Chapter I: Preface

The history of Roman Classical Literature, although it comprehends the names of many illustrious writers and many voluminous works, is, chronologically speaking, contained within narrow limits. Dating from its earliest infancy, until the epoch when it ceased to deserve the title of classical, its existence occupies a period of less than four centuries.

The imperial city had been founded for upwards of five hundred years without exhibiting more than those rudest germs of literary taste which are common to the most uncivilized nations, without producing a single author either in poetry or prose.

The Roman mind, naturally vigorous and active, was still uncultivated, when, about two centuries and a half before the Christian era,[1] conquest made the inhabitants of the capital acquainted, for the first time, with Greek science, art, and literature; and the last rays of classic taste and learning ceased to illumine the Roman world before the accession of the Antonines.[2]

Such a history, however, must be introduced by a reference to times of much higher antiquity. The language itself must be examined historically, that is, its progress and its formation from its primitive elements, must be traced with reference to the influences exercised upon it from without by the natives who spoke the dialects out of which it was composed; and the earliest indications of a taste for poetry, and a desire to cultivate the intellectual powers, must be marked and followed out in their successive stages of development. In this investigation, it will be seen how great the difficulties were with which literary men had to struggle under the Republic—difficulties principally arising from the physical activity of the people, and the practical character of the Roman mind, which led the majority to undervalue and despise devotion to sedentary and contemplative pursuits.

The Roman, in the olden times, had a high and self-denying sense of duty—he was ambitious, but his ambition was for the glory, not of himself, but his country; he thus lived for conquest: his motive, however, was not self-aggrandizement but the extension of the domination of Rome. When the state came to be merged in the individual, generals and statesmen sought to heap up wealth and to acquire power; but it was not so in the Republican times. Owing to these characteristic features, the Roman citizen conceived it to be his duty to devote his energies to the public service: he concentrated all his powers, mental and bodily, upon war and politics; he despised all other occupations and sources of fame; for he was conscious that his country owed her position amongst nations to her military prowess, and her liberties at home to the wise administration of her constitution.

Hence it will be seen, that there never was a period in which literature did not require to be fostered and protected by the patronage of the wealthy and powerful. Even tragedy never captivated the feelings or acquired an influence over the minds of the people at large as it did in Greece; it degenerated into mere recitations in a dramatic form, addressed like any other poetry to a _coterie_. Comedy formed the only exception to this rule. It was the only species of literature which the masses thoroughly enjoyed. Learning was a sickly plant: patronage was the artificial heat which brought it to maturity. Accius was patronized by D. Brutus; Ennius by Lucilius and the Scipios; Terence by Africanus and Lælius; Lucretius by the Memmii; Tibullus by Messala; Propertius by Ælius Gallus; Virgil and his friends by Augustus, Mæcenas, and Pollio; Martial and Quintilian by Domitian.

As the conquest of Magna Græcia, Sicily, and, finally, of Greece itself, first directed to the pursuit of intellectual cultivation a people whose national literature, even if it deserved to be so called, was of the rudest and most meager description, Roman literature was, as might be expected, the offspring of the Greek, and its beauties a reflexion of the Greek mind; and although some portions were more original than others, as being more congenial to the national character—such, for example, as satire, oratory, and history—it was, upon the whole, never anything more than an imitation. It had, therefore, all the faults of an imitation. As in painting, those that study the old masters, and neglect nature, are nothing more than copyists, however high the finish and elaborate the polish of their works may be; so in the literature of Rome, we are delighted with the execution, and charmed with the genius, wit, and ingenuity, but we seek in vain for the enthusiasm and inspiration which breathes in every part of the original.

One faculty of the greatest importance to literary eminence was possessed by the Romans in the highest perfection, because it may be acquired as well as innate, and is always improved and polished by education: that faculty is taste—the ability, as Addison defines it, to discern the beauties of an author with pleasure, and his imperfections with dislike.

Of the three periods into which this history is divided, the first may be considered as _dramatic_. Eloquence, indeed, made rapid strides, and C. Gracchus may be considered as the father of Latin prose; but the language was not sufficiently smoothed and polished; the sentiments of the orator were far superior to the diction in which they were conveyed. Jurisprudence also was studied with thoughtfulness and accuracy; history, however, was nothing more than annals, and epic poetry rugged and monotonous. But the acting tragedy of the Romans is almost exclusively confined to this period; and the comedies of Plautus and Terence were then written, which have survived to command the admiration of modern times. Although, at this epoch, the language was elaborately polished and embellished with the utmost variety of graceful forms and expressions, it was simple and unconstrained: it flowed easily and naturally, and was therefore full and copious; brevity and epigrammatic terseness are acquired qualities, and the result of art, although that art may be skilfully concealed.

The second period consists of two subdivisions, of which the first was the era of _prose_, and, consequently, the period at which the language attained its greatest perfection; for the structure, power, and genius of a language must be judged of by its prose, and not by its poetry. Cicero is the representative of this era as an orator and philosopher—Cæsar and Sallust as historians. The second subdivision, or the Augustan age, is the era of poetry, for in it poetry arrived at the same eminence which prose had attained in the preceding generation. But the age of Cicero and that of Augustus can only be made subdivisions of one great period; they are not separated from each other by a strong line of demarkation; they are blended together, and gradually melt into one another. In the former, Lucretius and Catullus were the harbingers of Virgil, Horace, and Ovid; and, in the latter, the sun of Cicero, Cæsar, and Sallust, seems to set in the sweet narrative of Livy.

The last period is _rhetorical_: it has been called “the silver age.” It produced Rome’s only fabulist, Phædrus; the greatest satirist, Juvenal; the wittiest epigrammatist, Martial; the most philosophical historian, Tacitus; the most judicious critic, Quintilian; and a letter-writer, scarcely inferior to Cicero himself, the younger Pliny; and yet, notwithstanding these illustrious names, this is the period of the decline. These great names shed a lustre over their generation; but they did not influence their taste or arrest the approaching decay of the national genius: causes were at work which were rapidly producing this effect, and they were beyond their control. A new and false standard of taste was now set up, which was inconsistent with original genius and independent thought. Rome was persuaded, to accept a declamatory rhetoric as a substitute for that fervid eloquence in which she had delighted, and which was now deprived of its use, and was driven from the Forum to the lecture-room. This taste infected every species of composition. Seneca abused his fine talents to teach men to admire nothing so much as glitter, novelty, and affectation; and, at length, all became constrained, hollow, and artificial. With the national liberty, the national intellect lapsed into a state of inactivity: a period of intellectual darkness succeeded, the influence which the capital had lost was taken up by the provinces, and thus the way was paved for the inroad of barbarism.

Such is the outline of this work; and if the reader finds some features, which he considers of great importance, rapidly touched upon, the extent of the subject, and the wish to compress it within a moderate compass, must be offered as the author’s apology. In conclusion, the author acknowledges his deep obligations to those historians and biographers whose works he has consulted during the composition of this history. He feels that it would have been presumptuous to offer such a work to the public without having profited by the laborious investigations of Wolf, Bayle, Hermann, Grotefend, Bernhardy, Bähr, Schlegel, Lachmann, Dunlop, Matthiæ, Schoell, Krause, Ritter, Nisard, Pierron, Niebuhr, Milman, Arnold, Merivale, Donaldson, Smith, and the authors of the “Biographie Universelle.”

CONTENTS.

BOOK I.

FIRST ERA.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE.

Comparison of the Latin language with the Greek—Eras of
Latinity—Origin of the Romans—Elements of the Latin
language—Etruscan influence 33

CHAPTER II.

The Eugubine Tables—Existence of Oscan in Italy—Bantine
Table—Perugian Inscription—Etruscan Alphabet and Words—Chant of
Fratres Arvales—Salian Hymn—Other Monuments of Old Latin—Latin
and Greek Alphabets compared 44

CHAPTER III.

Saturnian Metre—Opinions respecting its origin—Early examples of
this Metre—Saturnian Ballads in Livy—Structure of the
Verse—Instances of Rhythmical Poetry 60

CHAPTER IV.

Three periods of Roman Classical Literature—Its Elements
rude—Roman Religion—Etruscan influence—Early Historical
Monuments—Fescennine Verses—Fabulæ Atellanæ—Introduction of
Stage-Players—Derivation of Satire 67

CHAPTER V.

Emancipation of Livius Andronicus—His imitation of the
Odyssey—New kind of Scenic Exhibitions—First exhibition of his
Dramas—Nævius a Political Partisan—His bitterness—His Punic
War—His nationality—His versification 76

CHAPTER VI.

Nævius stood between two Ages—Life of Ennius—Epitaphs written by
him—His taste, learning, and character—His fitness for being a
Literary Reformer—His influence on the language—His
versification—The Annals—Difficulties of the Subject—Tragedies
and Comedies—Satire—Minor Works 90

CHAPTER VII.

The New Comedy of the Greeks the Model of the Roman—The Morality
of Roman Comedy—Want of variety in the Plots of Roman
Comedy—Dramatis Personæ—Costume—Characters—Music—Latin
Pronunciation—Metrical Licenses—Criticism of Volcatius—Life of
Plautus—Character of his Comedies—Analysis of his Plots 99

CHAPTER VII.

Statius compared with Menander—Criticism of Cicero—Hypotheses
respecting the early life of Terence—Anecdote related by
Donatus—Style and Morality of Terence—Anecdote of him related
by Cornelius Nepos—His pecuniary circumstances and death—Plots
and Criticism of his Comedies—The remaining Comic Poets 118

CHAPTER VIII.

Why Tragedy did not flourish at Rome—National Legends not
influential with the People—Fabulæ Prætextatæ—Roman Religion
not ideal—Roman love for Scenes of Real Action and Gorgeous
Spectacle—Tragedy not patronised by the People—Pacuvius—His
Dulorestes and Paulus 140

CHAPTER IX.

L. Attius—His Tragedies and Fragments—Other Works—Tragedy
disappeared with him—Roman Theatres—Traces of the Satiric
Spirit in Greece—Roman Satire—Lucilius—Criticisms of Horace,
Cicero, and Quintilian—Passage quoted by Lactantius—Lævius a
Lyric Poet 152

CHAPTER X.

Prose Literature—Prose suitable to Roman Genius—History,
Jurisprudence, and Oratory—Prevalence of Greek—Q. Fabius
Pictor—L. Cincius Alimentus—C. Acilius Glabrio—Value of the
Annalists—Important literary period, during which Cato Censors
flourished—Sketch of his Life—His character, genius, and style 162

CHAPTER XI.

The Origines of Cato—Passage quoted by Gellius—Treatise De Re
Rustica—Orations—L. Cassius Hemina—Historians in the Days of
the Gracchi—Traditional Anecdote of
Romulus—Autobiographers—Fragment of Quadrigarius—Falsehoods of
Antias—Sisenna—Tubero 176

CHAPTER XII.

Early Roman Oratory—Eloquence of Appius Claudius Cæcus—Funeral
Orations—Defence of Scipio Africanus Major—Scipio Africanus
Minor Æmilianus—Era of the Gracchi—Their Characters—Interval
between the Gracchi and Cicero—M. Antonius—L. Licinius
Crassus—Q. Hortensius—Causes of his early popularity and
subsequent failure 187

CHAPTER XIII.

Study of Jurisprudence—Earliest Systematic Works on Roman
Law—Groundwork of the Roman Civil Law—Eminent Jurists—The
Scævolæ—Ælius Gallus—C. Aquilius Gallus, a Law Reformer—Other
Jurists—Grammarians 204

BOOK II.

THE ERA OF CICERO AND AUGUSTUS.

CHAPTER I.

Prose the Test of the condition of a Language—Dramatic Literature
extinct—Mimes—Difference between Roman and Greek
Mimes—Laberius—Passages from his Poetry—Matius
Calvena—Mimiambi—Publius Syrus—Roman Pantomime—Its
licentiousness—Principal actors of Pantomime 211

CHAPTER II.

Lucretius a Poet rather than a Philosopher—His Life—Epic
structure of his Poem—Variety of his Poetry—Extracts from his
Poem—Argument of it—The Epicurean Doctrines contained in
it—Morality of Epicurus and Lucretius—Testimonies of Virgil and
Ovid—Catullus, his Life, Character, and Poetry—Other Poets of
this period 220

CHAPTER III.

Age of Virgil favourable to Poetry—His birth, education, habits,
illness, and death—His popularity and character—His minor
Poems, the Culex, Ciris, Moretum, Copa, and Catalecta—His
Bucolics—Italian manners not suited to Pastoral Poetry—Idylls
of Theocritus—Classification of the Bucolics—Subject of the
Pollio—Heyne’s theory respecting it 238

CHAPTER IV.

Beauty of Didactic Poetry—Elaborate finish of the Georgics—Roman
love of Rural Pursuits—Hesiod suitable as a Model—Condition of
Italy—Subjects treated of in the Georgics—Some striking
passages enumerated—Influence of Roman Literature on English
Poetry—Sources from which the incidents of the Æneid are
derived—Character of Æneas—Criticism of Niebuhr 252

CHAPTER V.

The Libertini—Roman feelings as to Commerce—Birth and infancy of
Horace—His early education at Rome—His Military career—He
returns to Rome—Is introduced to Mæcenas—Commences the
Satires—Mæcenas gives him his Sabine Farm—His country life—The
Epodes—Epistles—Carmen Seculare—Illness and death 264

CHAPTER VI.

Character of Horace—Descriptions of his Villa at Tivoli, and his
Sabine Farm—Site of the Bandusian Fountain—The neighbouring
Scenery—Subjects of his Satires and Epistles—Beauty of his
Odes—Imitations of Greek Poets—Spurious Odes—Chronological
Arrangement 278

CHAPTER VII.

Biography of Mæcenas—His intimacy and influence with Augustus—His
character—Valgius Rufus—Varius—Cornelius Gallus—Biography of
Tibullus—His style—Criticism of Muretus—Propertius—Imitated the
Alexandrian Poets—Æmilius Macer 295

CHAPTER VIII.

Birth and education of Ovid—His rhetorical powers—Anecdote
related by Seneca—His poetical genius—Self-indulgent
life—Popularity—Banishment—Place of his Exile—Epistles and
other Works—Gratius Faliscus—Pedo Albinovanus—Aulus
Sabinus—Marcus Manilius 307

CHAPTER IX.

Prose Writers—Influence of Cicero upon the Language—His converse
with his Friends—His early Life—Pleads his first Cause—Is
Quæstor, Ædile, Prætor, and Consul—His exile, return, and
provincial Administration—His vacillating conduct—He delivers
his Philippics—Is proscribed and assassinated—His character 320

CHAPTER X.

Cicero no Historian—His Oratorical style defended—Its principal
charm—Observations on his forensic Orations—His Oratory
essentially judicial—Political Orations—Rhetorical
Treatises—The object of his Philosophical Works—Characteristics
of Roman Philosophical Literature—Philosophy of Cicero—His
Political Works—Letters—His Correspondents—Varro 332

CHAPTER XI.

Roman Historical Literature—Principal
Historians—Lucceius—Lucullus—Cornelius Nepos—Opinions of the
genuineness of the Works which bear his Name—Biography of J.
Cæsar—His Commentaries—Their style and language—His modesty
overrated—Other Works—Character of Cæsar 355

CHAPTER XII.

Life of Sallust—His insincerity—His Historical Works—He was a
bitter opponent of the New Aristocracy—Profligacy of that
Order—His style compared with that of Thucydides—His value as
an Historian—Trogus Pompeius—His Historiæ Philippicæ 369

CHAPTER XIII.

Life of Livy—His object in writing his History—Its spirit and
character—Livy precisely suited to his Age—Not wilfully
inaccurate—His political bias accounted for—Materials which he
might have used—Sources of History—His defects as an
Historian—His style—Grammarians—Vitruvius Pollio, an Augustine
Writer—Contents of his Work 377

BOOK III.

ERA OF THE DECLINE.

CHAPTER I.

Decline of Roman Literature—It became declamatory—Biography of
Phædrus—Genuineness of his Fables—Moral and Political Lessons
inculcated in them—Specimens of Fables—Fables suggested by
Historical events—Sejanus and Tiberius—Epoch unfavourable to
Literature—Ingenuity of Phædrus—Superiority of Æsop—The style
of Phædrus classical 390

CHAPTER II.

Dramatic Literature in the Augustan Age—Revival under
Nero—Defects of the Tragedies attributed to Seneca—Internal
evidence of their authorship—Seneca the Philosopher a
Stoic—Inconsistent and unstable—The sentiments of his
Philosophical Works found in his Tragedies—Parallel passages
compared—French School of Tragic Poets 403

CHAPTER III.

Biography of Persius—His schoolboy days—His friends—His purity
and modesty—His defects as a Satirist—Subject of his
Satires—Obscurity of his style—Compared with Horace—Biography
of Juvenal—Corruption of Roman Morals—Critical observations on
the Satires—Their Historical value—Style of Juvenal—He was the
last of Roman Satirists 412

CHAPTER IV.

Biography of Lucan—Inscription to his Memory—Sentiments expressed
in the Pharsalia—Lucan an unequal Poet—Faults and merits of the
Pharsalia—Characteristics of his Age—Difficulties of Historical
Poetry—Lucan a descriptive Poet—Specimens of his
Poetry—Biography of Silius Italicus—His character by Pliny—His
Poem dull and tedious—His description of the Alps 428

CHAPTER V.

C. Valerius Flaccus—Faults of the Argonautica—Papinius
Statius—Beauty of his minor Poems—Incapable of Epic
Poetry—Domitian—Epigram—Martial—His Biography—Profligacy of the
Age in which he lived—Impurity of his Writings—Favourable
specimens of his Poetry 441

CHAPTER VI.

Aufidius Bassus and Cremutius Cordus—Velleius
Paterculus—Character of his Works—Valerius Maximus—Cornelius
Tacitus—Age of Trajan—Biography of Tacitus—His extant Works
enumerated—Agricola—Germany—Histories—Traditions respecting the
Jews—Annals—Object of Tacitus—His character—His style 455

CHAPTER VII.

C. Suetonius Tranquillus—His Biography—Sources of his History—His
great fault—Q. Curtius Rufus—Time when he flourished
doubtful—His Biography, of Alexander—Epitomes of L. Annæus
Florus—Sources whence he derived them 469

CHAPTER VIII.

M. Annæus Seneca—His Controversiæ and Suasoriæ—L. Annæus
Seneca—Tutor to Nero—His enormous fortune—His death and
character—Inconsistencies in his Philosophy—A favourite with
early Christian Writers—His Epistles—Work on Natural
Phenomena—Apocolocyntosis—His style 476

CHAPTER IX.

Pliny the Elder—His habits described by his Nephew—His industry
and application—His death in the eruption of Vesuvius—The
Eruption described in two Letters of Pliny the Younger—The
Natural History of Pliny—Its subjects described—Pliny the
Younger—His affection for his guardian—His Panegyric, Letters,
and Despatches—That concerning the Christians—The answer 483

CHAPTER X.

M. Fabius Quintilianus—His Biography—His Institutiones
Oratoriæ—His views of Education—Division of his Subject into
Five Parts—Review of Greek and Roman Literature—Completeness of
his great Work—His other Works—His disposition—Grief for the
loss of his son 499

CHAPTER XI.

A. Cornelius Celsus—His merits—Cicero Medicorum—Scribonius Largus
Designatianus—Pomponius Mela—L. Junius Moderatus Columella—S.
Julius Frontinus—Decline of taste in the Silver Age—Foreign
Influence on Roman Literature—Conclusion 508

Chronological Table 515

ROMAN CLASSICAL LITERATURE