Chapter XLV: Book III: , chap. 5, § 4.) For the position with regard to mines see the (2)

[1296] Some may perhaps wonder why Nietzsche is not included, especially as he was a successor of Stirner’s. But Nietzsche’s interests were always exclusively philosophical and ethical. Stirner’s work, on the other hand, is mainly social and political. We have already pointed out that even Stirner’s book has only a rather remote connection with economics, and a detailed study of it would be more in keeping with a history of political ideas. Nietzsche’s work would lead us still farther afield, and would force us to examine every individualistic doctrine as it cropped up.

[1297] _Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum_ (ed. Reklam), p. 164.

[1298] _Ibid._, p. 225.

[1299] “This man has a body, and so has this man, and that man, right through society, so that you have a _collection of bodies_ and not one _collective body_. Society has several bodies at its disposal, but has no body of its own. Just like the parallel notion of a nation, this corporate body is a mere phantom—an idea with no corporeal existence.” (_Ibid._, p. 135.) To make the possession of a body the test of reality is surely gross materialism. At this rate, law, custom, and language would have to be considered unreal. A historical fact such as a battle or a revolution has no body, but its _real_ consequences are often palpable enough.

[1300] _Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum_, p. 222.

[1301] _Ibid._, p. 223.

[1302] _Ibid._, p. 164.

[1303] In a pamphlet called _Les Nouveaux Aspects du Socialisme_ (Paris, 1908), written by a syndicalist of the name of Berth, syndicalism and anarchism are contrasted, Proudhon’s emphasis upon the reality of society being adopted as the crucial test. Unfortunately, however, Berth confines his examination to Stirner’s system. Had he applied the test to Bakunin or Kropotkin he would have discovered that the emphasis laid by them upon the reality of society constitutes the most original feature in their theory. We are thus driven to the exactly opposite conclusion, and feel bound to admit—M. Berth notwithstanding—that anarchism and syndicalism in many respects closely resemble one another. Jean Grave, however, as we shall see later, seems more favourably inclined towards the naïve individualism of Stirner.

[1304] See Bakunin’s _Life_, written by his friend James Guillaume, included in the two-volume edition of his works; or the notice of him prefaced by Dragomanov to his volume _Michail Bakunin’s sozial-politischer Briefwechsel mit Herzen und Ogareff_ (Stuttgart, 1895). A fairly full biography—not yet published—has been written by Nettlau, and a copy of the MS. may be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. See also M. Lagardelle’s article on Bakunin in the _Revue politique et parlementaire_ (1909). Bakunin’s works have been published in French in four volumes, the first of which was issued in 1895, and the other three in 1907, 1908, and 1909 respectively (Paris, Stork). Some of his writings, however, are not included among these, _e.g._ the _Statutes of the International Alliance for Social Democracy_.

[1305] “I returned from that journey with very definite sociological theories in my mind which I have ever since cherished, and I have done everything I can to give them a more clear and a more concrete expression.” Kropotkin’s principal works are: _Paroles d’un Revolté_ (1884); _In Russian and French Prisons_ (1887); _La Conquéte du Pain_ (1888; Engl. trans. 1906); _The State, its Part in History_ (1898); _Fields, Factories, and Workshops_ (1899); _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_ (1900); _Mutual Aid_ (1902). He has also published a large number of pamphlets, among them _L’Anarchie: sa Philosophie, son Idéal_ (1896). Our quotations are taken from Eltzbacher’s _Der Anarchismus_, a work that consists almost entirely of quotations from the various anarchist authors, grouped under a few headings. [The references are to the French translation, 1902.—Tr.] These writers, and Kropotkin among them, have readily recognised the impartiality of the work.

[1306] Cf. _L’Évolution, la Révolution, et l’Idéal anarchique_, by Élisée Reclus (Paris, 1898), and _La Société future_, by Jean Grave (1895).

[1307] On the present position of anarchist ideas in France see R. de Marmande, _Les Forces révolutionnaires en France_, in the _Grande Revue_, August 10, 1911.

[1308] _L’Évolution, la Révolution, et l’Idéal anarchique_, p. 88; and he adds: “Our ideal implies the fullest and most absolute liberty of expression of opinion on all matters whatsoever. It further involves complete freedom to follow one’s own inclinations or to do as one likes” (p. 143), with this single proviso: “that the individual is thereby developing a healthy moral life” (p. 141).

[1309] Extract from _Carnets_, published in the _Figaro_, January 16, 1909.

[1310] _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 281.

[1311] Jean Grave, _La Société future_, p. 157. Cf. also p. 199: “No individual must accept any restriction that will check his development, nor must he submit to the yoke of authority under any pretence whatsoever.”

[1312] _Justice dans la Révolution_, vol. i, p. 185.

[1313] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 105.

[1314] Quoted by Eltzbacher, _loc. cit._, p. 199.

[1315] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 281. “I can be really free when those around me, both men and women, are also free. The liberty of others, far from limiting or negating my own, is, on the contrary, its necessary condition and guarantee.”

[1316] _Ibid._, vol. i, p. 277.

[1317] The idea of respecting man’s humanity is vigorously criticised by Stirner. Proudhon is expressly mentioned as the chief representative of that view. The principle was also regarded with some favour by Feuerbach, who wanted to substitute emphasis upon the human in man for the stress generally laid upon the divine in his nature.

[1318] Proudhon is the model here. “To be governed,” says he (_Idée générale de la Révolution_) “is to have every deed of ours, every action and movement, noted, registered, reviewed, docketed, measured, filed, assessed, guaranteed, licensed, authorised, recommended, prohibited, checked, reformed, redressed, corrected; under pretence of public policy, to be taxed, dragooned, imprisoned, exploited, cajoled, forced, cheated, robbed; at the least sign of resistance or complaint to be repressed, convicted, vilified, vexed, hunted, mauled, murdered, stripped, garrotted, imprisoned, shot, slaughtered, judged, condemned, deported, sacrificed, sold, betrayed, and finally mocked, flouted, outraged and dishonoured. That is government, such its justification and morality.”

[1319] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, pp. 143, 227, 151.

[1320] _Ibid._, vol. i, p. 228.

[1321] _Ibid._, vol. i, p. 176; vol. iii, p. 53.

[1322] _L’Évolution, la Révolution, et l’Idéal anarchiste_, p. 164.

[1323] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 280.

[1324] _Wealth of Nations_, vol. ii, p. 207. Cf. _supra_, p. 79, footnote. Adam Smith, it is true, did write that “civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property,” etc.; but that does not imply that the great economist regarded this as the only object of government, although it certainly is one of its chief aims.

[1325] “The million and one laws that govern humanity naturally fall into one or other of three categories: laws for the protection of property, of government, or of individuals. If we take these three divisions and analyse them we are inevitably forced to realise how futile and even injurious all legislation is.” (_Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 236.)

[1326] “Society itself is every day creating beings imbued with anti-social feelings and incapable of leading honest, industrious lives.” (Kropotkin, quoted by Eltzbacher, _loc. cit._, p. 221.) “Seeing that the organisation of society is always and everywhere the one cause of all the crimes committed by men, its conduct in punishing criminals is clearly absurd or obviously insincere. Every punishment implies guilt, but the criminals in this case are never guilty. We deny the so-called right of society to bestow punishment in this arbitrary fashion. A human being is simply the unwilling product of the natural or social environment in which he was born and reared and under whose influence he still remains. The three great causes of human immorality are inequality, whether political, economic, or social; ignorance, which is its natural result; and slavery, its inevitable consequence.” (Bakunin, _Programme de l’Alliance internationale de la Démocratie socialiste_, in _Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel_, pp. 332-333.)

“Property and want are the great incentives to crime. But if defective society organisation is the cause of crime, an improvement in organisation should cause a disappearance of crime.” (Jean Grave, _La Société future_, pp. 137-138.)

[1327] “Is it necessary,” asks Bakunin, “to repeat the arguments of socialism, which are still unanswerable and which no _bourgeois_ economist has ever attempted to disprove? What are we to make of property and capital as they exist at the present moment? In both cases it practically means a right or a power guaranteed and protected by society to live without working; and since property and capital produce absolutely nothing unless fertilised by labour, it means power and the right to live upon the labour of others and to exploit the labour of those who have neither property nor capital and are compelled to sell their productive force to the fortunate owner of the one or other of these.” Cf. Kropotkin’s _Conquest of Bread_, p. 56: “Multiply examples, choose them where you will, consider the origin of all fortunes, large or small, whether arising out of commerce, finance, manufactures, or the land. Everywhere you will find that the wealth of the wealthy springs from the poverty of the poor.” In this sentence he sums up a long demonstration which he gives in proof of this contention.

[1328] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, p. 324.

[1329] _Idée générale de la Révolution_, p. 119.

[1330] “Law is simply an instrument invented for the maintenance of exploitation and the domination of the idle rich over the toiling masses. Its sole mission is the perpetuation of exploitation.” (Kropotkin, _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 235.)

[1331] Bakunin, _Programme de l’Alliance_, in _Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel_, p. 339.

[1332] Kropotkin, _Conquest of Bread_, pp. 61-62.

[1333] “The anarchists want to see free unions established, resting upon mutual affection and based upon respect for one’s self and for the dignity of others. And in that sense, in their desire to show respect and affection for all the members of the association, they are inimical to the family,” (Élisée Reclus, _loc. cit._, pp. 145-146.)

[1334] _Der Einzige_, p. 229.

[1335] Cf. _Idée générale de la Révolution_, p. 281, and p. 342: “Revolution follows revelation. Reason aided by experience reveals to us the nature of the laws which govern society as well as nature, and which in both cases are simply the laws of necessity. They are neither made by man nor imposed by his authority. They have only been discovered step by step, which is a proof of their independent existence. By obeying them a man becomes just and noble. Violation of them constitutes injustice and sin. I can suggest no other motive for human actions.”

[1336] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, p. 51.

[1337] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, p. 55.

[1338] “In general we may say that man’s general life is almost entirely governed by what we call good sense.” (_Ibid._, vol. iii, p. 50.)

[1339] _Ibid._, vol. iii, p. 51.

[1340] _La Société future_, p. 303.

[1341] Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. i, pp. 286, 298, 277.

[1342] Bakunin on his death-bed confessed to his friend Reichel that “all his philosophy had been built upon a false foundation. All was vitiated because he had begun by taking man as an individual, whereas he is really a member of a collective whole” (quoted by Guillaume, _Œuvres_, preface to vol. ii, p. 60). In his _Philosophie du Progrès_ (_Œuvres_, vol. xx, pp. 36-38) Proudhon writes as follows: “All that reason knows and maintains is that the individual, like an idea, is really a group. All existence is in groups, and whatever forms a group also forms a unit, and consequently becomes perceptible and is then said to exist. In accordance with this general conception of being, I think it possible to prove the existence of positive reality and up to a certain point to demonstrate the laws of the social being or of the humanitarian group, and to establish a proof of the existence of an individuality superior to collective man and still quite other and different from his individual self.” The same idea frequently comes up in different connections, _e.g._, in the _Petit Catéchisme politique_ at the end of vol. i of _La Justice dans la Révolution_, and in _Idée générale de la Révolution_.

Kropotkin thinks that man has always lived in society of one kind or another. “As far back as we can go in the palæo-ethnology of mankind, we find men living in societies, in tribes similar to those of the highest mammals.” (_Mutual Aid_, p. 80). “Man did not create society; society is older than man.” (_The State, its Historic Rôle_, p. 6; London, 1898.) Jean Grave, on the other hand, thinks that “the individual was prior to society. Destroy the individual, and there will be nothing left of society. Let the association be dissolved and the individuals scattered, they will fare badly and will possibly return to savagery, their faculties will decay and not progress, but still they will continue to exist.” (_La Societé future_, pp. 160-162.) Grave’s view is essentially his own and does not square with those of either Kropotkin, Bakunin, or Proudhon, the real founders of anarchy. It is, moreover, quite obvious that their theories are really much nearer the truth, for it is as impossible to conceive of society without the individual as it is to conceive of the individual without society. The individual, as Bakunin emphatically declares, is a fiction, or an abstraction, as Walras would say. Many people find it difficult to accept this doctrine. But it seems the only one that tallies with the facts, whether of nature or of history. We can no more imagine the individual without society than we can a fish without water. Deprived of water, it is not only less of a fish, but it is no longer a fish at all—except a dead one.

[1343] Bastiat speaks of this error of confusing government and society as being the worst that has ever befallen the science. The State problem he defines as follows: “How to inscribe within the great circle which we call society that other circle called government.” Dunoyer in so many words expresses the same idea.

[1344] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 414. Cf. also _Paroles d’une Révolté_, p. 221.

[1345] This idea finds frequent expression both with Reclus and Kropotkin. “The fact that we have instituted, regulated, codified, and encompassed with constraints and penalties, with gendarmes and jailers, the larger part of our more or less incoherent collection of political, religious, moral and social conceptions of to-day in order to enforce them upon the citizens of to-morrow is in itself sufficiently absurd, and it is bound to have contradictory results. Life, which is always improving and renewing itself, can never submit to regulations which have been drawn up in some period now past.” (Reclus, _loc. cit._, pp. 108-9.) “Anarchist society,” writes Kropotkin, “is one to which any pre-established, crystallised form of law will always be repugnant. It is also one which looks for harmony, which can only be temporary and fugitive perhaps, in the equilibrium between the mass of different forces and influences of every kind which pursue their course without the slightest deflection, and which because they are quite untrammelled beget reaction and arouse those activities which are favourable to them when they move in the direction of progress.” (_L’Anarchie_, pp. 17, 18.)

[1346] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist._

[1347] Proudhon had already set the problem as follows: “Can we find a method of transacting business that will unite divergent interests and identify individuals with the general well-being, replace the inequality of nature by equality of education, and remove all political and economic contradictions; when each individual will be at once both producer and consumer, citizen and sovereign, ruler and ruled; when liberty will always expand without involving any counter-loss; when the well being of each will grow indefinitely without involving any damage to the property, the labour, or the revenue of any of his fellow-citizens, or of the State itself, without weakening the interests he has in common with his fellow-men, without alienating their good opinion or destroying their affection for him?” (_Idée générale_, p. 145.) Says Jean Grave: “Were society established on natural bases, individual and general interests would never conflict.” (_Société future_, p. 156.)

[1348] _La Société future_, p. 16. “We cannot disguise the fact,” says Kropotkin, “that if complete liberty of thought and action were once given to the individual we should see some exaggerations, possibly extravagant exaggerations, of our principles.” (_Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 413.)

[1349] “The only great and all-powerful authority at once rational and natural that we can respect is the public spirit of a collective society founded upon equality and solidarity, upon liberty and respect for the human qualities of all its members. It will be a thousand times more powerful than all your authorities, whether divine, theological, metaphysical, political, or juridical, whether instituted by Church or by State; more powerful than all your criminal codes, all your jailers and hangmen.” (Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, p. 79.)

[1350] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 414. This is also one of the favourite doctrines of the Liberals.

[1351] Kropotkin, _Conquest of Bread_, p. 206.

[1352] Grave, _op. cit._, p. 297. Proudhon is even more severe. “By making a contract you become a member of the fraternity of free men. In case of infringement, either on their side or on yours, you are responsible to one another, and the responsibility might even involve excommunication and death.” (_Idée générale_, p. 343.)

[1353] Kropotkin, _Mutual Aid_, p. 17.

[1354] “In our opinion, and speaking strictly, there is no such thing as a really idle person. There are a few individuals, perhaps, who have not developed as they might have done and whose activity has never found a proper outlet under existing conditions. In a society where everyone would be allowed to choose his own sphere of work the idlest people would be found doing something.” (J. Grave, _La Société future_, pp. 277-278.) Kropotkin writes in the same strain (_Conquest of Bread_, chapter on _Objections_).

[1355] Kropotkin, _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 414; _Conquest of Bread_, p. 156. The anarchists show no desire to expand the Phalanstère, but prefer the family life.

[1356] _Conquest of Bread_, p. 204.

[1357] _Conquest of Bread_, p. 130.

[1358] _Ibid._, p. 133.

[1359] Élisée Reclus, _L’Évolution_, etc., pp. 136-137.

[1360] _Conquest of Bread_, p. 83.

[1361] Cf. Grave, _La Société future_, ch. 14, _La Valeur_. The anarchists frequently complain that their ideas are generally mutilated by the economists. To read this chapter is to realise the amount of intelligence which they display when interpreting their adversaries’ doctrines!

[1362] _L’Évolution_, p. 154. Kropotkin says: “Those who wish the triumph of justice, who really want to put the new ideas into practice, understand the necessity for a terrible revolution which would sweep away this canker and revive the degenerate hearts with its invigorating rush, bringing back habits of devotion, of self-negation, and of heroism, without which society becomes vile, degraded, and rotten.” (_Paroles d’un Révolté,_ p. 280.)

[1363] Bakunin, in _Sozial-politischer_, p. 297.

[1364] _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_, p. 297.

[1365] Kropotkin, quoted by Eltzbacher, p. 236. “Revolution, once it becomes socialistic, will cease to be sanguinary and cruel. The people are not cruel. It is the privileged classes that are cruel. People are ordinarily kind and humane, and will suffer long rather than cause others any suffering.” (Bakunin, _Œuvres_, vol. iii, pp. 184-185.) The same idea runs through Sorel’s _Réflexions sur la Violence_.

[1366] Bakunin, _Sozial-politischer_, pp. 335 and 353.

[1367] _Sozial-politischer_, p. 361. The proclamation was addressed to Young Russia just after the Tsar Alexander II had accepted the challenge of Liberalism by emancipating the serfs. But he immediately proceeded to revive the cruel system of espionage and repression carried out by his father Nicholas I, and so roused the indignation of the more advanced leaders, who thought that they had in him a hero who would open the golden gates of liberty. Bakunin at the time was under the influence of an unscrupulous fanatic of the name of Netchaieff, whose savage and revolting passion for the execution of criminal deeds in the name of revolution had completely captivated him. Later on he vigorously reproved such acts, and declared that they ought to be suppressed.

[1368] _Ibid._

[1369] Bakunin, _Sozial-politischer_, p. 332.

[1370] _Réflexions sur la Violence_, p. 253.

[1371] _Paroles d’un Révolté_, pp. 17-18.

[1372] _Réflexions sur la Violence_, p. 218.

[1373] Berth, _Les Nouveaux Aspects du Socialisme_, p. 3.

[1374] _Réflexions sur la Violence_, introduction.

[1375] _Ibid._, p. 237.

INDEX

In the longer paragraphs a number standing alone, and separated by a semicolon from the preceding sentence, indicates a reference of smaller importance. Such numbers are, of course, not connected with the sentence preceding them.

“Abbots’ Party,” 508

Ability, rent of, 549-552, 582, 583

“Abstinence,” 350

“Abuse of rights,” 606

Act of Union of 1707, Adam Smith on, 266

Act of Union of 1800, 104

Adamson, Professor, 529 _n._

Adler, G., 615 _n._

Aftalion, A., 184 _n._

Agneta Park, 255

Agoult, Mme. d’, 292 _n._

Agriculture, the sole source of the “net product,” 12, 14;
the Physiocratic influence upon the conception of, 17;
the inherent distinction between industry and, 17-18;
workers in, ignored by the Physiocrats, 22 _n._;
Condillac on, 49 _n._;
viewed by Quesnay as the source of all wealth, 56;
Smith and the superior productivity of, 64, 90, 112;
Smith’s admiration for, 67-68;
Buchanan on, 143;
the future of, 155-157;
List and Protection and, 276 _and n._;
Carey and Protection and, 283

Agriculturist, the, predominant importance of, in the Physiocratic
hierarchy of classes, 61

Aix-la-Chapelle, 281 _n._

Alexander II, Tsar, 639 _n._

Algeria, 339 _n._

Allgemeiner deutscher Arbeiterverein, 432

Allix, M., 117 _n._, 207 _n._

_Alton Locke_, 504

America—_see_ United States

Anarchism, vii, xv;
the development of, 516;
a fusion of Liberal and socialist doctrines, 614;
and the State, 615, 623-624, 625, 626, 627;
Proudhon the father of, 615;
indebtedness of, to Greek philosophy, 615 _n._;
philosophical and literary anarchism, 615, 619;
Stirner and the cult of the individual, 615-619;
and syndicalism, 619 _n._;
Bakunin, 619-620;
Kropotkin, 621-622;
the principles of social and political anarchism, 622-629;
and the individual, 622-623;
and humanity, 623;
and government, 624-627;
and property, 626-627;
and marriage, 627;
and free contract, 627-628;
and reason and science, 628-629, 641;
the anarchist conception of society, 629-636;
criticism of the social ideal, 634-636;
and revolution, 637-640, 641;
its influence, 640-642;
and individualism and socialism, 640;
and syndicalism, 641;
the moral element in the doctrine, 641

Anarchists, and the cult of the “noble savage,” 7

Anarchy, Proudhon and, 311 _n._

Anderson, J., 148 _n._-149 _n._

Andler, C., 321 _n._, 416 _n._, 435 _n._

Antoine, Father, 499 _n._

Antonelli, É., 251 _n._, 537 _n._

Argenson, Marquis d’, 11 _n._

Aristotle, 401;
on value, 451 _n._; 590 _n._

Arkwright, R., 65

Ashley, W. J., v, vi, xi, 385 _n._, 387, 391 _n._, 406

Association, 231, 233;
Robert Owen and, 237;
Blanc and, 256, 257, 260, 263;
Buchez and, 258;
Leroux and, 263;
Cabet and, 263-264;
Proudhon and, 297 _and nn._, 315 _n._; 300;
the French Liberal school and, 325;
Stuart Mill and, 370;
Le Play and, 491 _n._;
the Christian Socialists and, 504-506, 507 _n._;
Kingsley on, 505 _n._;
solidarity and, 602, 613-614;
and exchange, 613 _n._

Associative socialists, 227, 231-235;
and the Physiocrats, 232-233;
and competition, 233-234;
Blanc and, 263

Auburtin, F., 487 _n._

Aucuy, M., 316 _n._

Aulard, F., 200 _n._

Aupetit, J. J., 529 _n._, 530 _n._, 537 _n._, 539 _n._, 543 _n._

Auspitz, Herr, 529 _n._

Austria, and the Zollverein, 268;
Social Catholicism in, 499 _n._;
anarchism in, 640

Austrian school, xv, 48, 397 _n._, 521, 522 _n._, 541, 544 _and n._, 581

_Avances foncières_, 22, 23 _n._, 25

_Avances souveraines_, 38 _n._

Avenel, M. d’, 546

Babeuf, F., 200 _and nn._, 256, 436 _n._

“Back to the land,” in Fourier’s system, 251-252;
Tolstoy and, 513

Baden, 268 _n._

Baden, the Margrave of (Abbé Roubaud), and the Physiocrats, 4 _n._, 5;
the Physiocratic experiment of, 44

Bakunin, M., 449 _n._, 459 _n._, 615, 616, 619-620, 621, 622, 623, 624,
626 _and nn._, 627, 628, 630, 631 _n._, 634 _n._, 637-640, 641

“Balance of trade” theory, Mercier de la Rivière on, 31;
David Hume and, 53;
Adam Smith and, 98;
Ricardo and, 163-165; 285;
List and, 285 _n._

Bank Act, English, of 1822, 166;
of 1844, 166

Bank of Amsterdam, 85

Bank, Bonnard’s, 316 _n._-317 _n._

Bank of England, 166

Bank of Exchange—_see_ Exchange Bank

Bank of France, 305, 311, 312, 314, 638

Bank-notes, Adam Smith and, 85, 96;
Ricardo and, 165-167;
and Proudhon’s exchange notes, 311-312

Banks, Adam Smith and, 85, 96;
Ricardo and, 138, 139 _n._, 163, 167;
in the Saint-Simonians’ system, 218-219 _and n._, 226;
Fourier’s co-operative, 251 _n._;
influence on crises in the money market, 285 _n._;
Count Mollien and, 314;
the Raiffeisen agricultural credit banks, 503 _n._

Barone, Signor M., 529 _n._

Barrès, A. M., 254 _n._

Bastiat, F., xv, 92, 93, 115, 117, 118 _n._, 146 _n._, 156, 160,
163 _n._, 223 _n._, 277 _n._;
and the Classical school, 322;
and Protection, 323, 328 _n._, 329; 324;
and liberty, 324 _n._;
and State intervention, 325 _n._, 408-409;
and the Liberal school, 327;
Carey and, 327-328;
his career, 328 _n._;
and socialism, 328 _n._, 329;
criticism of, 329;
estimate of his work, 329 _and n._;
and individualism, 330;
his theory of universal harmony, 330-346;
and the Providential order, 331;
his theory of service-value, 332-335;
and Proudhon, 333 _n._-334 _n._;
his law of free utility, 335-337;
and the proprietor, 336;
and rent, 337-340, 425, 545, 546;
and the relation of profits to wages, 340-342, 427;
on the subordination of producer to consumer, 342-343;
and solidarity, 344-345; 363 _n._;
and international exchange, 365;
and Optimism, 377;
and the State, 438 _n._, 439; 459 _n._, 516, 572, 589;
his fable, _The Blind and the Paralytic_, 608; 617, 624;
and government and society, 631 _n._

Baudeau, the Abbé, on the Physiocrats, 3 _n._;
a member of the Physiocratic school, 4 _n._;
on the “natural order,” 10;
on the productivity of agriculture, 13 _n._;
on industry and commerce, 13;
on the _Tableau économique_, 18 _n._, 20 _n._;
on the dependence of the productive classes on the landed proprietors,
22 _n._;
on the landed proprietors as nobility, 22 _n._;
and the origin and justification of private property, 22;
on the _avances foncières_, 23 _n._, 25 _n._;
on the duties of landed proprietors, 25;
on the regard to be paid to the peasants, 26;
on useless laws, 33 _n._;
on the Greek states, 34 _n._;
on the sovereignty of the people, 36 _n._;
on the supreme will, 36 _n._;
on education, 37;
on international antagonism, 37 _n._;
on the three errors of States, 37 _n._-38 _n._;
on _avances souveraines_, 38 _n._;
on the revenue from land, 40 _n._;
on the sovereign, 41 _n._;
on the gross and net revenue, 43 _n._; 118 _n._

Bauer, Bruno, 616

Bauer, Professor S., 19 _nn._

Bavaria, Tariff Union between Würtemberg and, 268

Bazard, St. A., 201 _n._, 211, 212, 213

Bebel, F. A., 437

Bentham, J., 96 _n._, 586

Béranger, J. P. de, 331

Berens, E., 547 _n._

Bergson, H., 403 _n._

Bernstein, E., 473, 474 _n._, 475 _and n._, 479, 480 _n._

Berth, É., 479 _n._, 619 _n._, 642 _n._

Berthélemy, H., 569 _n._

Biological method, 544 _n._

Biological Naturalism, the school of, 593 _n._

Bismarck, Prince, and Lassalle, 414; 436;
and State Socialism, 445

Blanc, Louis, 169, 198, 227, 235;
quality of his work, 255-256;
and competition, 256-257, 260;
and association, 257-261, 263;
and interest, 259-260;
a pioneer of State Socialism, 261, 262, 414;
and State intervention, 262, 414; 290;
Proudhon and, 296 _n._; 300;
and the Revolution of 1848, 300-306;
Lassalle and, 434; 599, 607 _n._

Blanqui, A., 197, 295

_Blind and the Paralytic, The_, Bastiat’s fable, 608

Block, M., 375

Böhm-Bawerk, E. von, on capital, 71 _n._;
on Adam Smith’s conception of the determinant of value, 78 _n._-79
_n._; 150;
and Bastiat, 329; 474 _n._, 516;
on the Classical school, 518 _n._;
on wages, 520; 522 _n._;
on final utility, 523 _n._;
his theory of interest, 530, 540; 541 _n._, 583

Boisguillebert, P., 29 _n._, 33 _n._, 54

_Bon prix_, the, 15-16, 29, 45

Bonar, J., 52 _n._, 121

Bonnard’s Bank, 316 _n._-317 _n._

Booth, C., 388

Bortkevitch, V., 529 _n._

Bouglé, C., 594 _n._

Bourgeois, L., 593-599, 603 _nn._, 605 _n._

Bourgin, H., 201 _n._, 246 _n._, 265 _n._

Bourguin, M., 231 _n._, 320 _n._, 449 _n._

Bournville, 255, 513 _n._

Bouvier, M., 538 _n._

Boyve, M. de, 508 _n._

Brandes, G., 432 _n._

Brants, V., xi

Braun, K., 368

Bray, J. F., 315, 316

“Brazen law of wages,” the, 361, 426, 433, 453 _n._, 541

Brentano, L., 386, 389 _n._

Briand, M., 251 _n._

Bright, John, 366

Brissot de Warville, J. P., 200 _n._, 292 _n._

Brodnitz, Herr, 445 _n._

Brook Farm, 255 _n._

Brunetière, F., 485 _n._

Brunhes, Mme., 510 _n._

Brunswick, 268 _n._

Buccleuch, Duke of, and Adam Smith, 51 _n._

Buchanan, J., 52 _n._, 143

Bücher, K., 252 _n._, 271 _n._, 386, 397

Bucher, L., 414

Buchez, P., 258, 259, 306, 496 _and n._, 505

Buffon, the Comte de, 121, 523 _n._

Buisson, M., 249 _n._, 603 _n._

Buonarotti, F., 256 _and n._

Bureau, P., 493 _n._, 495 _n._

Buret, A. E., 197

Burgin, M., 95 _n._

Cabet, É., 233, 235, 246, 263-264, 290, 296 _n._, 297

Cairnes, J. E., 329, 374-375, 387

Calvin, John, 503 _n._

Cameralists, 110, 383

Campanella, T., 200 _n._, 246

Cannan, Dr. E., v, 52 _n._, 56 _n._, 71 _n._, 79 _n._, 145 _and n._,
427 _n._, 549 _n._

Canonists, the, 110

Cantillon, R., 46

Capital, Adam Smith and, 56, 71-73, 89-91;
Ricardo and the identification of, with labour, 149-150;
the law of the concentration of, 187;
Saint-Simon and, 206, 214;
the Saint-Simonians and, 214;
Proudhon and, 293, 308-309, 310, 313-314;
Bastiat and, 340-342;
Colson and, 342 _n._;
Dunoyer on, 347 _n._;
Senior and, 350;
Marx and, 455-465;
Marx’s law of the concentration of, 459-465, 475-476;
the socialist’s conception of, 459-460;
the Marxian school and, 467 _n._;
the productivity theory of, 502;
final utility and, 528;
the rent of, 548-549 _n._, 558 _n._;
the rent of fixed, 556, 583;
Henry George on the relation of labour to, 564-565;
co-operators and, 605 _n._

Capitalism, Marx and, 461-462

Carey, H. C., and trade, 28;
and rent, 115, 338-340, 425, 545, 546; 156, 278;
and Protection, 282-284;
and Free Trade, 282-283;
and List, 284; 289 _n._;
and the Optimistic school, 327;
and Bastiat, 327-328, 340;
and the Ricardian theory of value, 332; 333 _n._;
and Bastiat’s profits theory, 342 _n._;
and solidarity, 345;
his population theory, 346; 549, 572

Carey, M., 278

Carlyle, T., 196, 511, 512 _n._

Carnot, H., 212, 213 _n._

Carnot, S., 367 _n._

Carrel, A., 212

Cartwright, E., 65

Carver, J. N., 522 _n._

Catherine, Empress of Russia, and the Physiocrats, 5;
and Mercier de la Rivière, 34

Catholic Church, Roman, 485

Catholic Socialism, 495

Catholicism, and the economic order, 483 _n._, 484 _n._;
Social Catholicism, 495-503

Cauwès, P., 285 _n._

Cazamian, L., 510 _n._

Chambre consultative des Associations de Production, 257 _n._

Channing, W. E., 255 _n._, 504 _n._

Chapelier, Le, decree of, 233 _n._

Chaptal, J. A., 112, 277 _n._, 278 _n._, 281 _n._

Charity, solidarism distinguished from, 614 _n._

Charléty, S., 226 _n._

Charmont, M., 607 _n._

Charter of 1814, 205

Chartist movement, the, 235

Chatelain, M., 50 _n._, 369 _n._, 415 _n._, 427 _n._

Cherbuliez, A. É., 376, 541 _n._

Chevalier, M., 212, 213, 226, 289 _n._, 366, 375, 411-412, 444

Child, Sir J., 54

Chrematistic school, 178-179

Christian Social Union, 506 _n._

Christian Socialism (Social Protestantism), xv, 378, 495, 503-509;
origin of the movement, 503-504;
and association, 504-506;
and moral reform, 505, 509;
and private property, 506;
the movement in America, 506;
in Germany and in Switzerland, 507;
in France, 508;
and solidarity, 508;
and individualism, 509

Christian Socialists, 111, 196, 370, 483;
and socialism, 483-485;
and Classical Liberalism, 484;
and the “natural order,” 484;
and Marx’s collectivism, 485;
and State Socialism, 485;
their doctrines, and their influence, 486;
and economic theory, 515

Christianity, economic doctrines inspired by, 483-514

Christliche Gewerkvereine, 501

Civitas Solis, 246

Clark, J. B., 522 _n._, 527, 542 _n._, 552, 564 _n._

“Class war,” 465 _n._, 471, 478, 479, 481-482

Classical school, doctrine of, xv;
the Physiocratic doctrine and, 10;
List and, 169;
and the critical school, 170;
Sismondi and, 174, 177, 179, 195-196;
and machinery, 180, 182;
and over-production, 181;
resemblance of doctrines of, to those of Marx, 181;
and competition, 182;
and the beneficence of the spontaneous economic forces, 230;
and Free Trade, 264;
List and, 289, 290;
severance of, into English and French schools, 322;
apogee and decline of, 348-376;
Senior and, 349-350;
spread of the doctrines of, 351-352;
Stuart Mill and, 352, 353, 354, 368, 374;
and natural laws, 354-366;
called the Individualist school, 355;
and individualism, 355-356;
and liberty, 356;
definition of, 356 _n._, 357 _n._;
and _laissez-faire_, 357;
and international exchange, 363;
doctrines of, in the middle of the nineteenth century, 366-367;
and peasant proprietorship, 371 _n._;
decline of the Classical doctrine, 378;
Roscher and Hildebrand and, 383-385;
Knies and, 384;
the Historical school’s criticism of, 385, 389-398, 517;
and self-interest, 393-394;
and the deductive method, 395-396; 407;
Hermann and, 410-411;
and distribution, 422;
State Socialism and, 438;
and Marxism, 467, 472;
Carlyle and, 511;
the Hedonists and, 518-521, 539, 541 _n._, 544;
and rent, 520, 547;
and price, 520;
and value, 530 _n._, 558

Clavières, É., 107

Cobden, R., 280, 323, 328 _n._, 360, 366, 375

Colbert, J. B., 11 _n._, 280

Colbertian system, Physiocracy antagonistic to, 29;
and agriculture and industry, 30 _n._; 97, 178

Colins, Baron, 155, 560

Collectivism, xv;
the Saint-Simonians and, 201, 202, 211, 218-221, 231;
of Marx, 250, 459 _n._, 485;
development of, 378;
origin of the term, 459 _n._;
and property, 464 _and n._;
and Christian Socialism, 509;
the working-class ideal, 516, 579;
the Fabian, 581;
Kropotkin and, 627

Collinsists, 465 _n._

Colson, L. C., 342 _n._, 427 _n._, 537 _n._

Combination Laws, 361

Commerce, regarded as unproductive by the Physiocrats, 13

Communism, Sismondi and, 194;
Marx and, 221, 459 _n._, 464;
Cabet and, 264;
Proudhon and, 298, 300;
Bastiat and, 337;
Stuart Mill and, 353, 367;
Ruskin and, 513;
Tolstoy and, 513;
Kropotkin and, 627

Communists, the, Proudhon and, 296 _and n._

Competition, Sismondi and, 182-184, 186, 193 _n._, 198;
Adam Smith and, 182;
the Associationists and, 233-234;
Robert Owen and, 240;
Blanc and, 256-257, 260;
Ollivier on, 325;
Stuart Mill on, 353, 358;
free, the Classical school and, 358, 544;
Cairnes and, 375;
the State Socialists and, 440;
F. D. Maurice and, 504 _n._;
free, the Hedonists and, 518, 541-542, 605 _n._;
free, Walras and, 541-542; 543

Composite rent, 552

_Comptabilisme sociale_, 242

Comte, A., 36 _n._, 201 _n._, 203 _and n._, 211;
and Saint-Simon, 222;
and the spontaneity of the “natural order,” 331; 335, 352, 367,
374 _n._;
and the Historical method, 404-405;
and the equality of men, 486 _n._;
and solidarity, 589, 601 _n._;
and the sociological analogy, 590 _n._; 595

Comte, C., 207

Condé-sur-Vesgres, Fourier colony at, 255 _n._

Condillac, É. B. de, xiii, 46, 47, 48-50, 74, 75, 109 _and n._, 117,
118 _n._, 523 _n._

Condorcet, M. C., 122, 224

Confédération général du Travail, 480, 502, 640

Congress of Catholic Circles, 498 _n._

Considérant, V., 234 _n._, 255, 264, 296 _n._, 301, 303, 304, 599,
607 _n._

Consumer, Bastiat and the subordination of producer to, 342-343

Consumer’s rent, 527 _n._

Consumers and social reorganisation, 605 _n._

Consumption, the Psychological school and, 526-527;
the Mathematical school and, 530

Continental Blockade, the, 266, 279

Cooper, W., 244

Co-operation, Fourier and Owen and, 234, 257;
in Fourier’s Phalanstère, 246-252, 257;
Blanc and, 257-263, 306;
Buchez and, 258;
Proudhon and, 315;
Stuart Mill and, 353, 370;
the Social Catholics and, 496-500;
F. D. Maurice and, 504 _n._;
the Christian Socialists and, 505, 506;
Tomy Fallot and, 508 _n._;
solidarity and, 588, 604;
the École de Nîmes and, 605 _n._;
co-operators and capital, 605 _n._

Co-operative societies, beginnings of, 243;
Robert Owen and, 243-244, 504;
character of, 250 _n._, 504-505

Co-partnership, 251 _n._

Corn, high price of, in England, in the early nineteenth century, 145-146

Corn Laws, English, Sismondi and, 175; 269, 277, 280, 354, 361, 366

Corporative associations, the Social Catholics and, 496-500, 501 _and n._

Cossa, L., xi, 367, 376

Cost of production theory, Adam Smith’s, 78-79, 80

Courcelle-Seneuil, J. G., 118 _n._, 316 _n._, 317 _n._, 375, 541 _n._

Cournot, A., x, 265 _n._, 349, 360 _n._, 412-413, 420 _n._, 444, 519,
520, 529 _n._, 531 _nn._

Coux, de, 483 _n._

Credit, Enfantin on, 213 _n._, 226 _n._;
the Saint-Simonians and, 226;
Proudhon and, 313 _n._, 314

Crémieux, H. J., 303

Crises, J. B. Say and, 115-117;
industrial, in England, 172;
Sismondi and, 173, 190-192, 426;
Robert Owen and, 239;
Rodbertus and, 426;
Marx and, 462-463, 478-479;
Henry George and, 566

Croce, B., 474 _n._

Crompton, S., 65

Cunningham, W., v, vi, 387

Curmond, M., 13 _n._

Darimon, A., 316 _n._

Darwin, Charles, his debt to Malthus, 121;
the French Liberal school and his doctrine of the survival of the
fittest, 326;
Kidd and the Darwinian theory, 485 _n._;
Kropotkin and, 621

Dechesne, M., 498 _n._

Declaration of the Rights of Man, 233

Deductive method, the, 387, 395-398

Deherme, G., 587 _n._

Demand and supply, Adam Smith and, 73-74, 80-85, 89;
the law of, of the Classical school, 359-360;
the Hedonists and, 519-520

Demand, price and, 519-520

Demography, 121, 645

Demolins, E., 494 _and n._, 495, 608 _n._

Denis, Professor H., xi;
on Physiocracy, 2 _n._, 8 _n._;
on the _Tableau économique_, 19 _and n._; 140 _n._, 141 _n._,
164 _n._, 184 _n._, 404

Denis, M., 242 _n._

Descartes, 629

Deschamps, M., x _n._, xi _n._

Despotism, the Physiocrats and, 35-37

Destutt de Tracy, 118 _n._

_Dictionnaire d’Économie politique_, 354, 358

Diehl, K., 317 _n._

Differential rents, 546-558

Discount, in Proudhon’s Exchange Bank scheme, 310 _n._, 313;
normal, 312

Distribution, the Physiocrats and, 18, 21, 113, 114;
Adam Smith and, 55, 80, 93, 113, 114, 228;
J. B. Say and, 93, 113-114, 228;
Ricardo and, 114, 139-140, 162-163, 228;
Sismondi and, 177-178, 185, 186, 198;
the Saint-Simonians and, 229;
Fourier and, 245;
Vidal and, 259;
Stuart Mill and, 368, 369;
Rodbertus and, 421-429, 430-431;
State Socialism and, 443-444;
the Hedonists and, 527, 529-530, 541;
Henry George and, 565 _n._-566 _n._;
Mr. and Mrs. Webb and, 583;
the anarchists and, 636;
development of the theory, 645

Distributive societies, 604

Dolléans, É., 236 _n._, 239 _n._, 244 _n._

Dollfus, J. H., 490

Doubleday, T., 137 _n._

Dove, P. E., 560 _and n._

Dragomanov, M. P., 619 _n._

Drôme, M. de la, 303

Droz, N., 197 _and n._

Drysdale, Dr., 134 _n._

Dubois, J. B., xi

Duguit, L., 607 _n._

Dühring, E., 117, 208 _n._, 289 _n._, 420 _n._

Dumas, G., 202 _n._

Dumont, M., 137

Dumoulin, C., 503 _n._

Dumping, 275

Dunoyer, C., 207, 325 _n._, 326 _n._, 327, 346-348 _and n._, 363, 439,
614-615, 631 _n._

Dupin, C., 277

Dupont de Nemours, P. S., on Quesnay’s “rural economy,” 2;
as a member of the Physiocratic school, 3 _n._-4 _n._;
originator of the term “Physiocracy,” 4 _n._;
his definition of Physiocracy, 5;
on natural society, 6 _n._;
on the “natural order,” 7 _n._, 8 _n._, 9 _n._;
on the “net product,” 12 _n._;
on the productive and non-productive classes, 14 _n._;
on the need for the security of property, 24 _n._;
on representation in the State, and on the parliamentary _régime_,
34 _n._;
on despotism, 35 _n._;
on the duty of the sovereign, 37;
on taxation, 38 _n._, 40 _n._;
on the landowner, 39 _and n._;
on the relation of expenditure to production, 41 _n._-42 _n._;
on regulating national expenditure, 44 _n._;
on the amount of the tax, 44 _n._;
and “proportionality,” 45 _n._;
on natural law, 354 _n._

Dupont-White, C., 221, 304;
on the State, 408 _n._, 409, 440, 441;
on the State and the individual, 440;
and individualism, 443 _n._;
and distribution, 443-444

Dupuit, A. J., 521 _n._, 531 _n._

Durand Union, 606 _n._

Durkheim, É., 61, 388 _n._;
and solidarity, 599-600

Duverger, 213

East India Company, 96

École de Nîmes, 605 _n._

“Economic chivalry,” 335

Economic equilibrium, theory of, 474, 521 _n._, 555 _n._, 558 _n._

Economic forces, Proudhon and, 296-297, 315

“Economic law,” 69, 70

Economic liberty, Adam Smith and, 93-98;
the consummation of, 326-327

“Economic rent,” 582 _n._, 583 _n._

Economics, Senior and, 349-350;
Stuart Mill’s influence upon, 367;
theory of the universality of the laws of, 390;
relativity of the laws of, 390-395;
the deductive method in, 395-398;
the Historical school and, 398-407;
the varied scope of, 399;
environment a principal factor in, 400;
the place of history in, 400-407;
and statistics, 407 _n._;
as a science, 543 _n._, 644;
the separation between pure and descriptive, 645

Economics, pure, 392-393, 515, 517, 541 _and n._, 645

_Economie sociale_, 178

“Economistes,” 4 _n._

Eden, Lord, 105 _n._

Eden, Treaty of, 105, 269

Edgeworth, Maria, 119 _n._

Edgeworth, Professor, 529 _n._, 536 _n._

Education, Adam Smith on compulsory, 60, 96;
Robert Owen and, 238 _n._;
Fourier and, 253

Effertz, O., 420 _n._

Eheberg, K. T., 266 _n._

Eichthal, G. d’, 374, 594 _n._

Einaudi, L., 546 _n._, 567

Eisenach, Congress of, 354, 417, 436, 437, 438

Eltzbacher, P., 621 _n._, 625 _n._, 638 _n._

Ely, R. T., 351 _n._, 507 _n._

Enclosure Acts, in England, 145

Enfantin, B. P., 201 _n._, 203 _n._, 211, 212 _and n._, 213, 216 _n._,
226 _and n._, 229, 230 _n._, 231

Engels, F., 208 _n._, 209, 228, 449 _n._, 450 _n._, 464 _n._, 616

Ensor, R. C., 449 _n._

_Entrepreneur_, the, J. B. Say and, 65 _n._, 113-114;
Sismondi and, 183;
the Saint-Simonians and, 215, 216;
French and English economists’ conception of the income of, 373 _n._,
550;
and production, 426;
in Walras’s system, 533-534;
and Walker’s conception of profit, 550;
distinguished from the capitalist, 550 _and n._;
a “captain of industry,” 550

Environment, Robert Owen and, 238, 239;
Fourier and, 247;
the Associationists and, 259;
Le Play and, 494

Equalitarians, 200

Equilibrium, the Mathematical school and, 533-536, 539

Erfurt, Congress of, 507

“Ergonomy,” 375

Escarra, É., 560 _n._, 577 _nn._

Esmein, A., 34 _n._, 35 _n._

Espinas, A., xi

Etiology, Robert Owen regarded as the father of, 238

Evolution, and solidarity, 609

Exchange, the Physiocratic view of, 27, 46, 49, 114;
Condillac on, 50;
Proudhon and, 299-300, 309-314;
Dunoyer and, 348;
Marx and, 450;
the final utility theory and, 523-524, 525, 526;
the Mathematical school and, 528-530;
and solidarity, 607, 613-614;
and association, 613 _n._

Exchange Bank, Proudhon’s, 242, 243, 291, 293 _n._, 308-320, 334 _n._,
627

Exchange banks, 316

Exchange notes, Proudhon’s, 309-314, 316, 317 _n._

Exchange value, profit dependent on, 90

“Exploitation,” the Saint-Simonians and, 214, 215, 216;
Sismondi and, 215, 216;
Marx and, 215, 216;
Bakunin and, 626;
Kropotkin and, 627 _n._

Fabian socialists, 221, 465 _n._, 475, 579-587

Fabian Society, vii, 579-581

_Fable of the Bees, The_, 54, 70 _n._

Factory legislation, beginnings of, in England, 171;
Act of 1819, 171, 237

Faguet, M., 251 _n._

Fallot, Pastor Tomy, 508 _and n._, 509

Familistère, 255

Faucher, J., 616

February Revolution—_see_ Revolution of 1848

Ferrara, F., 333 _n._

Ferrier, F., 278 _n._

Festy, O., 258 _n._

Fetter, Professor F. A., 522 _n._

Feuerbach, L. A., 616, 623 _n._

Fichte, J. G., 435-436 _n._

Final utility theory, 474, 521-528, 539, 583

Finance, the science of, 645

Fiscal reform, and solidarity, 602

Fisher, Irving, 71 _n._, 522 _n._, 529 _n._, 541 _n._, 583

Fix, T., 197

Fleurant, M., 594 _n._

Fontenay, R. de, 146 _n._, 156, 338 _n._

Fouillée, A., 560, 600 _n._, 606

Fourier, C., 137 _n._, 169, 194;
and the Saint-Simonians, 201 _n._; 231;
on association, 232 _n._; 233;
and Robert Owen, 234-235, 245;
his work and ideas, 245-246;
his Phalanstère, 246-251, 257;
“Back to the land,” 251-252;
and the attractiveness of labour, 252-253;
and education, 253;
and the sex question, 253-254;
and anti-militarism, 254;
his influence and following, 254-255;
Stuart Mill on Fourierism, 255;
and interest, 259; 261, 264;
and Free Trade, 265 _n._; 290;
Proudhon and, 296, 297 _n._; 300;
and “the right to work,” 301; 323, 378, 465, 470, 486, 544, 589;
and guarantism, 599, 604;
claimed as an anarchist, 615

Fournière, E., 465 _n._, 469 _n._

Foville, M. de, 156 _nn._

Foxwell, Professor, 231 _n._, 244 _n._, 316 _n._, 607 _n._

France, population in, 125, 136 _n._, 137;
economic unity of, achieved, 266;
and tariffs, 269, 280;
List on Protection and, 276 _n._;
the classic land of socialism, 323;
Protection in, 323;
the Classical doctrines in, 352;
Stuart Mill on the growth of population in, 359;
Christian Socialism in, 508;
anarchism and, 640

Frankfort, 268 _n._

Franklin, B., 329;
Bastiat and, 329 _n._

Free contract, the anarchists and, 627-628

“Free credit,” 307, 319, 320

Free Trade, the Physiocrats and, 17, 29-31, 98, 153;
the Physiocrats the founders of, 29;
Adam Smith and, 98-102, 153;
J. B. Say and, 115;
Ricardo and, 153, 154, 163;
the theory in the middle of the nineteenth century, 264-265;
Fourier and, 265 _n._;
Cournot and, 265 _n._;
and agriculture, List on, 276;
Carey and, 282-283;
List and, 287-288; 298;
follows the interest of the consumer, 343;
Dunoyer and, 347;
Stuart Mill and, 365, 411 _n._;
and the Corn Laws, 366;
Prince Smith and, 376

Free utility theory, Bastiat’s, 335-340

Frézouls, P., 547 _n._, 554 _n._

Froebel, F., a disciple of Fourier, 253

Galiani, the Abbé, his criticism of the Physiocratic doctrine, 32; 46, 47

_Garantisme_, Fourier’s, 254.
_See_ Guarantism

Garçon, M., 44 _n._

Garden cities, 251, 513

Garnier, G., 103, 106, 108, 115, 295, 379 _n._

Garnier, J., 379

Gendre, F. Le, 11 _n._

George, Henry, and the Physiocrats, 45 _n._;
and rent, 141, 565-568, 575;
and land nationalisation, 141, 155, 577 _n._; 376, 465 _n._, 506;
and man’s right to the land, 561;
his career and his works, 563-564; 569, 573;
and _laissez-faire_, 573 _n._

Germany, political and economic condition of, in the nineteenth century,
265, 266;
tariffs in, 266, 280, 281;
the movement for economic unity in, 267-268;
List and the claim of, to Holland and Denmark, 272;
the English Corn Laws and, 276-277;
and Protection, 281 _n._, 289;
the Classical doctrines in, 352;
State Socialism in, 445-446;
Christian Socialism in, 507

Gervinus, G. G., 383 _n._

Gibbon, E., 105

Gide, C., 245 _n._, 246 _n._, 334 _n._, 342 _n._, 522 _n._, 576 _n._,
592 _n._, 605 _n._

Godin, A., 255

Godwin, Wm., 122, 131, 136 _n._, 200 _and n._, 579, 615

Goehre, Pastor, 507

Goethe, 400

“Good price”—_see_ _Bon prix_

Gossen, H. H., 155, 349, 474 _n._, 522 _n._, 529 _n._;
and land nationalisation, 571-577;
and the confiscation of rent, 574-575

Gounelle, E., 506 _n._, 508 _nn._, 509

Gournay, V. de, 4 _n._;
and the origin of the term _laissez-faire_, 11 _n._

Gouth, Pastor, 508

Government, in Saint-Simon’s system, 207-209;
Adam Smith on, 217, 625;
Proudhon and, 310-311, 624 _n._;
Chevalier and, 412;
the State Socialists and, 439-440, 441;
the anarchists and, 624-627;
and society, 631;
and the social instinct, 632

Grand, G., 482 _n._

Grave, J., 615, 619 _n._, 622, 626 _n._, 628, 629, 630, 631 _n._,
633 _n._, 634, 635 _n._, 636 _n._

Great Britain, growth of wealth and population in, 131

Grün, K., 298 _n._, 323 _n._

Guarantism, 599, 604.
_See_ _Garantisme_

Guesde, J., 453 _n._, 465 _n._

Guillaume, J., 459 _n._, 619 _n._, 631 _n._

Guillaumin, U. G., 295

Gustavus III, of Sweden, and the Physiocrats, 5

Guyau, J. M., 598 _n._

Guyot, Y., 343 _n._, 358 _n._, 608 _n._

Halévy, É., 104 _n._, 119 _n._, 141 _n._, 207 _n._, 230 _n._

Hall, C., 579

Hamilton, A., 277

Hanover, 268 _n._

Hardie, J. Keir, 506

Hargreaves, J., 65

Harmel, L., 499 _n._

Harmony, Bastiat’s doctrine of, 330-346

Harmony, Fourier’s ideal city, 249 _and n._, 254

Hasbach, W., 69 _n._

Hawthorne, N., 255 _n._

Hedonism, xv, 10;
Adam Smith’s Optimism distinct from that of, 93; 355;
Ruskin and Tolstoy and, 510;
definition of, 518

Hedonistic school, and free competition, 91, 240, 373 _n._, 518, 543,
605 _n._; 335, 395, 407;
its doctrines, 518-544;
and the Classical school, 518-521, 539, 541 _n._, 544;
and wages, 520-521, 541;
and interest and rent, 520-521;
France and, 529, 537;
criticism of its doctrines, 537-544;
and distribution, 541

Heeren, A. H. L., 383 _n._

Hegel, 435 _and n._, 619

“Hegelian school, left,” 616 _n._

Hegelian terminology, Proudhon and, 298 _n._

Held, A., 386

Heredity, and solidarity, 588

Hermann, F., 410-411, 548 _n._, 551, 556

Herron, G. D., 507 _n._

Hesse-Darmstadt, Tariff Union between Prussia and, 268

Higgs, H., 5 _n._

Hildebrand, Bruno, 196, 271 _n._, 380 _n._, 381 _n._, 383-384, 385,
389 _and n._, 390, 394, 400 _and n._, 404, 405

Hirst, Miss M. E., 275 _n._, 277 _n._, 278 _nn._

Historical school, vi-vii, xv, 111;
and political economy, 175, 222;
Sismondi and, 196;
List and, 287; 368, 374, 377;
origin and development of, 379, 380-388;
the newer school, 385-386;
influence of, in England, and in France, 387-388;
critical ideas of, 388-398;
the positive ideas of, 398-407;
A. Comte and, 404-405;
and Le Play’s school, 493-494;
and economic theory, 515;
and the Classical school, 517; 648

History, the consideration of economic reforms based upon, 221, 222;
the philosophy of, in economics, 221, 224;
the place of, in economics, 400-403

Hitze, the Abbé, 496

Hobbes, T., 630

Holyoake, G. J., 244 _n._

_Homo œconomicus_, Adam Smith and, 86; 399;
Carlyle and, 511;
the Hedonists and, 518, 543

Howarth, C., 244

Huet, F., 495, 560

Hughes, T., 504

Humanity, in the anarchist doctrine, 623

Hume, David, Adam Smith and, 50 _n._, 53, 64 _n._, 105, 106, 273 _n._;
and money, 85; 120 _n._, 149 _n._, 165

Huskisson, W., 265, 267

Hutcheson, F., 50 _n._, 53

Hyndman, H. M., 579 _n._

Ibsen, H., 511

Icaria, Cabet’s ideal State, 246, 263, 264 _n._

Identity of interests, Adam Smith and, 185, 410;
Sismondi and, 185-186, 410, 413;
Malthus and Ricardo and, 410;
Hermann and, 410-411;
Stuart Mill and, 411;
Cournot and, 413

_Immortale Dei_, Encyclical, 501

_Impôt unique_, 45, 61, 567

Indirect and direct taxation, the Physiocrats and, 44-45

Individual, the State and, 442-443;
Walras on the State and, 573-574;
in philosophical anarchism, 615;
Stirner and the cult of the, 617-619, 622-623;
Proudhon and the anarchists and, 622-623, 630;
and society, the anarchists and, 629-631;
Bakunin on, 630, 631 _n._;
Jean Grave and, 631 _n._

Individualism, xi, 263;
List and, 270;
the Classical school and, 322, 355, 356;
Bastiat and, 330;
Stuart Mill and, 355, 356 _and n._;
Ricardo and Malthus and, 355;
Herbert Spencer and, 356;
and solidarity, 356 _n._;
and liberty, 356;
the Liberal school and, 357 _n._;
Dupont-White and, 443 _n._;
Wagner and, 443 _n._;
Christian Socialism and, 509;
modern development of, 516;
anarchism and, 640, 642;
syndicalism and, 642

Individualist school, 355;
known also as the Liberal school, 356;
definition of, 356 _n._;
and inheritance, 372 _n._

Individuality, solidarity and, 612-613

Induction, 395, 397-398

Industrial and Provident Societies Acts of 1852-62, 505

Industrial Revolution, 65, 104, 111

Industrialism, of Saint-Simon, 202-211, 224;
Fourier and, 251

Industry, regarded as sterile by the Physiocrats, 13;
the inherent distinction between agriculture and, 17-18;
the Physiocrats’ erroneous view of, 46;
Sismondi and, 194;
Saint-Simon and, 204, 205 _and n._, 206;
List and, 274, 286, 287

Ingersoll, C., 278

Ingram, J. K., v, xi, 385 _n._, 404

Inheritance, the Saint-Simonians and 217-218, 223, 224;
the State to be sole inheritor of property, 223;
the French Revolution and, 223;
the Phalanstère and, 246;
Dunoyer and, 347 _n._;
Senior and, 351 _and n._, 372;
Stuart Mill and, 372

Institutional Church, 506

Interest, the Physiocrats and, 32-33;
Condillac and, 50;
Adam Smith and, 65 _n._, 92, 96;
Bentham and, 96 _n._;
Sismondi and, 176 _n._, 192-193 _n._;
Marx and, 184-185;
the Saint-Simonians and, 213 _n._, 214;
downward trend of the rate of, 223;
Robert Owen and, 240 _n._;
Blanc and, 259-260;
Fourier and, 259;
Proudhon’s Exchange Bank and, 298 _n._, 308-310, 312, 313, 314, 319;
Solway’s scheme and, 319;
the People’s Bank and, 319;
Bastiat and Proudhon’s controversy as to the legitimacy of,
333 _n._-334 _n._;
Bastiat and, 340-342;
Senior and, 350;
the term as used by the French economists, 373 _n._;
final utility and, 528;
Böhm-Bawerk and, 530, 540;
and wages, Henry George on, 565;
the proposed confiscation of, 568;
“the remuneration of sacrifice,” 568;
the Fabian school and the confiscation of, 582

Interests, the spontaneous harmony of, 633.
_See_ Identity of Interests

International trade, Adam Smith and, 98-100;
Stuart Mill and, 98-100;
Ricardo and, 98, 138, 163, 363 _and n._-364 _and n._;
List and, 290;
Bastiat and, 330;
Dunoyer and, 363

International Working Men’s Association (the “International”), 321,
449 _n._, 620

Internationalism, Marx’s, 465 _n._

Interventionism, 407

Interventionists, Sismondi the first of the, 192, 196; 601

Ireland, 104

“Iron law,” the, 42, 342 _n._

Italy, xii;
anarchism and, 640

Janet, P., 254

Jannet, C., 490 _n._, 592 _n._

Jaurès, J., 469 _n._

“Jeunes Abbés, Les,” 502

Jevons, Stanley, 46 _n._, 48, 75, 78, 117;
on the Ricardian school, 118 _n._;
and the law of indifference, 148, 525 _n._;
his economic method, 380; 406, 474 _n._;
on the purpose of economics, 518 _n._;
and the final utility theory, 521 _n._, 522 _n._;
and Cournot, 529 _n._;
a member of the Mathematical school, 529 _n._;
and value, 530 _n._; 537 _n._, 541, 572 _n._, 581

Joint-stock companies, Marxism and, 463, 476

Joint-stock principle, 248

Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, and the Physiocrats, 5

“Juridical socialism,” 606, 607 _n._

Jurisprudence, solidarity and, 606-607

Justice, Proudhon on, 298-299

_Kapital_, Marx’s, 354, 386, 449 _n._;
Labriola on, 467