability issue therefrom, and pour a mighty tribute into the ocean. Whoever casts his eye upon the map of the world, must be struck with the faithful resemblance which the Great Bay, and the south-west coast of New Holland, bear to the Gulph of Guinea and the south-west coast of Africa. To the same point in both Continents all the rivers converge. Another Niger and another Gir will perhaps ere long be found out, traversing the interior of New Holland, and therefore it is of the utmost consequence that Great Britain should get possession of the country round the mouths of these streams, which would thus give her the complete command of all that immense country.

In the way to open up and establish a commercial intercourse with Africa, there will no doubt be a diversity of opinions. On such an important subject, involving so many interests, and such mighty consequences, I would wish to be understood as offering my opinion with great deference. Nevertheless, from what I have learned of Africa, and from what I know of the Negro character, I am convinced that the plan proposed and recommended in this work, or one formed upon a similar basis, is that which will soonest render the trade with Africa the most beneficial, either to Africa or to Great Britain.

In recommending the destruction of the system of slavery in Africa, I am not so sanguine or inconsiderate as to imagine, or to expect, that this can or ought to be accomplished in a moment. It can only be effected in a gradual manner; and abolition can only be beneficial by being accomplished in this way. It must be the work of much time. There is also too much reason to fear, that Africa can only rise to freedom and civilization through the medium of slavery in the first instance. The great error committed by her Princes, and all Europeans who have hitherto held communication with Africa, is, that they withdraw the labours of Africa to cultivate other quarters of the world, in place of fixing its exertions to the soil which gives it birth. It is this system which has hitherto retarded the civilization of Central Africa. Let those then, who are slaves in Africa, or who may in future become so by the regulations of the native powers, be employed to cultivate Africa, and the population of that Continent will, with its improvement, gradually rise to freedom, knowledge and civilization. There is no other safe way to accomplish the object.

There is one article of commerce which is particularly abundant in the parts of Africa which have been considered, namely, rice, the particular value of which I have omitted to mention. This article may be purchased in the countries adjoining the Niger, at the low value of a halfpenny to three farthings per lb. or about 90s. per cwt. Here it costs four times the sum, and in the West Indies a still greater price. It is needless to point out the advantages which would result from prosecuting this branch of commerce.

I cannot help thinking, that the accounts which we have heard of nations in the interior of Africa devouring their prisoners is incorrect, and arises from a want of knowledge of their customs and language. It is well known that the Negroes believe in the power of witchcraft to such a degree as to sink under the idea, pine away, and die. I omit numerous instances in the West Indies where the individual inflicting, and the individual suffering, were each equally so convinced of the fatal power, as neither reasoning, threats, nor punishment, could remove the impression. Thus situated, the infatuated sufferer stated that his enemy was devouring him. From Beaver’s African Memoranda, we learn that this practice is quite common on the western coast of Africa, and is known by the common appellation, that such and such a person “_eats another_,” or is “_eaten by another_.” From this may arise the reports of there being nations in the interior, and elsewhere, who eat each other and their prisoners.

After these sheets were nearly all printed off, the kindness and attention of Professor Jameson of the University of Edinburgh, put into my hands the new work from the pen of Mr. Bowditch, regarding the interior of Africa. From this, the important fact is obtained, that the river which flows from the east is navigable, and navigated, at any rate, to Lake Caudee, or Fittre, if not further; for instead of days journeys, as related in his former work, we find that it _is sixty-five days navigation_ from the island of Gangi, near Yaoora, to the borders of Fittre Lake. Park navigated the Niger to Boussa, in the immediate neighbourhood of Gangi; and we have it confirmed by the previous authority, that the eastern river is navigable also. This confirms what both Edrisi and Leo Africanus related concerning it. Leo Africanus also clearly points out that there were several rivers besides the Niger, and that all the others emptied themselves into it. The Negro kingdoms which he enumerated and visited, were, as he distinctly states, situated either upon “_the Niger, or other rivers which flow into it_.” That it did not run to the Egyptian Nile, but from it, and that it was not lost in a lake, but terminated in the ocean, Gregory of Abyssinia states most pointedly. Flowing west from the Egyptian Nile, he says, “Descendit enim versus regionem Elwah, et sic illabitur in _Mare Magnum_, i.e. Oceanum Occidentalem.”

Also, from the work just quoted, it would appear that the river from the east joins the Niger about and below Yaoora. In the itinerary of Brahima, the route from Yahndi and Gamba, to the Niger, is given. The last place on that route is Schal. “Here,” says Brahima, “is the river which is named Coudha, _on the extremity of which is the great kingdom of Your,” (Yaoora.)_ If this relation is correct, then it would appear that the Great Eastern River is that which is called Coudha, Kaoda, or Quolla, and that it flows into the Niger to the south of Yaoora, forming the boundary of this state on that quarter. It is by no means improbable that this is really the case. With one remark I shall conclude my observations on these subjects. It appears, from all geographical authorities in early times, that nearly all the great rivers in the different continents were uniformly laid down as flowing from the same source, or as being joined together in some part of their course. This is the case with the great rivers in the Eastern World, in Africa, and lastly in America, where the Rio de La Plata and the Great Maranon are represented as uniting, and then separating from each other, and then flowing in nearly opposite directions. Perpetuating such erroneous ideas, has led into the confusion which has long reigned in the geography of Africa.

In speaking of the magnitude of African cities and states, it must always be borne in mind that these are considered chiefly according to the accounts derived from the authority of Arab, Moor, and Negro travellers, whose comparisons, again, are drawn from what they saw or heard of in Africa. These accounts must not be taken as applied to, or compared with, European Kingdoms and States. Several cities in Africa, however, are certainly populous, and the number of this description is undoubtedly also very considerable.

In the numerous authorities to which I have referred, and which I have quoted, I have uniformly given their exact words, that my readers may be enabled to judge for themselves concerning the truth of what I advance. In the style and composition of the work, I have to claim the indulgence of the public. Avocations of a different kind necessarily engage my time; and my distance from Edinburgh, where the work was printed, has, in a few instances, led into errors, which, however, are either very obvious, or not very material.

The interest which is now excited about every thing connected with Africa, must soon lead to measures by some European power, such as will clearly and accurately develope every part of the interior of that long- neglected and very remarkable country. I hope that this honour, and the immense advantages to be derived therefrom, both political and commercial, are reserved for Great Britain.

It is only necessary further to add, that the substance of the following work, in what regards both the geography and the trade, were embodied into separate memorials, and with a map of Northern Africa, (which has been reduced and engraved for this work) upon a large scale, submitted to his Majesty’s Government _in the latter end of June last year_. Especially these were laid before the noble Lords at the Head of the Admiralty and the Colonial Department, the Right Honourable the President and Vice-President of the Board of Trade, and other distinguished members of the Executive Government. To his Grace the Duke of Montrose I feel particularly indebted for the interest he took in the furtherance of a plan which, if prosecuted, would be attended with incalculable advantages to the West of Scotland, and to Glasgow in particular.

GLASGOW, _March_ 22, 1821.

CONTENTS.

* * * * *

GEOGRAPHY OF NORTHERN AFRICA.

CHAP. I.

Page

Ancient Geography of Central Africa — General Observations —
Accounts of the Interior by Ptolemy, Edrisi, Ibn-al-Vardi,
Scheabeddin, Mackrisi, Batouta, Abulfeda, Ebn Haukal, Leo
Africanus — Termination of the Niger, &c. 1

CHAP. II.

Joliba, two branches, source western, ditto eastern — River
Zamma; course till junction — Snowy mountains — Balia — Lake
Clonia — River Guinola — Kaniaba — Bammakoo — Magnitude of Niger
— Rapids — Marraboo — Yamina — Sego — Jennë — Ba Nimma — Ba
Maniana — Lake Dibbie — River Gozen Zair — High Mountains —
Walet — Course of Niger, north-east — Ba Moriaca — Jinbala —
Rakbara — Kabra — Timbuctoo — Bahar-el-Ahmar — Course of ditto —
Houssa — Magnitude of Niger at Timbuctoo — Sidi Hamed — Course
of river south-east — Mountains — Kaffo — Rocks — River bursts
through a chain of mountains — Exceeding high ridge to
south-west — Cabi, a Ferry — Yaoora — Great River from east may
join here — Boussa — Park’s death — Cause of it — Wauwa — Gange
— Nyffe — Wassanah — Magnitude of Wassanah — Magnitude of Niger
or Zadi — Course to “Great Water” — Junction with the Sea, and
where — General Observations 59

CHAP. III.

Eastern rivers — Misselad or Gir, source and course — Dar Saley
— Wara — Other rivers — Gir turns west — Lake Fittre — Magnitude
of River; junction with the Shary — Bahr-el-Feydh — Bahr Djad —
Course of Gir west — Gambarou — Birney — Bornou — River Tzad —
Face of the country — Cano or Ghana — Kashna — Gulbe, supposed
course of ditto — Position of Kashna — Junction of eastern and
western rivers — Vancara or Owencara; what it is — Bito — Temian
— Cannibals — Junction of Gir and Bahr Kulla, source and course
of ditto — Mount Thala — Miri — Junchor and Bahr Salamat Rivers
— Lake Haimat — Island at the junction of Gir and Niger — Lybia
Palus — Lake of Jackson, or sea of Sudan; what that is —
Robertson — River Loro — Fillanee — Water communication between
the sea-coast and north-east parts of Africa — Course of the
Niger to the sea in the Bights of Benin and Biafra — Boundary of
Benin — Bahr Kulha; what it is 93

CHAP. IV.

Bights of Benin and Biafra — Rio de Formosa — Delta of Benin —
Innumerable Rivers — Rio Forcados — Gatto Creek — Cape Formosa —
Rivers East — New Calabar and Bonny River; their great magnitude
— Old Calabar and Cross Rivers — Rio Elrei — Salt Ground — Great
Trade in Salt — Face of the Country in the Delta — Trade to
these Places — Inundation of the Rivers — Time of ditto — Shews
they are different from either the Congo or the Egyptian Nile —
Currents in the Sea near the Coast — Number and Magnitude of the
Rivers in the Delta — Breadth — Depth — Trade — Natives into the
Interior — A Race of People almost White — Leucæ Ethiopians of
Ptolemy — General Observations on the N.E. and North parts of
Central Africa — Accounts of Travellers — Kong — What it means —
Great Magnitude of the Niger, and his Tributary Streams — Length
of Course — Compared to Magnitude of Bahr-el-Abiad at Shilluk —
Cannot be the same Stream — No Connection with that River 128

CHAP. V.

Country south of the Elrei — High land of Cameroons — An extinct
Volcano — Chariot of the Gods — Old Cameroons — Jamoor and
Malemba Rivers — Moöhnda, or Danger River — Gaboon River —
Nazareth, Liverpool, Bristol, and Tawney Rivers — Congo River —
Rivers West of the Rio de Formosa — Rio Lagos — Mory River —
Country around it — Rio Volta — Boosempra, Ancobra, and Assinee
Rivers — Mesurada River — Sierra Leone — Way to explore Africa —
Distances of Places, how ascertained — How to command Africa —
Fernando Po, a sure stronghold — Sierra Leone, a secondary place
— A settlement inland of the greatest importance — Extent of
country it would command — French settlement in Africa — Wish to
extend their power in that quarter — Rivers, their great use in
the Torrid Zone — East coast of Africa, important for Commerce —
Rivers Zambezi and Zebee — Island of Socotora — Situation of
Africa — Slavery — The Slave Trade — Extent thereof — Slavery
and Superstition — Scourges of Africa — How to benefit Africa —
Colonization — Advantage of Colonies — The chief strength of
Britain — Eagerly coveted by France — Our efforts in Central
Africa would civilize all Northern Africa — Must expect to meet
difficulties — Perseverance will ensure success 156

TRADE AND COMMERCE OF NORTHERN CENTRAL AFRICA.

Colonies necessary to Great Britain — France anxious to colonize
Africa — New markets can alone relieve our trade — Old
overstocked — Africa the best field — Superior productions —
Country near the Niger — Powerful, populous, cultivated, and
commercial states — Large cities — Numerous valuable productions
— Africa long neglected — Formerly enriched other countries —
Articles of export and import — Particular enumeration and value
of those most in demand — Salt — Ostrich feathers — Spices —
Precious stones — Gums — Drugs — Dye-stuffs — Gold dust — Ivory
— Gunpowder, Fire-arms, &c. — Value of articles — Great profits
on trade — Immense advantages of a water conveyance — Hardships
attending the trade at present — Value of articles at the Gold
coast and the interior — Extent and value of the trade at
present — Would supply our West India Colonies with provisions —
Obtain plenty of fine cotton — Would open up a trade to the Cape
of Good Hope and India — Abolition of the slave trade would
relieve and cultivate Africa — If not checked, our West India
colonies must be ruined — Infringe the rights of no civilized
nation in colonizing Africa — Three modes of establishing the
trade — A chartered company the best — Regulations under which
to be formed — Government must countenance and support such an
undertaking — Plans to be adopted and pursued — General
reflections on the climate of Africa, and the importance of the
contemplated undertaking 211

ERRATA.

Page 8. 3d line from bottom, _for_ Girgires, _read_ Girgiris.

27. 10th do. — itineries, — itineraries

28. 3d line from top, — Canal — Canoe

33. 2d line from bottom, — Cetenum — Ceterum

57. 3d line from top, — comes — come

85. 3d line from bottom, — _Kabee_ — _Kabeer_

105. 3d do. — bar — bark

123. 15th line from top, — West — East

— 3d line from bottom, — occurrence — occurrence
of which, which

138. do. — turnings — burnings

177. 2d line from top, — outlet — outlets

GEOGRAPHY
OF
NORTHERN AFRICA.

* * * * *

CHAP. I.

_Ancient Geography of Central Africa — General Observations — Accounts of the Interior by Ptolemy, Edrisi, Ebn-al-Fardi, Sheabiddin, Mackrisi, Batouta, Abulfeda, Ebn Haukal, Leo Africanus — Termination of the Niger, &c._

The central parts of Africa, and, in a very particular manner, the interior parts of the northern division of that great continent, together with the course and termination of the great river Niger, are still in a great measure unknown. Become the eager object of European research, these cannot much longer remain hid. It is surprising they have remained undiscovered so long. To explore and determine accurately these important points, is the most interesting geographical problem that now remains to be solved.

Unworthy and erroneous theories, and to which all information hitherto received has been forced to bend, have long led astray the public mind, and general exertions of Europe, from the true path by which the interior of Northern Africa can be explored, and the only way by which the course and termination of the Niger can be ascertained. The road, however, is easy, and quite accessible. Nature has formed it. The Niger, and his tributary streams, pursue their course through Central Africa. From the west, and from the east, they converge to one point. After uniting in one channel, the mighty current divides itself into several streams, which enter the Atlantic ocean by navigable estuaries in the Bights of Benin and Biafra.

Allowing we had no positive information of the course and magnitude of the Niger lower down than Bammakoo, Sego, and Lake Dibbie, still the fact of there being such a river continuing its course eastward from the latter place, is sufficient to induce us to look for its exit on the sea coast. We are quite certain that it does not enter the sea to the north; and we may say we are equally sure that it does not finish its course in any sea to the east. To the south, therefore, we must turn our inquiries. In no part of Western or Southern Africa is there stronger grounds to look for this estuary, than in the coast below Benin. There the soil is all alluvial. For a great distance into the interior, stones larger than a man’s fist are unknown. The country is flat, and inundated during the swell of the rivers from the tropical rains. The land is daily gaining on the sea from the quantity of alluvial matter brought down from the interior. The whole country and coast, for a great extent, is intersected with arms and outlets of rivers, communicating with each other inland. The bottom of the sea, along a great extent of coast, is all soft mud. From the Rio Lagos to the Rio Elrei river, no fewer than twenty streams enter the ocean, several of them of surprising magnitude, and navigable for ships. Large floating islands are borne down by their waves, and carried into the ocean. The great magnitude of these rivers will by and bye come more particularly under our review.

As the easterly course of the Upper Niger is now no longer a matter of dispute, it would be perfectly superfluous to bring forward, in detail, the authority of writers and geographers, from the days of Herodotus downwards to this day, to prove this important fact. Its termination is now the subject which engages the attention of all. The theories at present most in vogue, are, _first_, that it flows eastward, reaching beyond the parallel of 18° North Lat. and then, in about 20° East Long. flows south-east, and is the parent stream of the Bahr-el-Abiad, or Nile of Egypt; _second_, that it terminates in a large lake in the interior, which also receives the waters of the Gir, or Nile of Soudan, coming from the eastward; _third_, that the waters of both rivers are lost in, and absorbed by swamps and sandy deserts, in a country called Wangara; and _fourth_, that the Niger from his middle course flows south, and joins the great River Congo, or Zaire.

Every one of these theories is grossly erroneous, contrary to every authority on which reliance can be placed, and in opposition to every feature of geography exhibited any where else on this globe. The expedition to the Congo, so lately undertaken, and so unfortunate, has nevertheless settled the question, that the Congo and Niger are different streams. The lake said to receive and retain the waters of the Gir and the Niger, can no where be heard of, either as a sea of salt or fresh water, in the interior of Africa. Wangara, said to absorb these rivers in swamps and sands, or rather those parts of Africa where Wangara is said to lie, is, as the name signifies, a country of a different description—a country intersected by many powerful rivers, mountainous, fertile and cultivated, and inundated during the rains. That the Niger flows to form the Bahr-el-Abiad, is contrary to all probability, contrary to the good authority of Ptolemy, contrary to the authority of the best Arabian geographers, and contrary to excellent modern authority. Yet it is most surprising that an opinion, so improbable in itself, and so directly opposite to all the authorities mentioned, should even to this day continue to be believed and maintained.

In following out this subject, and establishing by conclusive evidence, the fact which I have advanced, it may not be unnecessary to consider the general outline of the Roman and Arabian geography of this portion of Africa, to which our attention is directed, before we consider authorities of more recent dates. The coincidence will thus be more apparent, and the fact more obvious. In the geography of Ptolemy we are not to look for the accuracy of modern details. Nevertheless, his general features of Northern Africa are worthy of attention. In his days, it is obvious, from his enumeration of mountains, rivers, and nations, that it must have been much better known than it now is; and, therefore, we must the more regret that he did not then possess the means which we now possess of fixing the positions of the places he mentions with geographical accuracy. On this part of the subject, however, it is not my intention to enter at great length, but merely to select the undisputed and clearer parts which tend so strongly to confirm the accounts of modern travellers concerning the course and termination of the great and important streams already mentioned.

The most ancient Greek and Roman authors seem to have been very imperfectly acquainted with the great Zahaara, or the countries beyond it. Ptolemy himself seems altogether to overlook the desert, though he minutely enumerates the countries beyond it. Strabo and Pliny conceived that the streams which descended from the south-east side of Mount Atlas formed the Niger, and which river was in these days believed to be one with the Egyptian Nile. They stated that the streams descending from Mount Atlas hid themselves, or rather run under the desert for a space occupying 24 days journey, when, emerging, they continued their course to the eastward, united in the Niger. This desert they describe as being composed of _black dust_. Modern travellers all describe it as scorching sands. Whether any alteration has taken place on it during the lapse of so many ages, cannot be determined; but it is by no means improbable that its extent is considerably increased, from the sands gaining on the cultivated ground, as is well known to be the case on the side towards Egypt. It is a curious fact, that, approaching the middle thereof, reckoning from the Atlantic Ocean, abundance of water is found upon digging some feet below the surface, and which the Arabs term, “_the sea under ground_.” This remarkable circumstance might suggest to Strabo and Pliny the idea already mentioned of the rivers from Mount Atlas running under ground.

Ptolemy wrote on Egypt in the second century of the Christian era. Then Africa was better known. The interior of the northern division thereof he describes apparently from good authority, and with considerable accuracy, only he seems altogether to leave out the Great Desert. Mount Mandrus, the middle of which was in 23° East Long. from Ferro, and 22° North Lat., and Rhisadirus Mountain more to the south, he places as the barrier which divides the waters which flow westward into the Atlantic Ocean, by the rivers Stachirus, &c. (the Senegal, Gambia, &c.) from those which flow eastward in the Niger. Turning eastward from Rhisadirus Mountain, we find Mount Caphas in about 10° North Lat. which divides the waters which flow south into the _great gulf_, or Gulf of Guinea, and those which flow north to join the Niger. In Caphas, we readily recognize the Kong range. Eastward, in the same parallel, there is a blank or opening, and then comes Mount Thala, situated in 10° North Lat. and 38° East Long. from Ferro.

Before proceeding further, it is necessary to correct an obvious error in the longitude, as reckoned by Ptolemy. He places Alexandria in 60° 30′ East Long. from Ferro, or 42° 29′ from Greenwich. This we know is 12° too much, Alexandria being in 30° East Long. from Greenwich, or 48° from Ferro. It is evident, therefore, that we must deduct one-fifth (decreasing this deduction in proportion as we go west) from the longitude, as laid down by Ptolemy, in order to correct his reckoning. By doing this, we shall see how accurately the positions of some places agree with modern accounts.

South of Mount Thala, in 3° North Lat. and 33° East Long. we have Mount Arualtes, and eastward of that in North Lat. 1° 30′, and East Long. 47°, we have Mount Arangas. Turning north in 10° North Lat., and 50° East Long. we have the chain of hills called the Garamantican rampart, which divides the waters which flow west in the Gir, from those deserts which stretch eastward to the Nile. Turning westward, in the parallel of 21° North Lat. and extending along by the sources of the river Cinips, from 40° to 45° East Long. we have Mount Girgiris, and from 8° to 10° farther west, in the same parallel of Lat. are the Usargala mountains. Next, in North Lat. 32°[1], and East Long. 20° 30′, we have Mount Sagapola, placed most erroneously in the map accompanying the work, in 20° North Lat. and 15° East Long., in the south side, in place of the north side of the desert.

The formidable barriers here enumerated, according to the delineation of Ptolemy, encircle or enclose those extensive valleys, if I may use the expression, through which the Niger, the Gir, and their tributary streams, take their course, leaving only the opening between Mount Thala and Mount Caphas, for the collected flood to escape to the southward. How much these general outlines agree with modern accounts, our future investigations, and the map accompanying this work, will shew.

It is in this portion of Africa that the greatest rivers flow, greater, as Ptolemy must mean, than any other which flowed in the northern division of that continent. In the middle of the country, says he, the greatest rivers display themselves, viz. the Gir, joining together the Usargala mountain and the Garamantican barrier or rampart. One branch of this river makes the Lake Chelonides, in 20° North Lat. and 49° East Long. (21° East Long. from Greenwich,) and another the Lake Nuba in North Lat. 15° and East Long. 50°, or 22° from Greenwich, answering very accurately with the Lake Fittre of modern authors. The course of the Gir westward, Ptolemy distinctly marks, by enumerating the cities on its northern bank, from Lynxana, in 20° 30′ North Lat. and 48° 30′ East Long., unto Thycimath, situate in 19° 45′ North Lat. and 38° East Long. Still more westward, he places his Gira metropolis in North Lat. 18° and 36° East Long. or 12° East from Greenwich.

Next is the Niger river, running east, and joining both Mount Mandrus and Mount Thala, that is all the waters which are collected in the vale between these mountains flow to form the Niger. The course east he distinctly marks, by marking first the Lake Nigrites, and then the cities on both the northern and southern banks, viz. on the north from Pessidy, situate in 18° North Lat. and 19° East Long. to Panagra, in 16° 45′ North Lat. and 31° East Long. On the south bank from Thuspu, situated in 17° 45′ North Lat. and 26° 30′ East Long. unto Dudum in 15° North Lat. and 31° East Long. or about 6° east of Greenwich. At this point the river is evidently declining south considerably, and a space of 5° of longitude, by Ptolemy’s reckoning, intervenes between this part of the Niger and the Gira metropolis, the last point mentioned on the Gir river.

The Niger, we are informed, makes the Lake Nigrites in 15° East Long.[2] and 18° North Lat. This is evidently the Lake Dibbie. The Nigira metropolis is placed on the map at the junction of a river coming from the north-east, and in 17° 45′ North Lat. and 25° 20′ East Long. which is about 3° east of Greenwich, answering in longitude very nearly indeed with the position of Timbuctoo. On the north side the Niger receives two branches, viz. one from the Sagapola mountain, and another from the Usargala mountain, which latter is probably that branch which joins at the Nigira metropolis. That from the Sagapola mountain is evidently a mistake, providing that mountain is correctly laid down; but a branch springing south of the desert, and coming from that direction, does perhaps join the Niger. Ptolemy, in his account of the Sagapola mountain, seems to take no notice of the Great Desert, that mountain being placed to the north of it. The Upper Niger he clearly brings from the north-west.

On the south the Niger receives one branch _nigh to_ two places, viz. 17° North Lat. and 21° East Long. and also 13° 30′ North Lat. and 21° East Long. The accuracy of this we shall by and by have occasion to notice more particularly. Towards the Rising Sun it also receives one branch above the Lybian Lake, which lake is placed in 16° 30′ North Lat., and 35° East Long., or about 12° east of Greenwich. This branch, no doubt, comes from the eastern part of, or from the country eastward of Mount Thala. Ptolemy seems to indicate, when he says, above the Lybian Lake, that this branch joined the Niger after the latter had issued from the lake. Yet his exact meaning is not easily ascertained. The point, however, is of considerable importance; for, if to the westward of the lake, no stream coming from the east could join the Niger but the Gir. Be this as it may, it is obvious that he means that this branch from the eastward and this lake communicated with the Niger. Whoever considers for a moment, must see that it could not fail also to have a communication with, or rather that it must receive the waters of the Gir. The latter stream, in its westerly course, is distinctly traced to 18° North Lat. and 36° East Long., while the Lybian Lake is placed in 16° 30′ North Lat. and 35° East Long., only about 100 miles S.W. from the Gira metropolis. This is curious and important.

The Niger from this point continues a southerly course, otherwise it could not join Mount Thala, the middle of which is in 10° North Lat. and 38° East Long., or 13° 40′ east of Greenwich. Further, we have in Ptolemy no accurate accounts of the course of this river. But that it flows south and joins the ocean, he certainly meant, when he says, that Lybia, wherein he had described the courses of the rivers mentioned, was bounded on the south by that part of Ethiopia Interior called Agisymba; and concerning these African rivers, he says, “Illorum vero qui _per interiorem Æthiopam_ fluant, quique _fontes et ostia_ in continente habent maximi sunt Gir et Niger.” (Lib. ii. E. 1. de maximis fluminibus.) In this the southern course is very plainly marked, and also their termination in the ocean.

With one observation I shall conclude this part of the subject. In Mount Girgiris, situate, as has been already mentioned, Ptolemy states that the river Cinips has its source in two places, viz. in the parallel of 21° North Lat. and in 40° and 45° East Long. This river flows north, and enters the Mediterranean between the greater and the lesser Syrtes, in 42° 15′ East Long., or to the eastward of modern Tripoli. No such river we certainly know flows through this part of Africa. It is therefore probable that the springs in Mount Girgiris flowed, joined, and formed a river running in a different direction. The river Cinyphus, which enters the Mediterranean, is certainly one of those streams which rise north of the desert, and have very short courses indeed, compared to what the Cinips would have, if it flowed from Lat. 21° North, a course of nearly 800 miles. The river springing in Mount Girgiris certainly takes a different direction, and doing this, it will correspond with the accounts of the direction of the rivers in that part of Africa, as these are described by modern travellers.

After Ptolemy, the early Arabian authors and geographers demand our attention. From their careless and obscure manner of writing on these subjects, it is impossible to reconcile all their statements. Sufficient, however, remains to shew us our way. According to Leo, the ancient Arabian chroniclers, viz. Bukri and Mishuudi, knew nothing in the land of the Negroes till the year of the Hegira 380 (A.D. 1002,) except Alguechet and Cano. These discoveries were evidently made from Egypt, as Alguechet is an Oasis in the desert 120 Arabian miles distant from Egypt, and seems to have been the first stage in the road to western discovery. At the period last-mentioned, however, the Arabs from Barbary passed the great desert, and all the countries to the south thereof were quickly explored and conquered. Those formidable deserts, which formed a rampart against the advance of the most powerful nations of antiquity, were, to the roving Arab, strengthened by enthusiasm, and fortified by predestination, no barriers whatever. Innumerable swarms soon found their way to the southward, and planted, amidst powerful colonies, the standard and religion of their prophet on the banks of the Niger. They penetrated through the centre of the country, from sea to sea, from the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Guinea. When the Portuguese first discovered the latter part of the coast of Africa, they found the population every where mixed with Arabs. The western parts of the continent, however, namely, the countries along the north and south of the Senegal, were less known to them to much later periods. These seem to have been the refuge of the ancient inhabitants of Morocco, &c. who, driven from their ancient abodes by the disciples of Mahommed, sought refuge across the desert, and, being a more intelligent and hardy race than the Negroes, were thus for a longer period enabled to repel the attacks of their restless enemies.

The central and southern parts of Northern Africa became thus well known to the Arabian writers, either from observation or report. In some parts, however, they contracted, and in others extended, the continent beyond its proper limits. “The ambient sea,” (Bahar Addolum, Sea of darkness, or Atlantic Ocean,) says Abulfeda, “extends itself from Mauritania until it has passed the desert of Lemptuna, (Great Desert,) a vast wilderness of barbarians, to the country of the Nigritæ. Thence it stretches yet farther southwards, till it has _passed beyond the Equator_, after which it extends to the east, _behind the mountains of El Komri_, from whence the Nile of Egypt has its source. Again, it proceeds southward,” &c. Leo Africanus states, that the “south part of Africa abutteth upon the Ocean Sea, which compasseth it almost as far as the deserts of Gaoga.” These deserts of Gaoga, according to the same authority, lie to the south and the south-west of the kingdom of Gaoga, which kingdom extended on the west bank of the Nile from the confines of Egypt, southward 500 Arabian miles, to the great bend of the Nile, about Dongola. This, with the account from Abulfeda, shews how much the early Arabian writers were deceived regarding the true position of the Gulf of Guinea, and how far eastward they conceived that it pierced into the African continent.

Belad-el-Soudan, was the general term applied to those parts of Africa inhabited by Negroes, south of the Great Zahaara, and west of the deserts of Nubia. “Belad-el-Soudan,” says Bakui, who flourished about the year 1400, “or the Country of the Blacks, extendeth on the north to that of the Berbers, on the south to deserts, on the east to Ethiopia, and on the west to the ocean sea. It is burned by a perpendicular sun. The inhabitants are naked, part Mussulmen, and part Infidels.” Speaking of that portion of Africa which abounds with mines of the “most pure gold,” Ebn Haukal says, “this land of the Blacks is a very extensive region. Their skin is of a finer and deeper black than any other blacks, whether Habeshis, (Abyssinians,) or Zingians, (Ethiopians;) and their country is more extensive than that of any other nation of blacks. _It is situated on the coasts of the ocean to the south_.” This distinctly points out the northern shore of the Gulf of Guinea. Ebn Haukal was the most accurate of all the Arabian geographers, and is with great reason supposed to have visited every country which he describes. Regarding the boundary south, Bakui seems not to have been so well-informed, when he says, it is “by deserts” on that quarter. But he evidently carries his Belad-el-Sudan no farther south than the mighty chain of Kong and the chain in the same parallel of latitude, stretching eastward to El Komri. By the word deserts, we are to understand not only sandy deserts, like the great Zahaara, but likewise mountainous, rugged, and woody countries less civilized, cultivated, and inhabited than others. Leo Africanus enables us to clear up this point. He states, that the kingdom of Melli is bounded south by “certain deserts and dry mountains,” which are without doubt the bleak mountains in the Kong chain. But still more expressly, and to the point, he states, that “the land of the negroes lies between the Lybian Desert (Zahaara) and a _desert_ to the south, which stretcheth to the main ocean.” But that it is not barren sands is evident, for he adds, “_in the desert are infinite_ nations (except by report) unknown to us.” The country south of Guangara, the same authority informs us, is of a similar description. Hence the authority of Leo and Bakui is reconciled, and the meaning of their respective descriptions, and others of a similar nature, given by other Arabian writers, are, by this elucidation rendered clear and plain.

Belad-el-Sudan, or the country of the blacks, is, by Arabian authors, divided into several large portions, each of which contains a number of kingdoms and states. The larger divisions which are more immediately connected with our present investigation, are the land of Gaoga, the land of Kanem, Ghana, Maly, Meczarat-al-Sudan, Lamlem, and Belad-el- Tibri. The four first occupied the whole country south of the Great Desert, and the deserts of Lybia, extending through central Africa, from the Egyptian Nile to the sources of the Senegal. The three latter divisions, or portions, lie to the south of the former.

Gaoga does not properly belong to the land of the negroes, which, in fact, commences from the western borders of the former. Gaoga, 300 years ago, comprehended all that country from the confines of Egypt to the desert south of Dongola, and from the Nile to the limits of the great empire of Bornou. In the latter direction, according to Leo, it is about 500 miles in breadth. The country is in general barren, and full of burning deserts.

The land of Kanem. This was formerly a mighty and important country, though now merged in the great empire of Bornou, and parcelled out into smaller states, such as Bagherme, &c. “On the borders of the Nile,” says the Egyptian historian Macrisi, “lies also the land of Kanem; the king of which is a Mahommedan. _It is at a great distance from the land of Maly_. The capital is Heymy. The first town on the side towards Egypt (that is on the caravan route) is Zeilah, and the last, reckoning lengthways, is called Kaka, about three months journey from the other. The people go veiled. Their king remains behind a curtain when he speaks to any one. Except on two mornings each year, at the time of Asseer, no one sees him. Their main food is rice. It grows without culture. They have wheat, Indian corn, (dhoura,) figs, lemons, and other fruits. Their currency is cotton-stuffs, called Dandy, and cowries. Gourds grow to a great size. They make ships (perhaps rafts) of them, upon which they cross the Nile. To the south of them are forests and deserts inhabited by wild creatures, like demons, approaching to the figure of a man, whom a horseman cannot overtake, and which hurt people. In the night there appears something like fire; it shines, and when any one goes towards it, it retires to a distance from him, so that if he should even run, he never can come up with it, but it always keeps before him, and if he throws a stone at it, and hits it, sparks fly from it. These countries lie between Barca and Mogreb (a general name for Southern Africa) and extend to the south as far as the middle Gharb. Their religion is of the sect of Imam Malek Ibn Anes.”— (Burkhardt.)

The manners, customs, and produce of the country, are much the same as are now found in Bornou, at that time a province of Kanem. The wild creatures like demons are no doubt the African ourang-outang and ape, which abound in the forests of Southern Africa, particularly towards Dar Kulla and countries south of Bornou, which places, from the great extent of the land of Kanem, it evidently reached. That they hurt, and even attack people, particularly women, we learn from various authorities. Mollien, page 286, says, “it is dangerous to meet the African ourang- outang, particularly if a person be unarmed;” and in pages 290 and 291, he relates an account of an assault made upon a woman by a number of apes, who beat her most severely, and afterwards fought a desperate battle with the principal inhabitants of a village near Galam, who went on horseback to attack these animals. The fire that appeared at night was most probably the fire fly, so numerous near rivers and forests in the torrid zone, and which perhaps formed those “_fiery rivers_” which astonished Hanno, the Carthaginian navigator and his followers.

From the description here given by Macrisi, it is plain that the Nile (the Gir,) or some, if not all its large branches, passed through this land of Kanem. Ibn-al-Vardi confirms the account of Macrisi. The former states that “Konem, or Kanem, is a large country, situated along the Nile,” and, what is still more to the point, he says, “the inhabitants were all Mussulmen _of the sect of Imam Malek_.” Cities fall and empires disappear, but the sects, tribes, and religion of the Arabs survive the roll of ages, and form our sure guides. Edrisi also states Kanem as a large district, and adds, that some negroes stated that Kaugha was subject to it. Kanem, though humbled, is still known. According to Burkhardt, “it is a large district, inhabited by the tribes of Tendjear, and Beni Wayl,” (p. 479.) It is situated east of Bornou, and near the river Sharee, and Bahr el Gazalle. Sheeref Imhammed places Kanem north of Bornou in the road to Mourzook, but Burkhardt is perhaps the best authority.

Ghana, and the countries once subject to it, was, during the days of its vigour, the richest and most important kingdom which the Arabs ruled in interior Africa. It lay to the west of Kanem, and was situated upon the Nile. It was perhaps what is now known under the name of Cano. Vancara, Cassina, and many other surrounding kingdoms, obeyed the authority of Ghana, whose sovereign was exceedingly rich and powerful. The inhabitants had long boats on the Nile, with which they fished and carried on communication with other cities. In its largest sense, the land of Ghana must have been of great extent. Ghana, according to Edrisi, was bounded on the north by the _broadest_ desert, lying out between the countries of the blacks and Barbary. According to Ibn-al- Vardi, it was bounded on the south by Meghrara, or Meczara. It was through the negroes country of Meczara that the Nile of the negroes, according to Edrisi, ran in its progress to the sea near the Isle of Ulil. Meczara El-Sudan, in all probability, was a general term applied by the Arabs to all the countries lying to the south of their first established kingdoms in Africa. They seem, in their progress of colonization, to have proceeded first westward down the Gir, and then to have been met by fresh colonies; which colonies descending from Barbary, urged their progress eastward and along the Niger, till they met their countrymen on the Gir.

The Pagan country of Lamlem lay to the southward and westward of the kingdom of Ghana. “The countries and dominions of Lamlem,” says Edrisi, “lay near a certain river flowing into the Nile. It is not known whether there is any inhabited place to the southward, (rather S.W.) of Lamlem, it being bounded on that side by a “Desert.” Thus indicating that it is bounded on the southward and westward by a mountainous and woody country. According to Ibn-al-Vardi, Lamlem is an inland city, “where gold is found.” This would lead us to look for it between the Niger and the Kong Mountains. Edrisi, however, has left us a more particular mark by which we can ascertain the true position of this country, which was invaded by all its Mahommedan neighbours, and its population carried off to be made slaves. “When any of all the inhabitants of Lamlem,” says Edrisi, “come to have the use of their reason, he is burnt in the face and temples; this they do to distinguish each other.” Now, according to Bowditch, this is the practice of the people of Dagwumba, (famous for the abundance of gold,) Yahndi and Moosee, countries S.W. of the Niger, and in the immediate vicinity of the Kong Mountains, “where gold is found.” “The people of Dagwumba,” says he, “have three slight cuts on each cheek bone, and three below, with one horizontal under the eye. Those of Yahndi, three deep indented cuts. The people of Moosee, three very deep and long, and one under the eye.” (Bowditch, p. 183.) These are unchangeable features, and cannot mislead us. In all other parts of Africa, the people are marked on their bodies. Lamlem, therefore, lay S. and S.W. of the Niger, towards Kong, and was near a river which flowed into the Niger, or the Nile of these Arabian geographers.

Belad-el-Tibri, or the country of pure gold, seems a general name applied to all that part of Africa, south of the Upper Niger, towards the mountainous country of Kong, where gold is so abundant. “Belad-el- Tibri, _or the country of pure gold_,” says Bakui, “is part of the Sudans or the Blacks in the south of Africa. From Segelmessa (south of Mount Atlas,) to this country, they reckon three months journey. Here you see gold come out of the sand, as elsewhere plants out of the earth.” This is sufficient to enable us to ascertain what is meant by “Belad-el-Tibri,” and also where that country is. The Empire of Ghana, Bakui also informs us, was situate near this rich and evidently extensive district.