Chapter VI (1)

Third Annual Report of Poor-Law Commissioners—Further Amendment
Act—Fourth Annual Report—New unions and electoral
divisions—Consolidated Debts Act—Rates in aid—Fifth Annual
Report—Annuities under Consolidated Debts Act—Treasury minute—Act to
amend Acts relating to payment of advances—Medical charities—Medical
Charities Act—First Report of Medical Charity Commissioners—Census of
1851—Retrospection—Sixth Annual Report—Rate of wages—Expenditure, and
numbers relieved—Changes in Poor-Law executive—New order of
accounts—Author’s letter to Lord John Russell, 1853—Present state and
future prospects of Ireland.

The period comprised in the last chapter was one of great suffering and privation. Famine and pestilence prevailed throughout Ireland, to an extent only equalled by what is said to have occurred in some rare instances among eastern nations, if indeed it has ever been equalled in the world’s history. It was altogether a fearful visitation. I have endeavoured to compress the chief incidents of the period, more especially those at all connected with the administration of the Poor Law, into one chapter, in order to place consecutively before the reader such a condensed account of the great calamity, as will prevent the necessity of again recurring to it. We will now turn to the brighter and more hopeful period which followed—when famine and disease having disappeared, the energies of the country revived, and all classes united in making strenuous efforts to remedy the evils which had taken place, and as far as possible to prevent their recurrence.

[Sidenote: 1850.
Third annual report of the Poor-law Commissioners for Ireland.]

The third Annual Report of the commissioners is dated 25th May 1850, and continues the narrative of events and proceedings from the date of the preceding Report.

[Sidenote: Decrease of relief.]

The maximum number in the workhouses during the year 1849-50, was 227,329 on the 16th June of the first-named year, and the maximum on the out-relief lists was 784,367 on the 7th July. From these dates the numbers went on rapidly decreasing throughout the succeeding months, until on the 6th October the inmates of the workhouses were reduced to the minimum of 104,266, and the number on the out-relief lists to 124,185, all orders for relief under the _2nd section_ of the Extension Act being likewise then withdrawn. This sufficiently proves the change which took place shortly after the date of the last Report.

[Sidenote: The crops generally sound and abundant.]

The crops in the autumn of 1849 turned out generally sound and abundant, and famine no longer cast its blight upon the land. Yet while all other parts of the country, including Mayo and Galway heretofore the most depressed and suffering, rejoiced in the favourable change, we are told that the unions in the county of Clare, especially those of Kilrush and Scariff, continued to exhibit a lamentable extent of destitution. There were still 30,000 persons on the out-relief lists in the Clare unions, nearly twice the number so relieved in the whole province of Connaught; “and the rate of mortality in the workhouses, and the number of inquests, although less than in former seasons, attest the indigent and suffering state of a great part of the population.” [Sidenote: Reduction of expenditure anticipated.] A hope is nevertheless expressed “that the ground has been laid for a further very considerable reduction of expenditure after harvest, and that a material alleviation of the burden of poor-rates throughout Ireland, will be experienced during the year which will end on the 29th September 1851.”

[Sidenote: Increase of workhouse accommodation.]

The large increase of workhouse accommodation which the last Report states to have been provided,[181] and the opinion which generally prevailed as to the importance of limiting relief as much as possible to the workhouse, appear to have realized the hope then expressed of successfully contending with the difficulties of the period. The large expenditure, amounting to 1,498,047_l._, connected with in-door relief in 1848-9, shows the determined character of the struggle, and although only partial success in establishing the system was obtained, events have shown the prudence of the course then pursued. When the boards of guardians which had been dissolved, resumed the charge of their unions in November, as provided by the _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 4_,[182] they not only evinced a desire to limit relief to the workhouse, but were also with few exceptions prepared to make a further increase of their workhouse accommodation wherever it appeared to be necessary. So that “the change from out-door relief to the safer system of relief in the workhouse, has (it is said) been found practicable throughout a large part of Ireland, not excepting some districts which suffered most severely during the famine.” [Sidenote: Decrease of out-door relief.]The conclusion of the harvest was as usual followed by an increase of applicants for relief, but the extent of workhouse accommodation being now greater by 70,000 than in the previous year, out-door relief instead of increasing actually continued to decrease until the end of December, when the numbers so relieved amounted to 95,468, the number in the workhouses being then 194,547. At the end of March 1850, the number on the out-relief lists was 131,702, and in the workhouses 224,381, the sanitary state of the houses being at the same time satisfactory. No out-door relief whatever was then administered in 51 of the unions, and at the date of the Report the number of unions thus exempt was increased to 58.

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[181]

Ante, p. 351.

[182]

Ante, p. 355.

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[Sidenote: 24 new unions formed.]

The recommendations of the Boundary Commissioners have been already noticed.[183] In carrying out these recommendations, the proposed arrangement of the electoral divisions was generally adhered to; but with regard to the new unions, it was not thought advisable to make the entire of the changes recommended. The commissioners have, they say, “refrained from forming such new unions in districts where it appeared that there was a preponderance of opinion against it, on the part of those who would be locally affected by the change, unless where the necessity for new union centres appeared, in a territorial point of view, to be placed beyond doubt.” Orders were however issued for the formation of 24 new unions,[184] and forms of procedure were prepared for adjusting the liabilities of townlands in unions and electoral divisions of which the boundaries were altered, in accordance with the provisions of the _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 104_. This Act now requires our attention, some of its provisions being of considerable importance.

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[183]

Ante, p. 361.

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[184]

These were Belmullet, Killala, Dromore West, Newport, Oughterard,
Skull, Castletown, Clonakilty, Tulla, Killadysert, Corrofin,
Ballyvaghan, Portumna, Mount Bellew, Glennamaddy, Strokestown,
Claremorris, Tobercurry, Glin, Croom, Millstreet, Mitchelstown,
Bawnboy, and Ballymahon.

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[Sidenote: The _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 104_.]

_The 12th and 13th Vict. cap. 104_, was passed on the 1st August 1849, ‘to further Amend the Acts for the Relief of the Destitute Poor in Ireland;’ and the following is a summary of its provisions:—

_Section 1._—Provides that every person applying for relief, is to be
deemed chargeable to the electoral division in which during the last
three years he has been longest usually resident, whether by
occupying a tenement or usually sleeping therein;—provided that if
he have not been so usually resident for at least one of the said
three years, the expense of his relief is to be borne by the union
at large.

_Section 2._—Requires the Poor Law Commissioners in all cases where a
change is made in the boundaries of any union or electoral division,
to make such order under seal as appears to them to be necessary for
the adjustment of the liabilities existing at the time of such
change, and the proportionate share thereof to be borne by any
townland affected thereby, and likewise for indemnifying any union
electoral division or townland for any loss on exchange of property
occasioned by such alteration of boundaries.

_Sections 3, 4, 5._—On the formation of new unions, the commissioners
are empowered to prescribe the arrangements for the joint use of the
existing workhouses, until the new unions are provided with
workhouses of their own, and from time to time to alter or rescind
the same, and to enforce payment of the expenses consequent thereon;
and for the purpose of providing workhouses, ‘the Lands Clauses
Consolidation Act’ (_8th and 9th Vict. cap. 18_) is declared to be
incorporated with the Poor Relief Acts.

_Sections 6, 7, 8, 9._—In fixing the qualification of elected guardians,
the commissioners are empowered to fix a different amount for
different electoral divisions of the same union. The full number of
ex-officio guardians may be made up from non-resident justices, if
the number resident be not sufficient. Two or more electoral
divisions may be combined for the purpose of electing a guardian;
and upon the request of a board of guardians the commissioners may
appoint an assistant-guardian for such union, whom they are also
empowered to remove or discontinue.

_Sections 10, 11, 12._—Rents arising from exempted property, are to be
rated to the extent of half the poundage. Occupiers are not to
deduct from their rent more than one-half the amount of the rate
paid by them; and the provisions making void all agreements to
forego deductions from rent are repealed.

_Sections 13, 14._—The valuations are not required to be signed and
sealed by the commissioners. “To encourage the employment of labour
in improving the value of land,” the valuation is not to be
increased in consequence of improvements made under the Land
Improvement Act, within seven years after such improvements.

_Sections 15, 16, 17, 18, 19._—A short form of declaration is
prescribed, and costs are limited in actions for recovery of rates.
Judges may make rules and orders regulating proceedings in actions
for poor-rates. Civil bill decrees for poor-rates may be filed, and
have force as judgments of superior court. Judgments for poor-rates
are to be registered, and take priority as charges on the land, with
the exception of crown and quit-rents and rent-charges in lieu of
tithes. The recovery of arrears of rate limited to two years.

_Sections 20, 22, 23._—Date of audit to be stated on the accounts, and
all disallowances thereof to be inserted by the auditor. The
rate-books are to be open for inspection, and due notice is to be
given to the ratepayers. In cases of appeal, the known agent of the
appellant may sign the notices and enter into the recognizances
required by law.

_Sections 24, 25._—The names of persons relieved to be entered in books
kept for that purpose, which are to be open for inspection; and
weekly statements of the numbers relieved and chargeable to the
union, and to the electoral divisions respectively, are to be posted
on the workhouse door.

_Sections 26, 27, 28._—With consent of the commissioners the rates may
be applied, or loans may be raised on security of the rates, for
defraying the expenses of emigration; but vice-guardians are not so
to apply or borrow without the consent of the ratepayers, and the
amount borrowed is in no case to exceed 11_s._ 8_d._ in the pound,
of the yearly value of the rateable property chargeable with the
same. The money borrowed is to be applied under direction of the
commissioners, in defraying the expenses connected with the
emigration to British colonies, of poor persons resident within the
union or electoral division, on the rates whereof the same shall
have been respectively charged.

_Sections 29, 30, 31._—For the purpose of facilitating proceedings for
the recovery of rates, assistant barristers &c. may “correct or
amend any variance, clerical error, or irregularity not affecting
the substantial merits of the question,” in the notices &c. brought
before them. Fourteen days’ notice is to be given of proceeding by
civil bill against immediate lessors for recovery of rates. The
present and preceding Acts are to be construed as one Act.

[Sidenote: Emigration.]

The facilities afforded by the above Act for promoting emigration, were productive of less effect than would otherwise probably have been the case, owing to the financial embarrassments existing in many of the unions. The guardians were naturally indisposed to apply the poor-rate or to borrow money for purposes of emigration, whilst there was an urgent pressure upon them for relief, and great difficulty in obtaining the means of affording it. The amount expended by the unions on emigration during the year ending 29th September 1849, was 16,260_l._, being an increase of 13,484_l._ over that of the previous year.[185] The number of orphan girls selected from the several workhouses, and sent out as emigrants to Australia, had been 1,956, which added to the 2,219 so sent out in the preceding year, makes a total of 4,175 from the commencement, under regulations jointly established by the Poor Law and Emigration Commissioners in 1848.[186]

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[185]

Ante, p. 354.

[186]

Twenty ships had been despatched in the two years, from May 1848, to
April 1850, with orphan girls selected from the workhouses in Ireland,
as emigrants to the Australian colonies. Of these emigrants, 2,253
were taken to Sydney, 1,255 to Port-Philip, and 606 to Adelaide. The
remaining 61 were sent to the Cape of Good Hope.

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[Sidenote: Employment.]

Notwithstanding that past experience and the deductions of sound principle were alike opposed to the notion that pauper labour could be made a source of profit, many boards of guardians and other persons of undoubtedly excellent intentions, are said to have advocated plans for employing the able-bodied inmates of the workhouses in ordinary agricultural labour, or in the draining and subsoiling of lands belonging to private individuals, or in carrying on manufactures within the workhouse, the produce to be disposed of to other unions, or else sold to the public under the current market-price. But none of these nor any similar propositions were sanctioned by the commissioners, who nevertheless failed not to urge upon boards of guardians the importance of enforcing work of some kind amongst the inmates, not only as tending to promote health and keep up habits of industry, but also as a means of securing the discipline of the establishment, and maintaining the efficiency of the workhouse as a test of destitution.

[Sidenote: The workhouse children.]

The case of the workhouse children differs essentially from that of the adults. The house is no longer a test, as applied to them; but a place of refuge, supplying in a great degree the wants of home, and responsible also for the fulfilment of home duties. Every consideration of humanity and policy therefore establishes the propriety, not only of providing for the education of these children, but also for their instruction in useful occupations by which they may earn their subsistence in after life; and much appears to have been done in these respects with the children of both sexes in the several workhouses. The power conferred of forming district industrial schools had not yet been acted upon, neither under the depressing circumstances which have existed in most parts of the country, could it be expected that the guardians would attempt to found such institutions, which must, especially at the outset, entail a very considerable expenditure.

[Sidenote: Amount of expenditure, and numbers relieved.]

The expenditure from the rates on the relief of the poor in the 131 unions during the twelve months ending 29th September 1849, as stated in Table No. 1, Appendix B, was 2,177,651_l._[187] The number of inmates on that day was 141,030 and the total number relieved in the workhouses during the year was 932,284. The number then receiving out-door relief was 135,019; and the total number who received out-door relief during the year was 1,210,482.

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[187]

As was the case in the preceding year, the half-yearly statements made
up and audited on the 25th March and 29th September (Appendix 2 and 3)
exhibit different amounts, and make the total expenditure in the
present year 2,141,228_l._

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[Sidenote: 1851.
Fourth annual report of the Poor Law Commissioners for Ireland.]

The commissioners’ Report for 1850-51 is dated on the 5th May. After giving the usual statistics, and adverting to the fact that the maximum number on the out-relief lists in the previous year terminating on the 29th September 1850, was 148,909, whilst in the following seven months the number had in no instance exceeded 10,935; the commissioners “notice the still more satisfactory circumstance, that during the year ended 29th September 1850, and the seven months which had since elapsed, the worst evils of the famine, such as the occurrence of deaths by the wayside, a high rate of mortality in the workhouses, and the prevalence of dangerous and contagious diseases, had undergone a very material abatement.” This change was, they consider, owing to a combination of favourable circumstances; but they “do not hesitate to affirm that the extension of workhouse room had afforded the means of relieving actual destitution, far more efficiently than could have been done by a corresponding expenditure in out-door relief; and that life has been preserved with more certainty, and the general condition of the population been improved, wherever a sufficient extent of workhouse room has enabled the guardians to meet all applications for relief, and thus to remove from the minds of the labouring population every expectation of the recurrence of an extensive system of out-door relief.”

[Sidenote: State of the workhouses.]

With regard to the mortality which had occurred in the workhouses, it is remarked “that an accumulation of cases of chronic sickness among persons who survived the famine, but whose enfeebled constitutions afford little hope of any other result than a permanent residence in the workhouse, had filled the workhouse hospitals and infirmaries with a great number of sick.” Many of these poor people die in the more inclement seasons of winter and spring, and thus the average mortality of the workhouses is stated in the returns to be increased. Yet if not admitted into the workhouse, larger numbers would have perished, as is shown by the great mortality which took place in the county of Clare, where the unions were too much impoverished to provide sufficient workhouse accommodation for the extent of destitution that prevailed, the condition of Clare being at this time much worse than any other part of Ireland. The people had there suffered more, and the revival of the potato crop had brought them less relief. [Sidenote: State of Clare.] They exhibited in fact an exception to the improvement elsewhere happily apparent, and nowhere more so than in Connaught, the unions in which province were among the most forward in recovering from the effects of the famine.

[Sidenote: Emigration.]

A portion of the fund raised by the rate-in-aid,[188] was applied to assist the emigration of poor persons from the workhouses of some of the overburdened unions. But in order to prevent such assistance from operating injuriously, and serving as an inducement to persons to claim admission to the workhouse, the commissioners directed that it should be afforded only to those who had been inmates for one year at least. Certain of the unions were thus relieved from the charge of maintaining persons able to work, but unable to find employment; and by the removal of such persons additional workhouse room was obtained, without incurring the charge of providing additional buildings. The number thus assisted to emigrate during the present year, was 360 adult males, 844 females, and 517 children, at an expense of 21,075_l._

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[188]

Ante, p. 355.

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[Sidenote: New unions and electoral divisions.]

Since the last Report eight more new unions[189] had been formed, which with the 24 formed last year, and the 131 previously existing make 163 in all. The old unions in which the boundaries either of the Union or its electoral divisions had been altered, were 86; and the number of electoral divisions had been increased to 3,404, instead of 2,049 as originally constituted. Some of the recommendations contained in the boundary commissioners’ Reports, were disapproved by the guardians of the unions to which they applied. This was particularly the case in the north of Ireland, and in several instances the Poor Law Commissioners deemed it expedient to yield to the objections which were made to any change; so that instead of 50 new unions as recommended in the boundary Reports, no more than 32 had been created; and to these, advances to the extent of 200,000_l._ were made by the exchequer loan board, for enabling them to provide the necessary workhouses.

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[189]

These were Borrisokane, Castlecomer, Donaghmore, Kilmacthomas,
Tornastown, Urlingford, Youghal, and Castletowndelvin.

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It was likewise considered inexpedient to proceed further in making alterations in the unions or electoral divisions, “until the task of consolidating the debts due for workhouse loans, relief advances, labour-rate, and the advance of 300,000_l._ authorized by the _13th and 14th Vict., cap. 14_, had been completed.” The proceedings under this Act are said to be far advanced. They are of considerable importance, as is the Act itself, of which the following is an abstract—

[Sidenote: The _13th and 14th Vict. cap. 14_.]

The _13th and 14th Vict., cap. 14_, was passed on the 17th May 1850, and after reciting the several Acts under which advances had been made, and declaring that considerable sums in respect of such advances remained unpaid, but that it was nevertheless expedient to authorize a further advance of public money to assist certain distressed unions and electoral divisions in Ireland &c., it empowers—

_Section 1._—The commissioners of the Treasury to make advances from
time to time not exceeding in the whole 300,000_l._, to such unions
as they shall think fit, such advances to be paid to the Poor Law
Commissioners, and by them applied towards the discharge of the
debts or liabilities of the union or division &c., as the Treasury
shall direct. All sums so advanced are to bear 3 per cent. interest,
and be repaid out of the poor-rates at such times as the Treasury
prescribe.

_Sections 2, 3, 4._—The commissioners of the Treasury may cause the
debts and liabilities of the several unions and electoral divisions
&c. to be ascertained, and may cause the same to be consolidated and
proportionably charged upon such unions or electoral divisions, and
may charge such an annuity upon the same as shall be equivalent to
such proportionate amount. A statement of the annuities so charged
is to be transmitted to the Poor Law Commissioners, who are to issue
orders to the guardians directing the punctual payment thereof.

_Sections 5, 6._—If payment be not so punctually made, the treasurer
of the union is to reserve a third part of the moneys collected and
lodged with him on account of the electoral division, and place the
same to a separate account, to be entitled the “Loans Repayment
Account,” until all arrears have thereby been discharged. But the
rate in aid under the _12th and 13th Vict. cap. 24_, is to be paid,
before the annuities charged under this Act.

_Sections 7, 8._—The Treasury are further empowered to make
additions to the annuities chargeable under this Act, in respect of
loans for building or enlarging workhouses; and may likewise suspend
the recovery of workhouse loans, and moneys directed to be levied by
grand-jury presentments.

The consolidation of the various claims upon the unions and electoral divisions, and converting them into annuities on terms which, whilst they secured the government from loss, would make the repayment as little burdensome as possible, must no doubt have been, as was intended, an easement and an advantage to the borrowers. The financial difficulties of many of the western unions were however, it was apprehended, such as would not only disable them from making any payment for some years, but such as would render further aid necessary, in order to keep them in operation as dispensors of relief to the destitute poor.

[Sidenote: Second rate in aid of 2_d._ in the pound.]

A statement is given in the appendix to the Report, of the appropriation of the loan of 300,000_l._ advanced under the above statute, which was, the commissioners say, “a most seasonable relief to many unions and electoral divisions that were deeply embarrassed by debt in the early part of 1850.” But in addition to this loan of 300,000_l._, a second rate in aid of 2_d._ in the pound, amounting to 99,362_l._ 3_s._ 3_d._, was levied under an order issued on the 23rd December 1850, “for the further assistance of distressed unions and electoral divisions.” The Rate-in-Aid Act would expire on the 31st of December, and it had been hoped that the raising a second rate under it might have been avoided. “But after the conclusion of the harvest of last year (the commissioners say) they perceived indications of the continuance of distress in so serious a degree in the counties of Clare and Kerry, that they could not, with the small balance at their disposal, feel justified in omitting to avail themselves of the power of declaring a further rate;” and subsequent experience, they observe, confirmed the propriety of the step thus taken. The two rates in aid amounted together to 421,990_l._ The distribution of this large sum among the distressed unions was, under direction of the government, intrusted to the Poor Law Commissioners, by whom an account of its application was furnished in detail.

[Sidenote: Amount of expenditure, and numbers relieved.]

An expectation had been held out in the last Report of a very considerable reduction of expenditure taking place in the following year,[190] and this expectation was fulfilled. In the 163 unions the total expenditure from the rates for the relief of the poor during the year ending on the 29th September 1850, was 1,430,108_l._ The number of inmates on that day was 155,173, and the total number relieved in the workhouses during the year was 805,702. The number then receiving out-door relief was 2,938, and the number who received out-door relief during the year was 368,565.—It is seen therefore that, as was expected, a very considerable decrease had taken place; but to show this clearer, I will recapitulate the several amounts for the three preceding years. In the year ending 29th September 1848, the total expenditure for relief of the poor was 1,835,634_l._—in 1849 it was 2,177,651_l._—and in 1850 it was 1,430,108_l._ The total number relieved in the workhouses in these years respectively, was 610,463—932,284—and 805,702; and the total number who so respectively received out-door relief, was 1,433,042—1,210,482—and 368,565. The decrease in the numbers who received in-door relief, may perhaps seem disproportionately small; but this is accounted for by the fact of the workhouse being more extensively used for the purposes of relief, than had been the case in former years.

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[190]

Ante, p. 365.

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[Sidenote: Extension of workhouse accommodation.]

The generally improved circumstances of the country must doubtless be regarded as the chief cause of the present decrease of pauperism; but the commissioners consider that it is likewise in no small degree attributable to the extension of workhouse accommodation. This extension has, it is said, “enabled the administrators of relief throughout Ireland, with very few exceptions, to meet the actual destitution existing, without having recourse to out-door relief.” The progress of the extension may thus be tabulated:—

Extent of Workhouse Accommodation.

┌────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┐
│ Year. │ On March 25. │ On Sept. 29. │
├────────┼───────────────┼───────────────┤
│ 1847 │ 114,129 │ 114,865 │
│ 1848 │ 154,429 │ 169,142 │
│ 1849 │ 228,458 │ 244,942 │
│ 1850 │ 276,073 │ 289,931 │
│ 1851 │ 308,885 │ — │
└────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┘

And at the date of the Report (5th May 1851), the aggregate of the workhouse accommodation available, beyond the numbers then receiving in-door relief, was 60,491. Improvement in the sanitary state of the workhouses, and of the labouring population generally, is said always to follow the increase of workhouse accommodation, and the substitution of in-door for out-door relief; so that although a great reduction of expenditure took place in the last year, a still further reduction may be expected in the present.

[Sidenote: 1852.
Fifth annual report of the Poor Law Commissioners for Ireland.]

The Report of the commissioners for 1851-52 is dated on the 1st of May, as had been theretofore generally the practice, although this date was not adhered to in the three preceding Reports.

[Sidenote: Improved circumstances of the country.]

The transition from out-door to in-door relief was said to be now complete throughout Ireland, accompanied by a reduction in the number of applicants, as well as a most satisfactory decrease in workhouse mortality, The crops generally had everywhere regained their usual state of productiveness. Famine or fear of famine no longer prevailed, and its effects were only perceptible in the decrease of the population, and the consequent increased demand for labour. All in short was prosperous and promising compared with the state of things five years ago. There was however one exception, several of the western unions being still much embarrassed in their finances, and continuing to require assistance. [Sidenote: The Munster unions an exception.] This was especially the case in Munster; for the Connaught exception, unions had passed successfully through the ordeal, and were comparatively prosperous. “Thus on the 23rd February 1850, while the whole number receiving out-door relief in Ireland was 148,909, the unions in the province of Munster contained 101,803 of that number, and those in Connaught only 19,261; and again, on the 26th April 1851, when the number on out-relief was reduced to 10,935, the eight unions in the county of Clare comprised 6,846, and the 29 unions in the province of Connaught only 232.”

[Sidenote: Increase of workhouse relief.]

During the progress of the important change which was now taking place in the circumstances of the country, the number of persons relieved in the workhouses had always considerably increased in the spring and early part of the summer. These persons were generally in a state of great exhaustion, and the aid and shelter they received enabled them afterwards in most cases to leave the house with their health and strength restored. Some however remained, especially females and the children of both sexes, by whom it appears the workhouses continued to be unduly burdened. So long as there was an expectation of out-door relief being administered, a considerable amount of disease and mortality often prevailed, owing to the way in which persons really destitute persisted in hanging upon that expectation, instead of earlier seeking for admission to the workhouse; but when all hope for relief otherwise than in the workhouse was removed, “the sequel has invariably been a reduced number of applicants, a decreased rate of workhouse mortality, and an improved sanitary state of the population.”

The increased extent of workhouse accommodation which has been noticed, had been obtained, either by means of permanent additions to the original workhouses, or by building new ones in the newly-formed unions, or by the erection of a cheap kind of temporary structure to meet the emergency; or else by hiring premises for the purpose. The latter of these expedients had been resorted to more extensively than was consistent either with economy or with efficient management, and most of these premises were now given up, or shortly would be so. Anxiety is expressed that the succeeding year should be commenced with the workhouse establishments concentrated as far as practicable in each union, “so as to avoid the disadvantage of using auxiliary buildings.” Such a concentration was no doubt essential to efficient management, and it was only by such management, the commissioners observe, and by a further reduction of expenditure, “that some of the distressed unions in the west can be expected to become so far solvent as to support their own pauperism without further external aid.”

It is certainly important on many accounts that there should be only one workhouse in a union, and that it should have been expressly constructed for the accommodation of the classes to be relieved therein, with all suitable means for their separation and employment. Without these essentials, a workhouse can hardly be effective either as a test of destitution or a medium of relief; and there is always danger of an inefficient workhouse becoming a stimulant, instead of being a check to pauperism.

[Sidenote: Annuities under the Consolidated Debts Act.]

Most of the unions made provision for the payment of first annual instalment under the Consolidated Debts Act (_13th and 14th Vict. cap. 14_),[191] the arrangements under which, including the advance of 300,000_l._,[192] appear to have been all completed by the end of September. But in the following month a Treasury minute was issued, declaring that although “my lords” are of opinion that the present state of the greater part of Ireland does not call for any relief from the operation of the Act, yet they cannot doubt that there are districts in which relief must be given—“in the case of those districts, for instance, where the local resources are insufficient to meet the ordinary expenditure for relief of the poor, and where it is necessary to have recourse to assistance from the relief-in-aid fund for this purpose, it cannot be expected that further sums for payment of the consolidated annuities can be raised.” With regard to _postponement_, their lordships are of opinion that it would only tend to prolong a feeling of uncertainty as to future payments, whilst it is deemed of great importance to restore confidence in the owners and occupiers of land in the distressed districts, to which end the demands should be definite both in amount and in time. It is thought therefore that a remission of payment, either altogether or in part according to circumstances, is preferable to postponement, and an intimation is given of its being intended to apply to parliament with this view. Meantime however, the Poor Law Commissioners were authorized to direct the treasurers of the unions to retain the whole annuity payable by electoral divisions of which the expenditure in relief was ascertained to be 4_s._ in the pound, or more; and also to direct “so much only of the annuity to be paid in other divisions as might, together with the relief expenditure, amount to 4_s._ in the pound.”

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[191]

Ante, p. 374.

[192]

A statement of the appropriation of this loan is given in the Appendix
to the commissioners’ fourth Report.

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[Sidenote: The Treasury minute, October 21, 1851.]

This was doubtless a considerate, but it was at the same time a necessary proceeding on the part of the government. The impoverished unions, whose utmost exertions could not raise within themselves sufficient for relieving their own urgent necessities, would of course find it impossible to pay the consolidated annuity for which they were made liable; whilst the continual accumulation of this charge hanging over them would paralyze local effort, and tend to prevent the introduction of capital from other quarters. The accumulation would for the present be put a stop to by this Treasury minute; and if, in consideration of their late sufferings and present difficulties, parliament should confirm the boon, it will it is thought inspire confidence, as well as afford present relief; and it may then be hoped, that at no very distant day the impoverished unions would be able to emerge from their state of depression, and join in the general race of improvement. [Sidenote: The _15 and 16 Vict., cap. 16_.] The requisite confirmation was given in the following year by the _15th and 16th Vict. cap. 16_, entitled ‘An Act to amend the Acts relating to the Payment of Advances made to Districts in Ireland.’ After reciting the _13th and 14th Vict. cap. 14_, and the Treasury minute of the 21st October 1851, made “upon representations contained in memorials from many unions in Ireland, of the pressure upon the local resources of several electoral divisions on account of the necessary expenditure for the relief of the poor, and in anticipation of a measure to be submitted to parliament”—it is declared to be expedient that the directions contained in the said minute should be confirmed, and it is accordingly enacted that “the sums payable in the year 1851 in respect of the annuities mentioned in such minute and directions, shall be remitted and deemed to be discharged without further payment.” The remissions thus sanctioned amounted altogether to about 75,000_l._—that is 48,000_l._. to Munster, 24,000_l._ to Connaught, and 3,000_l._ to Leinster. The remission, it will be observed, only applied to the annuities due in 1851, and no expectation was held out of similar indulgence in future.

[Sidenote: The medical charities.]

Some account has already been given of the inquiry into and Report upon the medical charities in 1842, and of the bill then prepared but not proceeded with, in consequence of the opposition made to it by the medical profession.[193] In August 1851 however a bill, founded on that Report, and similar in principle and in its main provisions to the bill of 1842, was introduced and readily passed, the necessity for such a measure, and for bringing the rating powers and machinery of the Poor Law in aid of the medical charities, being then admitted by all parties; and this was the object of the Act of 1851, as it had been of the bill prepared under the author’s direction in 1842.

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[193]

Ante, pp. 267 and 279.

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[Sidenote: Medical Charities Act, _14 and 15 Vict., cap. 68_.]

On the passing of the _14th and 15th Vict. cap. 68_, the working of the medical charities became so closely connected with the operations of the Poor Law, that a description of the chief provisions of the Act is here necessary—

_Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5._—Provide for the appointment of a medical
commissioner, being a physician or surgeon of not less than thirteen
years’ standing, to be united with the Poor Law Commissioners in the
execution of the Act. The commissioners may appoint fit persons,
being physicians or surgeons of not less than seven years’ standing,
to be inspectors, but the medical commissioner and the inspectors
are restricted from practising professionally.

_Sections 6, 7, 8, 9._—The guardians are, whenever required by the
commissioners, to divide unions into dispensary districts, having
regard to extent and population; and are to appoint a dispensary
committee, and provide necessary buildings, and such medicines and
appliances as may be required, for the medical relief of the poor. A
committee of management consisting of the dispensary committee, the
ex-officio guardians, and ratepayers of 30_l._ annual value, are to
appoint one or more medical officers, to afford advice and medical
aid to such poor persons as may be sent by any member of the
dispensary committee, or by the relieving officer or warden.

_Sections 10, 11, 12, 13._—On the declaration of a dispensary district,
all provisions for affording dispensary relief from the poor-rate or
county cess are to cease. Guardians or members of the committee of
management, are not to be concerned in furnishing medicines or goods
for the use of the dispensary, under penalty of 50_l._ The
commissioners are to frame regulations for the government of each
dispensary district, and the medical officer is required to
vaccinate all persons who may come to him for that purpose.

_Sections 14, 15._—Existing medical officers are in the first instance
to be the medical officers of the dispensaries. The medical officers
of a dispensary district are to attend at the examination of
dangerous lunatics, and are also to attend the bride-wells within
their districts.

_Sections 16, 17, 18._—The commissioners and inspectors are empowered to
examine on oath, and to summon witnesses. The giving false evidence
is declared a misdemeanour, and the refusing to obey summons &c. is
subjected to a penalty of 5_l._ Inspectors may visit dispensaries,
and attend meetings of guardians. The commissioners are to report
upon hospitals and infirmaries. They are also to execute the powers
and purposes of the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Acts,
and to report their proceedings annually to the lord-lieutenant.

Such were the chief provisions of this Act, and the powers conferred by it appear sufficient for procuring the establishment of dispensaries in districts where they were much needed, and also for securing better management with regard to medical relief. [Sidenote: First report of Medical Charity Commissioners.]In their first Report dated 15th February 1853, the commissioners remark, that by the Medical Charities Act, a partial and imperfect system of medical relief, unattended with responsibility in its agents, and resting on a financial basis at once uncertain in duration, and unequal in its pressure as a tax, has been exchanged for a system uniform and universal, supported out of the poor-rates, and “influenced in its administration by well-defined responsibilities, under the direction and control of a central authority.” The expenditure is estimated at 102,700_l._ per annum. [Sidenote: Anticipated expenditure.]But “having regard to the diminution of pauperism, and the improving circumstances of the country,” it is thought probable that the cost of dispensary relief under the Medical Charities Act, will not exceed 100,000_l._ in future years.

[Sidenote: New electoral divisions.]

A few more of the electoral divisions were divided, in addition to the subdivisions which had been made the preceding year,[194] and the total number of electoral divisions was now increased to 3,439, that is 1,390 more than what were originally constituted, although still short of the number recommended by the Boundary Commissioners. The permission of out-door relief, and the increase in the number of unions, especially the latter, would no doubt render some increase of electoral divisions necessary; but after the distress out of which these changes had arisen shall have passed away, and when the country has regained its normal state, it is not unlikely that these changes may be found burthensome, and the machinery they have created be beyond what is really necessary for affording relief to the destitute poor. [Sidenote: New order of proceedings issued.] The various changes which had been made in the law, also rendered a new order for regulating the proceedings of boards of guardians necessary; and accordingly on the 19th January 1852, the old order was rescinded, and a new one adapted to the altered circumstances of the unions and the state of the law was issued.

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[194]

Ante, p. 373.

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[Sidenote: Apprenticing boys to the sea-service.
_14 and 15 Vict., cap. 35._]

In July 1851, the _14th and 15th Vict. cap. 35_ was passed, to extend the benefits of the General Merchant Seamen’s Act relating to apprentices bound to the sea-service by guardians of the poor in Ireland. By this Act, the board of guardians of a union is empowered to apprentice any boy of the age of twelve and upwards being of sufficient health and strength, and who is or whose parents are receiving relief in such union, and who consents to be so bound, into the sea-service for not less than four years, or until he attains the age of twenty-one, or has served seven years, as the case may be. The apprentice is to be furnished with a suitable outfit at the expense of the union, and sent to the seaport where the master or owner of the ship resides; and it is further provided that any such boys may, if they desire it, be placed out in the naval service. This is a well-devised Act, although it may not be very operative, at least for a time, the Irish generally having little predilection for the sea. The Act however supplies what was certainly an omission in the Act of 1836, and which became more apparent as the number of boys accumulated in the workhouses, without any means for apprenticing or getting them out into service. But the abuses which had resulted from the apprenticeship law in England, prevented its introduction in any shape into the original Irish Poor Relief Act.

[Sidenote: Emigration.]

Emigration under the provisions of the Poor Law was more active during the year 1850-51 than in any preceding year, although many unions were prevented by their poverty from resorting to it.[195] The commissioners had, as is before stated, applied a portion of the rate-in-aid fund in relieving the overcrowded workhouses in the counties of Clare and Kerry, but the nearly exhausted state of that fund disabled them from meeting other urgent applications for similar aid. Indeed the decrease of the population in the impoverished districts, as shown in the census returns, together with the smaller number of applicants for relief, and a greater demand for labour, would seem to render further aid or stimulus to emigration both unnecessary and inexpedient. Where the guardians and ratepayers of a district however were desirous of raising funds for the purpose, the commissioners did not refuse to give effect to the proposition.[Sidenote: Extent of emigration.] It appears from the Reports of the colonial land and emigration commissioners, that the total Irish emigration from 1847 to 1850 inclusive, was 833,692, nearly all of which was for North America—the Canada and New Brunswick immigration from all countries in the same period amounting to 210,904. In 1851, the emigration from Great Britain to the United States was 267,357, and it was 244,261 in 1852, in which year the number of Irish emigrants to New York alone was 118,134. This continuous emigration was chiefly effected by the aid of remittances from persons who had previously emigrated, to their friends and relatives at home, to enable them to follow.

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[195]

Ante, p. 373.

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[Sidenote: Population census of 1851.]

The above figures show the extent of the drain upon the population of Ireland which had been in progress during the last six years, and will go far to account for the startling results of the census returns of 1851, which exhibit an actual decrease of considerably over a million and a half in the previous decennial period, and make the population less than it was in 1821. The census commissioners,[196] after stating that the numerical decrease of the inhabitants between 1841 and 1851 amounted to 1,622,739, go on to remark—“But this being merely the difference between the number of people in 1841 and 1851, without making any allowance for a natural and ordinary increase of population, conveys but very inadequately the effect of the visitation of famine and pestilence”—“We find that the population of 30th March 1851, would probably have numbered 9,018,799, instead of 6,522,385; and that consequently the loss of population between 1841 and 1851 may be computed at the enormous amount of 2,496,414 persons.” That is to say, the population in 1851 amounted to 6,522,385, whereas under ordinary circumstances, and with the average rate of increase, it would have amounted to 9,018,799.

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[196]

See 6th part of the Report on the census of Ireland for 1851,
published in 1855.

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It may be convenient in the way of elucidation, to place the numbers of the four census periods in juxtaposition, thus—

The population of Ireland was 6,801,827
in 1821

” ” in 1831 ” 7,767,401

” ” in 1841 ” 8,175,124

” ” in 1851 ” 6,522,385

How much of the present decrease was owing to emigration, and how much was occasioned by want and disease, it is impossible to predicate with any degree of certainty. Both causes were in operation at the same time, and both were consequent upon the potato failure. The universal and almost exclusive use of the potato as an article of subsistence, led to a rapid increase of the population—its failure led to a still more rapid decrease, accompanied by an amount of suffering and privation for which it would be difficult to find a parallel in the history of any people.

[Sidenote: Amount of expenditure, and numbers relieved.]

The expenditure from the rates for relief of the poor in all the 163 unions now established, during the year ending on the 29th September 1851, was as had been expected, considerably less than the preceding year, and amounted to 1,141,647_l._ The number relieved in the workhouses on that day was 140,031, and the total number so relieved during the year was 707,443. The number then receiving out-door relief was 3,160, and the total number who received out-door relief during the year was 47,914. It seems almost superfluous to add, that none of these were relieved under the 2nd section of the Extension Act. The results of the year as regards relief, both numerically and financially, was deemed highly satisfactory, and it was expected that a still further reduction would be effected in the year following.

Before entering on the proceedings of another year (which will moreover be the limit of our inquiry), it may be well to look back for a moment to the disastrous period through which we have latterly passed. Famine and pestilence now happily no longer prevail, and the country has in great measure recovered from the effects of the severe ordeal to which it was subjected. The Poor Law has likewise nearly regained its ordinary state, after passing through the dangers and difficulties of a most calamitous visitation; and has risen from its trials with an increase of reputation, and also it may be added, with a greatly increased capacity for effecting its objects, through the large additional workhouse accommodation that has been provided. The failure of the potato in 1845 and 1846, the partial failure in 1847, and the more general destruction of the crop in 1848, were followed in each year by the vast efforts made to palliate, and as far as possible to relieve the consequent distress—first by importations of food, and employing the people on public works—next by a partial adoption of the Poor-law principle of relief, as it was administered under the Temporary Relief Act—and lastly by extending the provisions of the Poor Law to meet the emergency, and permitting relief to be afforded out of the workhouse. These circumstances have each occupied our attention in the foregoing pages. They are all exceptional in their nature, but are at the same time most instructive in their results, whether viewed locally or generally—as affecting the empire at large, or Ireland in particular.

The character of the period—the waxings and wanings of distress—the variations in its extent, and the phases of its intensity, are all unmistakeably indicated in the weekly returns from the several unions, of the numbers and mortality in the respective workhouses from the commencement of 1846, and the numbers on the out-relief lists from the passing of the Extension Act in 1847. [Sidenote: Tables of numbers relieved and extent of mortality. See p. 404.] These weekly returns are given at length in the commissioners’ Reports, and from them I have compiled two tables, which will be found at the end,[197] showing the dates in each year when the most marked changes occurred in the numbers relieved both in and out of the workhouses, and the extent of mortality which took place; but always giving the maximum and minimum numbers in each case. The cost of out-door relief in the respective weeks is also inserted, so that the state of the country at the several periods is as it were mapped out before the reader, and can be taken in at a glance, requiring nothing further in the way of explanation; and to this table the reader’s attention is requested.

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[197]

See p. 404.

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[Sidenote: 1853.
Sixth annual report of the Poor Law Commissioners for Ireland.]

The commissioners’ sixth Report is dated 2nd May 1853. After the usual weekly summary of the in-door and out-door recipients of relief, it is remarked that the number of out-door poor is so inconsiderable, and liable to so little fluctuation, that “the comparative extent of pauperism in successive years is now almost wholly dependent on the number receiving relief in the workhouses.” This number, it is added, “continues to fluctuate almost in the same degree as formerly, notwithstanding the absolute decrease which has taken place; the number in autumn not usually much exceeding one-half the number at another period of the year.”

[Sidenote: State of Connaught and Munster.]

The satisfactory progress made by the province of Connaught in surmounting the effects of the famine years has already been noticed.[198] Although some of the Connaught unions were still in a state of financial embarrassment, and subject to payment of heavy rates, the reduction of relief in the last three years had been remarkable, the number in the workhouses having decreased from 42,286 in April 1851, to 17,389 in April 1853. In Munster on the contrary improvement continued to be comparatively backward, that province still containing more than half the pauperism of Ireland.

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[198]

Ante, pp. 373 and 378.

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[Sidenote: The workhouse children.]