Chapter XII: Marketing Farm Products 170 (2)

Modifications of the construction above mentioned include the use of sound-proofed steel panels or insulation board for partitions and walls with an exterior of painted steel. Many other modifications are being developed to insure individuality, stability, insulation and economy in first cost and maintenance. The lines of most of these houses are severe and modernistic in design, although decorative and unique effects are easily obtainable.

The costs of the complete house unit range from $600 for a one-room type to $3,500 to $6,000 for a complete home of modest size. The principal fabricators of these houses and their addresses are: General Houses, Inc., Chicago, Illinois; American Houses, Inc., New York City; American Rolling Mill Company, Cleveland, Ohio; American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Company, New York City; Columbian Steel Tank Company, Kansas City, Missouri, and National Steel Homes, Inc., Los Angeles, California. Information on types and costs can be obtained by addressing these companies.

_Rural Home Life._--To have a successful experience in country life, one must become identified with one's surroundings and become a part of the community. Those who seek to establish a country residence simply as a place from which to commute to city attractions will not only miss the greatest asset in country living but will probably find this existence unsatisfactory. To become interested in the growing plants and animals at home, to do with one's own hands the things that make the home more attractive and to develop a contact with the community that helps to increase its normal activities mean the attainment of pleasure and satisfaction so far beyond that obtainable in congested urban quarters that there is no comparison. In many cases this direct affinity with one's surroundings will come gradually and not always easily. It can be cultivated and should be a part of the plan of every family expecting to reside in the country.

_Trees as Assets._--One of the greatest assets that can be secured in the country is well-developed shade. If the house under consideration is already built and has around it trees that serve as a softening and beautifying factor, as well as for shade purposes, the value is decidedly enhanced. If the home is to be newly built and a site is available where trees are already well grown, the house can often be placed in the midst of such trees, thereby gaining a number of years in the benefits that trees give and for which there is no substitute.

Few persons can resist the charm of trees. That they also have a definite economic value is shown by the added desirability we all attach to an attractively landscaped home where trees of various kinds and sizes furnish the motif. In acquiring a place in the country the newcomer will at once wish to plant trees, shrubs and ornamentals to beautify his holdings. If this is carefully planned at the beginning, succeeding years and a little care will add to the attractiveness and intrinsic value of the home. The saying, "a house is not a home until it is planted," has a great deal of truth behind it. Most nurserymen will be glad to render assistance in properly planning and setting the ornamental landscaping of the home, helping the owner avoid mistakes and costly movings and replacements later.

_Commercial Horticulture._--In addition to the plantings around his home, the owner of a few acres can at slight expense start small trees for later ornamental use or for sale at a roadside stand, for example. Such small trees and ornamental plants can often be purchased at wholesale prices from nursery companies which have "laying out" stock, as it is called, for sale. The standard large-growing evergreens and deciduous shade trees can be thus transplanted to one's own acres, as can the popular dwarf types of evergreens and flowering shrubs. These may be planted in one area where they can be cared for as a growing crop, or they may be planted in groups for beautifying the premises while they are growing. Again, single plants may be set by themselves and given special attention, later becoming "specimens" which are much in demand by admirers of the species.

An appreciation of tree habits can be thus developed by all the members of the family, and considerable income may be obtained in later years, as the trees become "of age," through their sale. We are entering upon an era of making homes attractive as places in which to live and not as houses to go away from. All forms of plant life that contribute to this end will be admired and sought after in the years to come.

_Do's_

Give special consideration to location, type of construction and interior arrangement.

If building a home, select a type that fits surroundings.

Strive for simplicity of lines and full utilization of every cubic foot of space.

Remember pre-fabricated houses are practical and likely to supplant some other types of construction.

In buying a pre-fabricated house, be sure plans and construction fit needs of family and materials used are adapted to the climatic conditions.

Give special attention to convenience and cheerfulness of kitchen.

Develop a plan of planting ornamental plants and trees to be carried out in due course.

_Don'ts_

Don't try to build a city house in the country.

Don't neglect windows in number or size.

Don't overlook costs of completed job before commencing building or improvements.

Don't neglect the asset value of trees.

_Chapter_ V

SERVICING THE HOME

Many types of services are available to the country home owner, including rural mail delivery, the telephone and electricity. Rural mail delivery in particular is so common that, on practically every highway, mail service is secured by the placing of a mail box along the highway at the entrance to the residence. Telephone service is available along practically all the main-traveled highways and on a majority of the other types of roads. Where the lines are not already installed, extensions may be obtained to new locations, and this is facilitated when more than one residence is to be served by the same line. The majority of families accustomed to city conveniences will want to have electricity available so as to use electric lights and the labor-saving devices that are operated by electric power. With the expansion that has taken place in the development of rural electric lines in recent years, there is not a great deal of difficulty in getting a location which will give the housewife the advantages that electricity offers.

Telephone service and electrical facilities may fall into the class of luxuries for those with limited resources. It may be pointed out in this connection that millions of farm homes are still using petroleum products for lighting purposes and are finding it no hardship. Practically all would, of course, use electricity if it were available and financially possible. The new home owner in the country will find it advantageous to locate where electric service is obtainable.

Other services for the country residents are pretty largely up to the owner as to their utilization and type. It is necessary, of course, to have an ample water supply, to maintain sanitary conditions through sewerage of some description, to provide a method of heating the home during cold weather and to provide storage facilities for food during the dormant season.

_The Water Supply._--Perhaps the most important attribute of the country home is an adequate supply of water. This is particularly true where families have been accustomed to utilizing municipal water supplies which are safe and pure as to quality and unlimited in amount. In most country homes it is necessary to construct a water-supply system, which means reaching a supply of underground water, pumping it to the surface and piping it to locations where it is wanted. Higher standards of living create new and increased demands for water.

Water for domestic use should be clear, colorless, odorless, soft, neither strongly acid nor alkaline, with a temperature averaging 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Such water supplies can be obtained in nearly every section of the country. Hot water is necessary in every home and there must be a heater of some type, using coal, petroleum products, natural or artificial gas or electricity for fuel. For this purpose a hot-water storage boiler or tank must be installed.

_The Dug Well._--A dug well is one of the older types of wells. It should be large enough in diameter to permit ingress and egress to all parts of it for repairs or for cleaning. Most dug wells require cleaning occasionally, due to the entrance of dirt at the top and to the washing in of clay and silt with the ground water. Many of these wells contain harmful gases which have proved fatal to those entering them. Before an attempt is made to clean such a well or to make any repairs, a lighted candle should be lowered into it. If the candle is extinguished, it will be dangerous to enter until the well has been thoroughly ventilated.

A dug well will vary in depth from 20 to 60 feet, depending upon the distance it is necessary to dig for an adequate supply of water. Types of pumping apparatus are on the market to cope with any depth in digging such a well. If dug wells are shallow, the water supply depends very largely upon current rainfall and in times of prolonged drouth there may be a serious shortage. Fairly deep wells of this type are usually very satisfactory and will supply surprisingly large amounts of water when the demand is made upon them.

_Artesian Water Supply._--Artesian wells have distinct advantages over dug wells although they are more expensive to construct. The water from such wells is absolutely pure and it never fails. This is because subterranean streams have been tapped which are not subject to possible surface contamination, nor are they dependent upon showers for replenishment.

Special power apparatus is necessary for constructing an artesian or drilled well. The drilling costs from $3 per foot up, depending upon the nature of the subsoil and whether rock is encountered. Unless such a well has been drilled in the immediate vicinity it is not possible to hazard even a guess as to when water will be struck. The consolation that such an undertaking has for the owner is in knowing there will be no doubt as to quantity or purity when the strike occurs.

_Water Pumps._--Pumps are now available which operate automatically by electricity and constantly supply the home with fresh water drawn from the earth as needed. The requirements for the pump and the motor will vary with the depth of the well and the water requirements of the family. In all such cases, therefore, it is desirable to call in for consultation engineers or competent representatives of pump manufacturers or distributors. It should be borne in mind that adequacy of supply is most important and that economy in first cost, achieved at the sacrifice of an adequate supply, may be a definite handicap to necessary home services.

_Heating Facilities._--The type of heating apparatus that is used will depend upon the size of the house and its arrangement as well as upon the funds available. The simplest type of heaters are those which do not have a complete system of extending radiation through the home but depend upon circulation of the air within the house to equalize the temperature. In deciding upon the type of apparatus, it is necessary to make sure that the system is as low in original cost as possible; that it will probably have a long life, thereby spreading the first cost over a period of years; that it be economical in operation through efficient consumption of fuel, and that the system be easily controlled. The health of the family and the ability to live in a satisfactory manner will depend to a considerable extent upon the method of heating the home, especially in cold climates.

Particular care should be taken to make sure that whatever type of heating is employed is adequate in size. It is more economical to operate a heater that is somewhat oversized than to "rush" one which cannot easily maintain a comfortable temperature in cold weather. Heating engineers and contractors are available to furnish information on heating costs in every locality. The generally used types of heating include stoves, circulator heaters, warm air, hot water and steam systems, and fireplaces. Specialists of the United States Department of Agriculture have developed a great deal of information to enable the home owner to cope with the heating problems in a practical manner. It is estimated by the department that if a two-pipe hot-water system for a six-room house costs $500, the other systems for the same house ordinarily would cost about as follows:

Two-pipe vapor system $600
One-pipe steam system $400
A piped warm air furnace $260
Pipeless furnace $140
Circulator heater or stove $ 60

Of course, these systems vary in efficiency and in providing comfort as much as they vary in cost, but these estimates will provide the home owner with an idea of the outlay for taking care of the heating problem.

The ability to maintain a satisfactory temperature depends as much upon the construction of the house as upon the heating apparatus itself. Heat is readily lost through walls, roofs and windows. Most houses can be made more comfortable at small cost by applying insulation or by correcting defects in construction. The use of storm doors or storm vestibules where doors are frequently opened to the out-of-doors will prevent drafts and conserve heat. Metal weather stripping is the most effective means of preventing air leaks around windows and doors and making the entire house weather-tight.

The fuel that is used will depend upon the type of furnace and the relative prices prevailing for different kinds. Recent developments in oil heating bring this fuel in close competition from the standpoint of economy with coal or coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source of fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks can readily deliver oil to the home owner. Improvements in securing the maximum efficiency from all types of fuel are being developed continually; and there are now on the market furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal as fuel, which offer many advantages that were unknown to older types.

_Fireplace Construction._--An open fireplace where wood can be used as fuel is a great source of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort, in country homes. Wood of proper length for fireplace burning can be readily secured in the country and there is ample room for storing it. Where the house is small in size, such wood fires can be used for heating the house satisfactorily in spring and fall and can be used to supplement other types of heating when desired.

No country home can be considered complete without a fireplace. The comfort and homelike atmosphere that it gives make it a general asset for the enjoyment of the family circle. Fireplaces should be constructed so as to insure a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation. It is desirable to build in the fireplace flue a damper which can be open when the fire is burning and can be shut when it is desired to keep heat from escaping from the room via the chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap opening placed in the back of the fireplace on the floor so that ashes may be removed in this manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them from the fireplace.

_Sewerage of Farm Homes._--All wastes from the farm home coming under the term of sewage should go direct to a septic tank. Here the sewage is held in a quiet state for a period of time, and through bacterial processes, the organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank installation consists of four parts: first, the house sewer from house to tank; second, the sewage tank, consisting of one or more chambers; third, the sewer from tank to distribution field; fourth, the distribution field where the sewage is distributed, sometimes called the absorption field. Plans for sewerage construction may be obtained from state and local boards of health and from federal health and agricultural agencies.

An adequate sewage disposal plant is essential and inexpensive. A practical one is shown here.]

The Rural Engineering Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station recommends that the septic tank have a capacity adequate to hold all the water used by the family for two entire days. For a family of six persons the inside dimensions of the tank should be 4 feet in width with a length of 4 feet in the first chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber. The depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank a capacity of over 600 gallons, thus allowing 100 gallons for each person during the forty-eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet wide, 8-1/2 feet long and 6-1/2 feet deep.

Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete, concrete blocks or brick, waterproofed on the inside to prevent escape of the contents except through the outlets described. These outlets should be 100 to 150 feet away from any source of water supply to prevent contamination of potable water.

Leading from the outlet of the second chamber, several lines of tile 10 to 14 inches in depth should be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank, permitting escape of the effluent at each joint. For a family of six persons a total length of 150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most types of soil.

_Food Storage._--Every country home should have a basement in which a room can be set apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable for keeping supplies of potatoes and other root crops, as well as commodities that deteriorate under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies of food from the garden can be placed in such storages and be readily available for use during the winter. With the surplus of perishable food products in cans and with a good supply of non-perishable products in such a type of storage room, economies in food purchase can be effected and the healthfulness of the family maintained through their use when fresh products are difficult to secure or are unseasonable and expensive.

If a basement is not available for food storage, root crops can be stored outside the house and kept during the winter. These products should be piled in a heap, covered with straw or other clean, loose material and the mound then covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes and similar crops can be kept throughout the winter and until late in the spring without serious deterioration. It is important to select a site for such outdoor storage that is well drained so that water will not collect and freeze in the storage area.

_Services Available to the Country Resident._--Public agencies are available for help in solving the problems of country residents, varying from agricultural and horticultural practices to building construction, water supply and sewage disposal. As a rule, these services are of advice and suggestion, are free of cost and may be utilized freely by those living in the country.

Most of the counties in the United States have a county agricultural agent, who is located at the county seat and whose territory covers only the county in which he resides. The costs of such service are paid by federal and state appropriations, frequently supplemented by county appropriations, and also frequently through annual individual subscriptions. The county agricultural agent is really a field representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the state agricultural college in the state where he works. There is hardly a problem of the country resident for which he cannot obtain aid from the county agricultural agent. In many of the more thickly populated areas the problems of the family getting a location on the land for a home are already well known to the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a position to guide the newcomer and help him to prevent mistakes.

In many counties there is also a home economics service connected with the office of the county agricultural agent and supported in the same general manner. This service, along the lines which the name implies, is available to the country home maker. Groups of women are organized and meet at intervals for discussions on food preparation, canning and storage and the making of clothing for the family.

In nearly every state there is a state department of agriculture with regulatory and promotional activities and dealing especially with law enforcement provisions passed by the respective legislatures. These agencies are also concerned with development of marketing facilities in many states. They are supported by state and federal funds and carry on such projects as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment in prevention of communicable animal diseases and the control of insect and fungous pests through quarantine and inspection activities. These departments are located at the state capitols and information on the services available can be secured by addressing the department in the state where one resides.

Because there is a lack of understanding among newcomers to the country of the services that are available through these agencies without cost, this particular mention of them is made. It is recommended that each family get in touch with the county agricultural agent, the college of agriculture and the department of agriculture and learn definitely of the help that can be secured without cost in meeting the problems of country life.

_Electric Wiring Principles._--Public utilities are organized to furnish electric service and it will be found that they are ready to assist customers in securing the most satisfactory use of electricity. Such knowledge, based on experience, will be valuable in helping owners to avoid costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring system that will be economical and yet complete. When the plans and specifications of the wiring system have been worked out, it is important to secure bids from reliable contractors. Only those contractors who can do the work in a capable manner should be employed and it should be determined in advance that the installation will be in strict compliance with the National Electrical Code. For wiring work it is necessary to know the number of amperes the wire is to carry. This may be determined by dividing the load in watts by the voltage which is to be used.

The service lateral is a system of wires which form a path over which electricity is carried from the main line to the house. This is generally built by the utility company and its cost will depend upon the distance of the residence from the main line and whether the owner furnishes poles, labor, etc.

Wires should be of such size as to give sufficient mechanical strength to stand up under sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires are used to carry the electric energy from the utility connection to the house. The lateral is the electrical doorway to the farm and is the most essential part of the wiring system. The wires should be of adequate size so as to provide proper voltage and give complete electrical service for all ordinary requirements of current.

It is important to see that the electrical equipment is properly "grounded," that is, the connecting to earth of certain metallic objects which are near power conductors. The purpose is to carry to the earth any heavy electrical charge which might exist on such objects and cause electrical shocks when they are touched. Grounding may be secured by connecting with water pipes that reach some depth under ground, or driven pipe may be used as a means of securing intimate contact with moist earth.

Recommendations for outlets from the electrical wires in the house call for centering ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets about 5-1/2 feet above the floor. Convenient outlets in the kitchen and bathroom should be about 33 inches above the floor. In other locations they are usually best placed in the baseboard. Wall switches are usually located 4 feet above the floor. A switch should be located at each door to a room or entrance to a hall and in many cases three-way switches can be used to advantage, since these afford control over the same lighting from two separate locations.

With these general observations on a rather complicated subject, most of which are based on the excellent recommendations of the National Committee on the Relation of Electricity to Agriculture, the home owner should be in a position to take care of his needs properly, bearing in mind that the system of wiring should be adequate in every respect and the number of outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy and convenient service throughout the house. An official check-up should be made of all installations after completion. The method of securing such inspection can be obtained through a local electrical contractor.

Ground floor plan of a house, showing the number, the type, and the location of electrical current outlets.]

_Tank Gas Supply._--A service of supplying compressed gas in portable tanks has recently been developed for country homes located away from public gas lines. This gas can be used either with a specially adapted range which is supplied as part of the service or in some cases with an ordinary gas range. Companies offering this service are located in most cities and are understood to be willing to supply residences anywhere with gas. The cost of first installation of the system is about $40. Renewals cost approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each cylinder will supply a family of four with gas for three to four months, making a monthly bill of from $3 to $4, which compares favorably with artificial gas supply through a meter from pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose for which any other gas is adapted. The gas and the servicing of it constitute a boon to country residents from the standpoint of utility and economy. It is especially desirable for those previously accustomed to city gas supplies and to whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange and somewhat of a problem.

_Do's_

Remember that important service factors include mail delivery, telephone, electricity, water supply and sewage disposal.

Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality.

Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible.

Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can stand.

Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs.

Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for waste disposal.

Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents, home demonstration agents, experiment stations and agricultural colleges, state and federal departments of agriculture.

Provide storage space for surplus food products.

Remember electric wiring requires skilled workmanship.

Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a cooking fuel.

_Don'ts_

Don't forget that services automatically available to urban residents must be planned for in the country.

Don't neglect construction defects that prevent full benefits from heating system.

Don't overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace.

Don't install electrical service without full attention to principles of convenience, safety and economy involved.

_Chapter_ VI

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

There are many treatises available that deal with the soil, its composition and its treatment. No attempt will be made here to go exhaustively into that subject. There are a few fundamental factors, however, which the potential owner should know regarding soil treatment, for that is the base upon which he will build his income-producing operations.

The particles of soil have had their genesis in rock. The rock has become disintegrated and decomposed through natural processes. The action of the weather is the most important factor in creating soil. Water falling on rock not only wears it away mechanically, but through certain mild acid elements which it acquires, disintegrates the binding materials that hold rock segments together. In addition, there is the action of frost and freezing, too, making the moisture in rock expand and contract and thereby causing the breaking down of the segments. With this action is coupled that of hot suns which cause expansion and breaking up of the rock as it becomes heated and cooled under atmospheric influence.

A great deal of the soil surface in many sections of the country is the result of glacial action. These glaciers not only eroded the surface, thereby creating millions of rock particles, but they also carried large deposits of the rock particles to more distant areas and deposited them over a subsoil that may be totally different in character from the surface soil thus deposited.

_How Tillable Soil Is Made._--The action of plants themselves has a great effect in adding to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or seeds of trees become established in some slightly weathered rock areas and begin to grow. The roots penetrate wherever there is any loose soil, and partly by their pressure and partly through the acidity accompanying decomposing plant tissue, complete a further breaking down of the rock. There is a continuous process of destruction of rocks and leveling off of mountains and hills to fill the valleys below.

Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to increase the depth of the surface soil by growth of the roots in the subsoil and by creating therein a condition approaching that which already exists on the surface. The action of earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing subsoil to the top and in opening channels through which water and surface air can penetrate constitutes another continually operating force in the creation of a productive soil. A deeper layer of productive soil can also be created through a plan of consistently deeper plowing, bringing up with each annual plowing operation a small portion of subsoil which, when mixed with the surface soil, tends to become like it.

Soil is created from rock by nature's weathering processes and by plant growth. At the bottom may be seen solid rock; just above are disintegrating rock fragments, and at the top, the soil.]

Every type of real soil contains all the elements of plant growth. This plant food results from a breaking down of soil particles and the setting free of chemical elements which, either singly or in combination, serve as food for plants.

Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be found that certain crops will make better growth in it than others. As a general rule, it may be said that the only way to determine which plants will grow best on a given soil is by the trial-and-error method. However, by observation of the growth on similar types of soil we can learn something of a soil's crop adaptability. There are some crops that will grow in almost any soil and there are others that need an exactness of texture, moisture and plant food which makes them highly specialized products. The operator must learn how to work in harmony with the peculiarities of his own soil before he can hope to get the best results.

In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants of any kind it is desirable to get a soil type that will meet the requirements of most plants. As a general rule, this type contains enough clay to be retentive of moisture, enough sand to be easily worked and is generally suitable for bacterial growth. In other words, what is commonly called a loam is the ideal type for general agricultural and horticultural purposes. This may be a heavy loam, in which clay predominates, or a so-called light loam, in which sand particles predominate. An examination of a handful of soil by a person experienced in farming will indicate its nature and its adaptability to ordinary crop production.

_Essential Elements of Plant Food._--Countless scientific experiments in plant growth show that potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are essential to normal development. The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly 99 per cent of the entire composition of the plant and are derived from the atmosphere. All of the other elements are derived from the soil except in the case of peas, beans, clovers and other legumes which secure most of their nitrogen from the air.

The mineral elements are not needed in large amounts but well-balanced plant growth is strictly dependent upon their presence in available form. Of these elements, those most likely to be deficient either in total amount or in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. It is entirely feasible and economical to apply concentrated chemical fertilizers containing the first three elements so that their lack will not constitute a limit to size of crops harvested. In many cases it is necessary to apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory yields, even where natural manures are available and can be applied as well.

In addition to supplying essential plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium perform specific functions in plant growth. The application of nitrogen in one of its readily available forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If too much of this one element is applied, leaf and branch development may occur at the expense of the crop. Good results follow the use of nitrogen on grass sods and on leafy vegetables like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans and other seed-forming crops need to have the nitrogen balanced with phosphorus. Potatoes, in common with other tuber and root crops, will utilize plenty of potassium in the development of starch.

_Sources of Plant Food._--Chemical fertilizers can be purchased at supply stores in ready mixed condition and of analyses that will meet general crop needs. A good formula for such a general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5 per cent nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 to 10 per cent potash to the ton. It is known that such a mixture will supply the food needs of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts. Highly concentrated mixtures are now on the market providing double the amount of plant food in the example quoted, costing nearly twice as much but effecting a saving by cutting in half the material handled to get the same result. Care should be taken, in using these highly concentrated fertilizers, to avoid contact with tender roots. A mixture for general farm and garden purposes may contain the following ingredients:

100 pounds nitrate of soda
230 pounds sulphate of ammonia
250 pounds animal tankage (7 per cent nitrogen)
1,140 pounds superphosphate (16 per cent phosphoric acid)
280 pounds muriate of potash (50 per cent potash)
-----
2,000 pounds.

This mixture will have a formula of 4-9-7 (4 per cent nitrogen, 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 per cent potassium). The individual who wishes to mix his own fertilizer may do so by purchasing the finely ground ingredients separately, and by means of a shovel, integrate them all into a mixture. Home mixing will not be found profitable where small amounts of fertilizer are used. Those who practice home mixing for the first time should realize that most combinations of ingredients will "set" or harden if not used immediately, necessitating the breaking up and pulverizing of the mass. When it is broken up after curing, no further difficulty should be experienced with "setting" if the mixture is kept in a dry place. The advantages of home mixing for the large user lie in lower cost per ton of plant food as a rule; confidence in the quality of the ingredients which he should purchase on the basis of guaranteed analysis; and the setting up of a mixture which study of his soil and the plant requirements has convinced him is best suited for his individual case.

_Chemical Soil Analysis Not Helpful._--There is a mistaken notion that it is necessary to analyze soils chemically in order to fertilize them intelligently. Such an analysis of a reasonably fertile soil will show the presence of the essential elements of plant food, though perhaps not all in sufficient amounts, to produce ordinary crops for centuries to come. Only a small amount of the elements become available for root absorption each year and a chemical analysis will not bring out this most important factor--availability. The use of a few simple tests, mainly of a physical nature by a competent soils specialist, will prove of some assistance in the treatment of the soil. Such tests will show the presence of adequate amounts of humus, and indicate the acidity content. The soil texture will give some index of its crop adaptability and thereby serve as a basis for fertilizing treatment that will meet the needs of both soil and crop. The practical man will not expect any considerable aid from a highly technical and costly chemical analysis of his soil.

Another factor that militates against worth-while benefits of chemical soil analysis is the great variation in soil types frequently occurring in the same field. To attempt to draw a representative sample by mixing soil from several areas might result in a specimen that would not be really typical of any area. For the purpose of ordinary physical examination and testing for acidity, representative soil samples should be taken from several parts of the same soil type, mixed together and a composite sample for testing drawn from the mixture, weighing not less than a pound in each case. If the soil is quite apparently variable it may be necessary to draw two or more composite samples from the same area. Very helpful service in intelligent soil treatment may be secured from the county agricultural agent and the state college of agriculture in the county or state of residence.

_Legumes as Soil Improvers._--A means of soil improvement that is well understood by progressive farmers is the use of legumes to improve the soil. The legumes include a large family of plants of which the bean, the pea and the clovers are outstanding examples. Such plants have on their roots nodules which house nitrogen-gathering bacteria. These bacteria absorb nitrogen from the air in the soil and, in the ordinary process of growth, death and decay, make this nitrogen available to the host plants, leaving a residue in the soil for the roots of plants that are to follow. Thus this group of plants, known as legumes, have been used for generations as a method of increasing the nitrogen content of soils. Nitrogen, incidentally, is the most costly element to buy in commercial fertilizers. The soil-improving benefits of legumes may be secured by growing them either for harvest as a source of animal food or for plowing under as a means of utilizing them entirely for the development of soil fertility.

In reading of the studies of soil fertility that were made by George Washington at Mount Vernon, we learn of the improvement that he made in the relatively poor soils of that area by growing plants of the legume family. The actual reason why such improvement was brought about was not known in Washington's time, but the results were apparent. Today, the value of legumes as soil builders is well recognized and we understand much more definitely than Washington did the reasons for their being so helpful in increasing crop production.

Many soil areas do not contain the particular type of bacteria necessary to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by legumes. This is frequently the cause of failure in growing alfalfa, soybeans, cowpeas and less well known members of the legume family. Each legume has its own type of nodule-forming bacteria. In order to assure the presence of the proper bacterial family, means often must be employed to add them to the soil where the specific crop is to be grown. This may be accomplished by adding soil from an area where the legume does well to the new area, or the seed may be inoculated with commercial cultures before seeding. Either method is effective. If soil is used it should be drilled in or spread on a cloudy day to prevent the destructive action of the sun's rays on the exposed minute forms of plant life we call bacteria.

If it is not known that the legume to be planted has been grown successfully in a given field within the previous several years, the precaution of adding the proper bacteria should be taken. In some sections, such legumes as red, alsike, crimson and white clovers have been grown for many years and the bacteria for these plants are well distributed. There, inoculation is not necessary for these crops, but it probably should be practiced if other legumes such as alfalfa, cowpeas or soybeans are to be grown on land for the first time.

_The Value of Humus._--In addition to the chemical elements of plant food, all productive soils contain decaying vegetable matter, generally classified under the term "humus." Humus serves as a source of acid-generating material which further breaks down soil particles and, most important of all, serves as a food for millions of microscopic plants which develop and die quite beyond the scope of human vision. These constitute a type of bacteria which are distinctly beneficial and essential to human life since they make possible the growth of larger plants that serve as human food.

Green plants, straw or leaves, when plowed under or spaded in the soil, are attacked by bacterial agencies which gradually turn these products into humus. The same process occurs when a "compost" is set up. This is made of leaves, manure, soil, straw and other materials thrown into a heap and allowed to decay. Such compost is excellent for placing around plants when setting them out, since it holds moisture, supplies fertility and creates optimum conditions for young root growth. Under practical field conditions, humus may be added to soils by spreading animal manures, followed by plowing them down, or by the growing of heavy green crops such as wheat, rye, cowpeas or vetch and turning the entire mass under with the plow when they are at their height.

_Lime and Its Application._--Reference has been made to the fact that calcium is an essential plant food and is frequently deficient in soils. As a matter of fact, the great majority of soils are deficient in calcium and their productiveness is inhibited thereby. Lime supplies calcium and also magnesium as food for plants. Its application accomplishes many other desirable things such as correcting soil acidity. The growth of beneficial bacteria is greatly stimulated in a soil that has had its acidity neutralized by the application of lime. This product, therefore, creates a more congenial condition for the growth of bacteria, which, in turn, make for better crop production. Lime is also beneficial through furnishing the element calcium with which other plant foods combine chemically and thereby become soluble in the soil water. Unless plant foods are in a state of solution, they cannot be absorbed by plant roots. Lime is a potent force in creating chemical reactions in the soil, resulting in the stimulation of growth through increased absorption of essential elements in solution.

Lime also benefits soils of a clayey nature through its ability to cement together the fine clay particles and in that way create air spaces so greatly needed in tight clay soils. Lime is beneficial, too, in the case of soils which have a large proportion of sand or large particles, and serves as an agent in creating a better condition of tilth and of moisture retention.

It makes little difference in what form lime is applied. It may be purchased and applied in the form of ground limestone, a rock rich in calcium which has been mechanically ground to a very great degree of fineness. It can also be applied in the form of hydrated lime. This is obtained by heating ground limestone and slaking it by adding water. A common example of this is the slaking of lime for whitewashing purposes. Another good source of lime is finely ground shells of oysters or other forms of sea life which collect the calcium from sea water and deposit it in their shells.

_Adjusting the Water Content of Soils._--Aside from the supplying of water by irrigation, a rather costly process under most conditions, the water resources of most soils can be greatly increased by adding to their humus content. Humus, which, it has been pointed out, is decaying vegetable matter, serves as a sponge for the absorption of soil water and for underground water supplies. Therefore, the more humus that can be plowed into the soil, other conditions being equal, the greater is the ability of the plants growing in that soil to withstand drouth. As soils are cultivated, the tendency is for the humus to become "burned out" and to have a reduced moisture-holding capacity. To overcome this tendency, it is necessary to add vegetable matter to the soil whenever it is possible. Incidentally, the incorporation of large quantities of humus in the soil creates a condition of acidity which may call for the application of lime as a corrective.

There are many acres of land which contain too much water in the area that roots should penetrate to permit of optimum plant growth. Roots of most plants will not penetrate where there is an excess of water, and air cannot circulate where moisture is superabundant. Usually these conditions exist where the soil is of a clayey nature. The abundance of water may be caused by the inability of surface water to percolate through the soil. It may take so long, due to the nature of the soil, for this water to pass through the lower depths of subsoil that the roots of plants are destroyed by lack of oxygen. In such cases the application of lime, increasing the humus content, and deeper plowing will be found helpful. Occasionally, the discharge of dynamite or blasting powder in the area, if it appears to be in the form of a pocket, will break up the hard pan subsoil and permit the water to escape. Less dependence is now being placed on this means of correcting a wet condition of the soil than was the case some years ago.

A similar condition of overabundant water in soil may be due to the presence of springs or to a high water table. Little can be done to correct a condition where the water table itself is so close to the surface as to inhibit plant growth and this is assuredly one of the factors to be looked into before a tract is purchased. Where the surplus water is evidently being supplied by a spring, an underdrain made of tile pipe, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, can be laid as a means of conducting the water into a ditch or adjoining drain. In laying such a drain, it should be placed above the area where the wet soil surface is most evident. If such a drain is laid 18 inches to 3 feet deep above the wet area, it will cut off the water seeping down underground and carry it away. Good results cannot be secured if the drain is laid directly in the area of extreme wetness or if it does not cut off the flow of water before it reaches the area that is consistently too wet for plant growth.

From what has been said in this brief description of soil treatment and soil improvement, it is evident that one must live with his soil for some time in order to understand it and to be able intelligently to correct its deficiencies, overcome its weaknesses and make it capable of supporting plants which are desirable from the owner's point of view. In the great majority of cases, the improvement process, while a slow one, is far from hopeless and almost any soil that is not extremely sandy or clayey can be so intelligently treated as to make it productive.

_Cultivation._--Any discussion of soil treatment is not complete without mention of cultivation. Intelligent cultivation is an essential factor in securing adequate crops. It is interesting to recall that the word "manure," which has come to mean fertilization or fertilizer, is derived from the Latin word "_manus_" meaning "hand" and implying "manipulation" of the soil, which we now call cultivation. Cultivation has been most frequently practiced as a method of destroying weeds, thereby making all of the available plant food subject to absorption by the roots of the desired plants and not by the intruders we call weeds. Cultivation does more than destroy weeds, however. It opens up the soil so that air containing atmospheric nitrogen can penetrate it and so that the bacteria requiring air for their best growth may have it available. Furthermore, cultivation conserves moisture and is more essential during dry periods in the growing season than at any other time.

We know that in entering the soil the rain water follows certain channels in and around the soil particles on its way to the subsoil. When the rain has ceased and the top layer of soil becomes dry, the tendency is for the water to work up through these same channels to the surface, where it evaporates. Cultivation, by breaking up these channels, or capillary tubes, checks the escape of moisture into the air. It creates a blanket of dry surface soil which insulates the soil moisture from the air above. The tendency of soil moisture to reestablish capillary methods of escape makes recultivation necessary from time to time in dry weather. Care must, of course, be taken that the cultivation is not harmful to roots of growing plants. If these roots are disturbed or destroyed through cultivation, more harm than good may result because of the damage to the root systems.

_Farm Power and Equipment._--Where the land area to be cultivated is larger than the family garden some type of equipment for working the land, propelled by horse or motor, will be found desirable and in larger areas essential. One or more horses may be used where there are stabling facilities and where arrangements can be made for the daily care and feeding that these animals require. A horse suitable for work purposes may be obtained for less than $200. The price will, of course, depend upon the age and physical soundness of the animal, but should not exceed $150 for a physically sound animal under ten years old. A person unskilled in the assessing of animal values should obtain the services of a veterinarian or an experienced horseman in making a selection. A horse for this purpose should be of quiet, tractable disposition, bred and broken for work purposes. The cost of caring for a horse for one year will approximate $125, including feed and bedding, but without labor charge.

Leather harness costing $25 to $50 will be required and in addition tools, including a plow, a harrow, and a cultivator costing about $15 each. Other special equipment such as a mower will cost considerably more, depending upon the type used.

If the members of the family are fond of animals and willing to assume the responsibility for their daily care, the horse will be found an efficient and useful source of power for tilling the land. In this connection it should be pointed out that flies breed with great rapidity in the strawy manure of the stable, and such wastes should be spread upon the land almost daily or treated to prevent fly-breeding.

_Tractor Power._--Just as large tractors have supplanted horses and horse-drawn equipment on thousands of farms in the United States, the so-called garden tractor has become increasingly popular for the tilling of small acreages. The tractor requires "feed" only when it is working, is not subject to the ills that beset animals, and may be used for twenty-four hours a day if necessary. It makes an appeal to the mechanically minded members of the household and, if properly cared for, will give economical and lasting service.

The usual type of garden tractor consists of two large wheels with lugs on them to give traction and is driven by a one- or two-cylinder motor. A plow, a cultivator, or mower may be attached to the drawbar, the operator walking behind and regulating the speed and guiding the outfit by handles provided for the purpose. Earlier types of these machines were not always satisfactory owing to construction weaknesses and occasionally balky motors. Those now on the market, however, are greatly improved, require less attention, and rival their big brothers, the powerful farm tractors, in dependability.

There are a number of types and makes of garden tractors now on the market, ranging in price from $175 or less to $400, the cost depending largely upon the size and capacity of the motor. In selecting a satisfactory garden tractor attention should be directed to the simplicity and power of the motor, the type of bearings, the method of lubrication of all moving parts, the working speed and the economy of fuel. Bearings ought to be of standard, long-wearing type since these are subject to hard service. Two speeds are desirable, a slow one for heavy duty and a faster one for lighter work. The tractor should operate all day on about 2 gallons of gasoline and a quart of oil. In addition to power applied at the drawbar where special tools are attached, a pulley will be found a desirable accessory for operating belt machinery such as small feed mills, pumps, and cream separators. The rating of the motor should be not less than 3 horsepower at the drawbar for the ordinary tasks it will be called upon to perform.