Chapter XXIX: Epilogue

*The Lombard and Slavic invasions.* In 568 A. D., three years after the death of Justinian, the Lombards descended upon Italy from Pannonia and wrested from the empire the Po valley and part of central Italy. The Romans were confined to Ravenna, Rome, and the southern part of the peninsula. Towards the close of the sixth century (after 581 A. D.) occurred the migrations of the Bulgars and Slavs across the Danube which resulted in the Slavic occupation of Illyricum and the interposition of a barbarous, heathen people between the eastern empire and western Europe. Early in the seventh century the Roman possessions in Spain were lost to the Goths.

*The papacy and the Holy Roman Empire.* The weakness of the imperial authority in the West led to the strengthening of the papacy and its acquisition of political power in Italy. It was the papacy also which kept alive in western Europe the ideal of a universal imperial church, for the whole of western Christendom came to acknowledge the supremacy of the Roman see. Nor was the conception of a reëstablished western empire lost to view; and it was destined to find realization in the Holy Roman empire of Charlemagne and his successors. Of great importance for the future development of European civilization was the fact that the western part of the Roman empire had passed under the control of peoples either already Christianized or soon to become so, and that the church, chiefly through the monasteries, was thus enabled to become the guardian of the remnants of ancient culture.

*The Byzantine empire.* The loss of the western provinces and Illyricum transferred the center of gravity in the empire from the Latin to the Greek element and accelerated the transformation of the eastern Roman empire into an essentially Greek state—the Byzantine empire. The Byzantine empire inherited from the Roman its organization and the name _Romaioi_ (Romans) for its citizens, but before the close of the sixth century Greek had supplanted Latin as the language of government. This transformation further accentuated the religious differences between East and West, which led ultimately to the separation of the Greek and Roman Catholic Churches.

*The Mohammedan invasion.* Before the middle of the seventh century Egypt and Syria were occupied by the Saracens, whose conquest was facilitated by the animosity of the monophysite native populations towards the rule of an orthodox emperor. However, the loss of these territories gave fresh solidarity to the empire in the East by restricting its authority to the religiously and linguistically homogeneous, and thoroughly loyal, population of Asia Minor and the eastern Balkan peninsula. This solidarity enabled the Byzantine empire to fulfill its historic mission of forming the eastern bulwark of Christian Europe against the Turk throughout the Middle Ages.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

NOTE. Owing to the uncertainty of the chronological record of early Roman history it must be admitted that little reliance can be placed upon the accuracy of most of the traditional dates prior to 281 B. C. For this period I have followed, in the main, Diodorus.

B. C. ? Paleolithic Age.
? Neolithic Age. Ligurian settlement in Italy.
2500–2000 Beginning of the Age of Bronze. Palafitte
Lake Villages. Terramare villages.
1000 Beginning of the Iron Age.
IX–VIII cent. Etruscan settlement in Etruria.
814 Founding of Carthage.
VIII cent. Greek colonization of Sicily and South Italy
begins.
VII–VI cent. Etruscan expansion in the Po Valley, Campania
and Latium.
508 Overthrow of Etruscan supremacy at Rome. End
of the early monarchy. The first consuls
appointed. Dedication of the Capitoline
temple. Commercial treaty with Carthage.
486 Alliance of Rome and the Latins.
466 Four tribunes of the plebs appointed.
444–2 The Decemvirate. Codification of the Law.
437 Lex Canuleia.
436 Office of military tribune with consular
powers established.
435 Censorship established.
392 Capture of Veii.
387 Battle of the Allia. Sack of Rome by the
Gauls.
362 The praetorship established.
339 Lex Publilia.
338–6 The Latin War.
334 Alliance of Rome and the Campanians.
325–304 Samnite War.
318 The Caudine Forks.
309–7 War with the Etruscans.
310 Appius Claudius Censor.
300 Lex Ogulnia.
298–290 War with Samnites, Etruscans and Gauls.
295 Battle of Sentinum.
290 Subjugation of Samnium.
287 Secession of the Plebs. Lex Hortensia.
285 Occupation of the Ager Gallicus. Defeat of
Gauls and Etruscans at Lake Vadimo.
281–272 War with Tarentum and Pyrrhus.
280 Battle of Heraclea.
279 Battle of Ausculum. Alliance of Rome and
Carthage.
278 Pyrrhus invades Sicily.
275 Battle of Beneventum.
264–241 First Punic War.
263 Alliance of Rome and Syracuse.
260 Naval Victory at Mylae.
256–5 Roman invasion of Africa.
250 Roman naval disaster at Drepana.
242 Battle of the Aegates Is. Office of _praetor
peregrinus_ established.
241 Sicily ceded to Rome.
241–238 Revolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries.
Sardinia and Corsica ceded to Rome.
237 Hamilcar in Spain.
232 Colonization of the _ager Gallicus_.
229–8 First Illyrian War.
229 Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar in Spain.
227 Provinces of Sicily, and Sardinia and Corsica
organized.
226 Roman treaty with Hasdrubal.
225 Gauls defeated at Telamon.
224–22 Conquest of Boii and Insubres.
221 Hannibal Carthaginian commander in Spain.
220 ? Reform of the Centuriate Assembly.
220–19 Second Illyrian War.
219 Siege of Saguntum.
218–201 Second Punic War.
218 Hannibal’s passage of the Pyrenees and the
Alps. Roman invasion of Spain.
217 Battle of Trasimene Lake. Q. Fabius dictator.
216 Cannae. Revolt of Capua.
215 Alliance of Hannibal and Philip V of Macedon.
First Macedonian War.
214 Revolt of Syracuse.
212 Syracuse recovered. Roman Alliance with the
Aetolians.
211 Capua reconquered. Roman disasters in Spain.
210 P. Cornelius Scipio Roman commander in Spain.
207 Battle of the Metaurus.
205 Peace between Philip of Macedon and Rome.
204 Scipio invades Africa.
202 Zama.
200–196 Second Macedonian War.
201 Annexation of Carthaginian Spain. Provinces
of Hither and Farther Spain organized.
197 Battle of Cynoscephalae.
196 Flamininus proclaims the “freedom of the
Hellenes.”
192–189 War with Antiochus the Great and the
Aetolians.
191 Antiochus defeated at Thermopylae.
190 Battle of Magnesia.
186 Dissolution of the Bacchanalian societies.
184 Cato the Elder censor.
181 _Lex Villia annalis._
171–167 Third Macedonian War.
168 Battle of Pydna.
166 Achaean political prisoners held in Italy.
149–146 Third Punic War.
149 _Lex Calpurnia._
149–148 Fourth Macedonian War.
148 Macedonia a Roman province.
147–139 War with Viriathus in Spain.
146 Revolt of the Achaeans. Sack of Corinth.
Dissolution of the Achaean Confederacy.
Destruction of Carthage. Africa a Roman
province.
143–133 Numantine War.
136–132 Slave War in Sicily.
133 Kingdom of Pergamon willed to Rome. Tribunate
of Tiberius Gracchus.
129 Province of Asia organized.
123–122 C. Gracchus tribune.
121 Province of Narbonese Gaul organized.
113 Siege of Cirta.
111–105 Jugurthine War.
105 Romans defeated by Cimbri and Teutones at
Arausio.
104–100 Successive consulships of Marius. Slave war
in Sicily.
104 _Lex Domitia._
102 Teutones defeated at Aquae Sextiae.
101 Cimbri defeated at Vercellae.
100 Affair of Saturninus and Glaucia.
91 Tribunate of Livius Drusus.
90–88 Italian or Marsic War.
90 _Lex Julia._
89 _Lex Plautia Papiria. Lex Pompeia._
89–85 First Mithradatic War.
88 Massacre of Italians in Asia. Mithradates
invades Greece.
87 Marian revolt at Rome.
87–6 Siege of Athens and Peiraeus.
86 Seventh consulship of Marius. Chaeronea and
Orchomenus.
83 Sulla’s return to Italy.
82–79 Sulla dictator.
77–71 Pompey’s command in Spain.
75 Bithynia a Roman province.
74–63 Second Mithradatic War.
74–66 Command of Lucullus in the East.
73–71 Revolt of the gladiators.
70 First consulate of Pompey and Crassus. Trial
of Verres.
67 _Lex Gabinia._
66 _Lex Manilia._
63 Cicero consul. The conspiracy of Cataline.
Annexation of Syria. Death of Mithradates.
60 Coalition of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus.
59 Caesar consul. _Lex Vatinia._
58 Cicero exiled.
58–56 Subjugation of Gaul.
57 Cicero recalled. Pompey _curator annonae_.
56 Conference at Luca.
55 Second consulate of Pompey and Crassus.
55–54 Caesar’s invasions of Britain.
53 Death of Crassus at Carrhae.
52–1 Revolt of Vercingetorix.
52 Pompey sole consul.
49–46 War between Caesar and the Senatorial
faction.
48 Pharsalus. Death of Pompey.
48–7 Alexandrine War.
47 War with Pharnaces.
46 Thapsus.
45 Munda. _Lex Julia municipalis._
44 Assassination of Julius Caesar (15 Mar.).
44–3 War at Mutina.
43 Octavian consul. Antony, Lepidus and Octavian
triumvirs.
42 Battles of Philippi.
41 War at Perusia.
40 Treaty of Brundisium.
39 Treaty of Misenum.
37 Treaty of Tarentum. The second term of the
Triumvirate begins.
36 Defeat of Sextus Pompey. Lepidus deposed.
Parthian War.
31 Battle of Actium.
30 Death of Antony and Cleopatra. Annexation of
Egypt.
27 Octavian princeps and Augustus.
27 B. C.–14 A. D. AUGUSTUS.
25 Annexation of Galatia.
23 Augustus assumes the _tribunicia potestas_.
20 Agreement with Parthia.
18 _Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus._
16 Conquest of Noricum.
15 Subjugation of the Raeti and Vindelici.
14–9 Conquest of Pannonia.
12 Augustus pontifex maximus. _Ara Romae et
Augusti_ at Lugdunum. Invasion of Germany.
Death of M. Agrippa.
9 Death of Drusus.
6 Subjugation of the Alpine peoples completed.
A. D. 6–9 Revolt of Pannonia.
9 Revolt of Arminius. _Lex Papia Poppaea._
14–37 TIBERIUS.
14–17 Campaigns of Germanicus.
19 Death of Germanicus.
26 Tiberius retires to Capri.
31 Fall of Seianus.
37–41 CAIUS CALIGULA.
40 Annexation of Mauretania.
41–54 CLAUDIUS.
43 Invasion and annexation of southern Britain.
48 Aedui receive the _ius honorum_.
54–68 NERO.
58–63 Parthian War.
59–60 Rebellion of Boudicca.
64 Great Fire in Rome.
65 Conspiracy of Piso. Death of Seneca.
66–67 Nero in Greece.
66 Rebellion of the Jews.
68 Rebellion of Vindex.
68 June–69 Jan. GALBA.
69 Jan.–March OTHO.
69 April–Dec. VITELLIUS.
69 Dec.–79 VESPASIANUS.
69 Revolt of Civilis and the Batavi.
70 Destruction of Jerusalem. End of the Jewish
Rebellion.
79–81 TITUS.
79 Eruption of Vesuvius. Destruction of Pompeii
and Herculaneum.
81–96 DOMITIANUS.
83 Battle of Mons Graupius. War with the Chatti.
84 Domitian perpetual censor.
85–89 Dacian Wars.
88–89 Revolt of Saturninus.
96–98 NERVA.
98–117 TRAJAN.
101–102 First Dacian War.
105–106 Second Dacian War. Annexation of Dacia.
106 Annexation of Arabia Petrea.
114–117 Parthian War.
114 Occupation of Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia.
115 Jewish Rebellion in Cyrene.
116 Annexation of Assyria and Lower Mesopotamia.
Revolt in Mesopotamia.
117–138 HADRIANUS.
117 Abandonment of Assyria and Mesopotamia.
Armenia a client kingdom.
121–126 Hadrian’s first tour of the provinces.
129–134 Second tour of the provinces.
132–134 Revolt of the Jews in the East.
138–161 ANTONINUS PIUS.
161–180 MARCUS AURELIUS.
161–169 LUCIUS VERUS.
161–166 Parthian War.
166 Great plague spreads throughout the empire.
167–75 War with Marcomanni, Quadi and Iazyges.
175 Revolt of Avidius Cassius.
177–192 COMMODUS.
177–180 War with Quadi and Marcomanni.
180 Death of Marcus Aurelius, Commodus sole
emperor.
193 Jan.–Mar. PERTINAX.
193 Mar.–June DIDIUS JULIANUS.
193 Revolts of Septimius Severus, Pescennius
Niger, Clodius Albinus.
193–211 SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS.
194 Defeat of Pescennius Niger.
195–6 Invasion of Parthia.
197 Defeat of Albinus at Lugdunum.
197–99 Parthian War renewed. Conquest of Upper
Mesopotamia.
208 Caledonians invade Britain.
211–217 CARACALLA and
211–212 GETA.
212 _Constitutio Antoniniana._
214 Parthian War.
217–218 MACRINUS.
218–222 ELAGABALUS.
222–235 SEVERUS ALEXANDER.
227 Establishment of the Persian Sassanid
Kingdom.
230–233 War with Persia.
234 War on the Rhine frontier.
235–238 MAXIMINUS.
238 GORDIANUS I and GORDIANUS II. BALBINUS and
PUPIENUS.
238–244 GORDIANUS III.
243–249 PHILIPPUS ARABS.
247–249 PHILIPPUS JUNIOR.
249–251 DECIUS.
249 Persecution of the Christians.
251–253 GALLUS and VOLUSIANUS.
253 AEMILLIANUS.
253–258 VALERIANUS and
253–268 GALLIENUS.
257 Persecution of the Christians renewed.
258 Valerian defeated and captured by the
Persians. Postumus establishes an _imperium
Galliarum_.
259 Valerian dies in captivity. Gallienus sole
emperor.
267 Sack of Athens by the Goths.
268–270 CLAUDIUS GOTHICUS.
270 QUINTILLUS.
270–275 AURELIANUS.
271 Revolt of Palmyra.
272 Reconquest of Palmyra and the East.
274 Recovery of Gaul and Britain.
275–276 TACITUS.
276 FLORIANUS.
276–282 PROBUS.
282–283 CARUS.
283–285 CARINUS.
284–305 DIOCLETIANUS and
286–305 MAXIMIANUS.
286 Revolt of Carausius in Britain.
293 Galerius and Constantine Caesars.
296 Recovery of Britain.
297 Persian invasion.
301 Edict of Prices.
302–304 Edicts against the Christians.
305 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian.
Galerius and Constantius. Severus and Daia
Caesars.
306 GALERIUS and SEVERUS. Constantinus Caesar.
Revolt of Maxentius.
307 GALERIUS, LICINIUS, CONSTANTINUS, DAIA and
MAXENTIUS.
311 Edict of Toleration.
312 Battle of Saxa Rubra.
313 Edict of Milan. Fall of Daia.
324 Battle of Chrysopolis.
324–337 CONSTANTINUS sole Augustus.
325 Council of Nicaea.
330 Constantinople the imperial residence.
337–340 CONSTANTINUS II.
337–350 CONSTANS.
337–361 CONSTANTIUS.
342 Council of Serdica.
350 Revolt of Magnentius.
351 Gallus Caesar. Battle of Mursa.
354 Death of Gallus.
355 Julian Caesar.
357 Julian’s victory over the Alemanni at
Strassburg.
359 War with Persia.
360–363 JULIANUS.
363 Invasion of Persia. Death of Julian.
363–364 JOVIANUS.
364–375 VALENTINIANUS I.
364–378 VALENS.
367–383 GRATIANUS.
375–392 VALENTINIANUS II.
376 Visigoths cross the Danube.
378 Battle of Hadrianople.
378–395 THEODOSIUS I.
380–82 Settlement of Visigoths as _foederati_ in
Moesia.
381 Council of Constantinople.
382 Altar of Victory removed from the Senate.
383 Revolt of Maximus in Britain. Death of
Gratian.
383–408 ARCADIUS.
388 Maximus defeated and killed.
390 Massacre at Thessalonica.
391 Edicts against Paganism. Destruction of the
Serapaeum.
392 Revolt of Arbogast. Murder of Valentinian II.
Eugenius proclaimed Augustus.
394 Battle of Frigidus. Death of Arbogast and
Eugenius.
394–423 HONORIUS.
395 Death of Theodosius I. Division of the
Empire. ARCADIUS emperor in the East,
HONORIUS in the West, Revolt of Alaric and
the Visigoths.
396 Alaric defeated by Stilicho in Greece.
406 Barbarian invasion of Gaul. Roman garrison
leaves Britain.
408 Murder of Stilicho. Alaric invades Italy.
408–450 THEODOSIUS II eastern emperor.
409 Vandals, Alans and Sueves invade Spain.
410 Visigoths capture Rome. Death of Alaric.
412 Visigoths enter Gaul.
415 Visigoths cross into Spain.
418 Visigoths settled in Aquitania.
423–455 VALENTINIANUS III western emperor,
427 Aetius _magister militum_.
429 Vandal invasion of Africa.
438 The Theodosian Code.
439 Vandals seize Carthage.
450 MARCIANUS eastern emperor.
451 Battle of the Mauriac Plains. Council of
Chalcedon.
453 Death of Attila.
454 Aetius assassinated. Ostrogoths settled in
Pannonia.
455 MAXIMUS western emperor. Vandals sack Rome.
455–456 AVITUS western emperor. Ricimer _magister
militum_.
457–474 LEO I eastern emperor.
457–461 MARJORIANUS western emperor.
461–465 SEVERUS western emperor.
465–467 No emperor in the West.
467–472 ANTHEMIUS western emperor.
472 OLYBRIUS western emperor. Death of Ricimer.
473–474 GLYCERUS western emperor. LEO II eastern
emperor.
474–475 (480) NEPOS western emperor.
474–491 ZENO eastern emperor.
475–476 ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS western emperor.
476 Odovacar king in Italy.
477 Death of Gaiseric.
486 Clovis conquers Syagrius and the Romans in
Gaul.
488 Theoderic and the Ostrogoths invade Italy.
491–518 ANASTASIUS eastern emperor.
493 Defeat and death of Odovacar.
506 _Lex Romana Visigothorum._
507 Clovis defeats the Visigoths.
518–527 JUSTINUS I eastern emperor.
526 Death of Theoderic.
527–565 JUSTINIANUS eastern emperor.
532 The “Nika” riot.
533–534 Reconquest of Africa.
534 Franks overthrow the Burgundian kingdom.
529–534 Publication of the _Corpus Iuris Civilis_.
535–554 Wars for the recovery of Italy.
554 Re-occupation of the coast of Spain.
565 Death of Justinian.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

The titles given below are intended to form a group of selected references for the guidance of students who may desire a more detailed treatment of the various problems of Roman history than has been given in the text. For the sources, as well as for a more detailed bibliography, readers may consult B. Niese, _Grundriss der römischen Geschichte_, 4th ed., 1910, and G. W. Botsford, _A Syllabus of Roman History_, 1915.