Chapter XII: Marketing Farm Products 170 (3)

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All types of attachments are available for the garden tractor. These include plows, disks, harrows, cultivators, mowers, fertilizer distributors, planters, sowers and seeding accessories. The prices of these vary according to make and quality. Levers are provided for adjusting the depth of plowing, cultivating and seeding. Some of the large type garden tractors are equipped with a seat on a sulky attached to the machine so that the operator can ride and have complete control over speed and the type of work he wishes to do. A modern garden tractor will be found very useful in taking care of a lawn or garden. In the case of larger areas under cultivation, but not of field size, this type of machine is rapidly gaining popularity for performing efficiently and economically the numerous jobs that are to be done on every small farm.

_Do's_

Select a soil type that is inherently productive, fertile, retentive of moisture and easily cultivated.

Supplement soil fertility by adding chemical fertilizers either singly or in combination.

Buy mixed fertilizers on the basis of guaranteed analyses.

Use legumes (peas, beans, etc.) to add nitrogen to soils and increase humus content.

Add specific bacteria for the production of various legumes.

Use manure and green crops to supply humus.

Apply lime when soil test shows need for it as plant food and general soil improver.

Practice methods that make soils absorptive of moisture and permit escape of excess water.

Cultivate the soil to check escape of moisture and to kill weeds.

Use a horse or garden tractor for cultivation of areas larger than the family garden.

_Don'ts_

Don't buy land that is continually wet and swampy.

Don't expect to produce satisfactory crops on soils that are extremely heavy or clayey or so sandy as to quickly lose moisture and fertility.

Don't try to produce crops without maintaining the humus supply in the soil.

Don't neglect cultivation as a means of conserving moisture, destroying weeds and stimulating root growth.

_Chapter_ VII

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

The home vegetable garden should supply an important part of the food for every family living in the country. Vegetables that are of the right varieties and that are fresh and properly prepared are nutritious, wholesome and economical. Not only does the well-organized home garden reduce the cost of feeding the family, but it constitutes an effective method of maintaining better health among all members of the household. Even common vegetables that are grown from the best varieties and served fresh will be a revelation to those accustomed to buying them in stores. Deterioration in quality and palatability begins immediately in vegetables when they are harvested. The more perishable the commodity, the greater is the rate of deterioration.

The commercial vegetable grower usually inclines toward varieties that are capable of producing a heavy yield per acre or that stand shipment and temporary storage with the least apparent loss from deterioration. In order to have his products reach the consumer in an attractive condition, the commercial grower usually must harvest them before they are at their best. The channels through which vegetables and fruits pass on their way to the city consumer are devious, slow and costly. Such a consumer therefore usually receives so-called fresh products that have been removed from the plant or the soil before maturity is attained and after such already poor quality has deteriorated through aging processes.

All these disadvantages of vegetables purchased in the city are eliminated by the possessor of a garden where he may produce his family's needs (and they are genuine needs) in the way of fresh vegetables. These products are essential in supplying such necessary elements as minerals, vitamins, acids, and cellulose. Dietary authorities advise that leafy vegetables, sometimes called "greens," contain food elements not found in root vegetables. For the maintenance of health, the diet should include a variety of vegetables besides potatoes.

_Assets of a Garden._--A garden is a source of recreation, pleasure and satisfaction to every member of the family. Real enjoyment can be had by working in it a little time each day. To those whose work may be sedentary and of a routine nature, the garden furnishes a source of inspiration and adventure. Daily evidences of plant growth and the novelty of having vegetables of one's own growing stimulate interest in it. The garden is an aid in maintaining health through physical exercise and the liberal consumption of the fruits of labor. There is no other avenue of activity that can afford so much in the way of health, economical recreation and pleasure as a well-planned garden.

The well-planned garden furnishes food throughout the year for the entire family.]

Having decided on a garden, the question immediately arises as to the procedure to be followed to get the most out of it. Special attention has been given to this problem by experts throughout the country and specific recommendations are now available on the subject at state agricultural colleges. These cover varieties, planting dates, adequate area, fertilization, rotation of crops and storage. Typical recommendations along these lines are given here for the north-central and eastern states. Readers living elsewhere may wish to check them with the practices recommended by authorities in their home states.

_Vegetable Growing by Rule._--The most effective method of presenting the story of recommended vegetables, desirable varieties, seed required, average yields and other pertinent data is in tabular form, such as that used in Table I, which has been prepared for the aid of home vegetable gardeners by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, and which is based on years of study of the subject. Table II, prepared by the Michigan State College of Agriculture, shows the amount of seed that should be purchased to supply an adequate quantity and variety of important vegetables for a family of six persons.

Examination of the planting table will show that the setting of plants or roots is occasionally recommended instead of the use of seed. This is desirable in some cases to get quicker results and in other cases is essential if a crop is to be secured during a normal growing season. While it is possible for the grower to raise these plants, or sets, himself, usually more satisfactory results can be obtained through buying them from a capable plant grower. The growing of sets is a specialized business requiring conditions of heat, moisture, fertility and skill, frequently beyond the patience and capacity of the amateur. There are plant growers in nearly every neighborhood who will grow the needed plants at small cost. Arrangements should be made in advance for growing the varieties or strains that are wanted, and usually the grower can furnish his own seed for the plants if that seems desirable to him. One desiring to grow one's own plants from seed can secure full information from a practical grower or from state and county agricultural agencies.

TABLE I

PLANTING TABLE FOR VEGETABLES[1]

-----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------------+
| | | | Distance |
| | | | between |
| | Seed | Depth | rows for |
Name of | Variety | for |to sow |cultivation,|
vegetable | | 100- | seed, | inches |
| | row |inches | |
| | | +------+-----+
| | | |Horse | Hand|
-----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------+-----+
Asparagus |Washington, Palmetto |1-yr.- |8-10 | 5 ft.|4 ft.|
| |old |roots | | |
| |roots | | | |
Beans | | | | | |
Green bush |Stringless Green Pod, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 18 |
|Bountiful | | | | |
| | | | | |
Yellow bush |Currie's Rust Proof, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 18 |
|Davis' White Wax | | | | |
| | | | | |
Pole green |Kentucky Wonder, |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 36 | 30 |
|Old Homestead | | | | |
Bush lima |Fordhook |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 30 | 30 |
| | | | | |
Pole lima |King of the Garden |1/2 pt.|1-1-1/2| 48 | 36 |
Beets--early |Crosby's Egyptian |1 oz. | 1 | 28 | 15 |
Late |Detroit Dark Red | | | | |
Cabbage--early |Jersey Wakefield, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30 | 30 |
|Copenhagen Market | | | | |
Cabbage--late |Danish Ball Head, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 36 | 30 |
|Succession, | | | | |
Cantaloupe |Early Knight, |1/2 oz.| 1 |54-60 | 40 |
|Fordhook | | | | |
Carrots |Chantenay, |1 oz. | 1/2| 30 | 15 |
|Oxheart | | | | |
Celery |Golden Self-blanching,|1 pkt. | 1/4| 36 | 30 |
|Easy Blanching | | | | |
Corn--early |Golden Bantam, |1/4 lb.| 1 | 36| 30|
|Howling Mob | | | | |
Corn--late |Golden Bantam, |1/4 lb.| 1 | 36| 30|
|Evergreen | | | | |
Cucumber |White Spine, |1/2 oz.|1/2-1 | 48-60| 48|
|Davis Perfect | | | | |
| | | | | |
Eggplant |New York Improved, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 48| 48|
|Black Beauty | | | | |
Endive |Green Curled, Broad |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 18|
|Leaved Batavian | | | | |
Kale |Scotch Curled, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 18|
|Siberian (over winter)| | | | |
Kohlrabi |White Vienna |1 pkt. | 1/2| 30| 15|
Lettuce | | | | | |
Spring and fall|Green-leaved Big Bos. |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15|
Summer | N. Y. Salamander |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15|
Romaine | G. R. Exp., Trianon |1 pkt. | 1/2| 18-20| 15|
Okra |Perkins Long Pod |1 oz. | 1 | 36| 30|
Onion sets |Yellow Strasburg, |1 qt. | 1 | 18| 14|
|Japanese (Eberheser) | | | | |
Onion seed |Yellow Globe Danvers, |1 oz. | 1/2| 18| 14|
|Southport Globe | | | | |
Parsnips |Hollow Crown |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 18| 15|
| | | | | |
Peas |Little Marvel, |1 pt. |1-1-1/2| 30| 30|
|Laxtonian, Telephone | | | | |
Peppers |Ruby King, Pimento |1 pkt. | 1/2| 36 | 30 |
| | | | | |
Potatoes |Irish Cob., Green Mts.|1/2 pk.|3-4 | 36 | 36 |
Pumpkins |Cheese, Small Sugar |1 oz. | 1/2| 60 | 60 |
| | | | | |
Radish |Scarlet Globe, Icicle |1/2 oz.| 12 | 15 | 5 |
| | | | | |
Rhubarb |Victoria |Roots |5-6 | 48 | 48 |
| | | | | |
Spinach--spring |Bloomsdale, Savoy |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 20 | 15 |
Spinach--summer |New Zealand |1 oz. | 1 | 48 | 36 |
| | | | | |
Spinach--fall |Va. Dis., Resist. |1/2 oz.| 1/2| 20 | 15 |
|Savoy | | | | |
Squash--summer |Gold. Sum. Crookneck, |1 oz. |1-1-1/2| 48 | 48 |
|White Bush Scallop | | | | |
Squash--winter |Boston Marrow, |1 oz. |1-1-1/2| 72 | 72 |
|Warted Hubbard | | | | |
Sweet potatoes |Yel. Jersey |Plants | -- | 36 | 36 |
Swiss chard |Lucullus |1 oz. | 1/2| 30 | 30 |
| | | | | |
Tomatoes--early |Chalk's Early |Plants | 1/2| 48 | 36 |
|Jewel, Bonny Best | | | | |
Tomatoes--late |Matchless, Stone |Plants | 1/2| 48 | 36 |
Turnips |Purple Top Strap. Leaf|1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 |
Rutabagas |Golden Ball, |1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 |
|Lg. Island Improved |1 pkt. | 1/2| 24 | 15 |
-----------------+----------------------+-------+-------+------+-----+

--------+--------+------------+-------------+-------
| | | |
| | | |Average
Distance|Time of | | Average | days
between |planting| Time of | yield | from
plants |seed | harvest | 100-foot | seed
in row, |outdoors| | row | to
inches | | | |harvest
| | | |
--------+--------+------------+-------------+-------
16 | -- |Spring- |15 2-lb. |2 yr.
| |July 1 |bunches |
| | | |
| | | |
3 |Apr 15 |June 20 |2 bu. | 40-65
|July 15 |Sept. 15- | |
| | Frost | |
3 |Apr. 15 |June 20 |2 bu. | 50-70
|July 15 |Sept. 15- |2-2-1/2 bu. | 95-100
| | Frost | |
10-30 |May 1-20|Aug. 15 |2-2-1/2 bu. | 95-100
| | | |
10 |May 1- |Aug. 1-Frost|2 bu. |110-120
|July | | |
36 |May 15 |Aug. 1-Frost|2 bu. |110-120
2-3 |Apr. 1 |July 15 |2-2/1/2 bu. | 45-60
|July 20 |Nov. 15 | |
18 |Apr. 15 |July-Sept. |45-55 heads |100-120
| | | |
18 |July 1 |Oct.-Nov. |45-55 heads |120-150
| | | |
48 hill |May 15 |Aug. 10 |6-8 fruits | 90-1l0
| | |per hill |
1-1-1/2 |Apr. 1 |Aug. 1 |2 bu. | 65-90
|July 1 |Nov. | |
6 |June 1 |Sept. 15 |200 stalks |120-150
| | | |
15 or 30|May 1 |July 12 |4 doz. ears | 60-75
hill | | | |
18 or 30|June 15 |Aug. 20- |4 doz. ears | 75-90
hill |July 1 | Frost | |
48 hill |May 15 |July 10 |200 cucumbers| 60-75
| |Aug. 20 |1-1/2 bu. |
| | | pickles |
48|June 1 | Aug. 20- |125 fruits |140-160
| | Frost | |
56|Apr. 15 |June 15 |65 plants | 60-90
|July 15 |Oct.-Nov. | |
18|Apr. 1 |June 1 |60 bu. | 55-65
|Sept. 1 |Apr. | |
3-4|Apr. 15 |June 15 |2 bu. | 50-70
|Apr. 15-|Aug. 15-Oct.| |
14-18|June 1 |Oct. |70 head | 70-90
14-18|May 15 |June 1 |70 head | 70-90
14-18|Aug. 1 |July-Aug. |70 head | 70-90
10-15|May 15 |Aug. 10 |900-1000 pod | 90-140
1|Apr 1 |May 15 |140 bunches | 45-75
| | | |
1|Apr. 1 |Aug. 20 |1-1/2-2 bu. |110-130
| | | |
3-4|Apr. 1- |Sept.-Nov. |2 bu. |140-160
| May 15 | | |
2|Apr. 1- |June 10-July|2 bu. | 45-70
| 15 | | (in pods) |
18-20 |May 15 |Aug. 15- |5 bu. |125-150
| | Frost |(6 per plant)|
14 |Apr. 15 |July 1 |3 bu. | 90-120
48 |May 15 |Sept. 1- |75 pumpkins | 70- 90
| | Frost | |
1 |Apr. 15 |June 1 |100 bunches | 30-65
|Sept. 1 |Oct. 25 | |
48 |Mar.-Apr|May-Nov. |8-10 stalks | 1 yr.
| | |plant |
2 |Mar. |May |3 bu. | 45
36 |Apr. 15 |June 15 |Cut all | 65-120
| | |summer |
2 |Aug. 15-|Oct.-Nov. |3 bu. | 50-60
|Sept. 15| | |
48 |May 1 |July 10 |136 squash | 60-70
| | | |
48 |June 1 |Oct. |75 squash |120-130
| | | |
18 |May 15 |Oct. 1-10 |3 bu. |140-150
6 |Apr. 15 |June 5- |Pull until | 50
| | Frost | frost |
36 |May 15 |July 10-Aug.|4 bu. |120-150
| | | |
36 |June 1 |Aug. l-Frost|4 bu. |150-170
2 |Apr. 1 |June 1 |2 bu. | 45-70
2 |Aug. 1 |Oct.-Nov. |2 bu. | 45-70
2 |Aug. 1 |Oct.-Nov. |2 bu. | 45-70
--------+--------+------------+-------------+-------

TABLE II

AMOUNT OF SEED TO PURCHASE FOR FAMILY OF SIX[2]

_Planning and Operating a Home Garden._--In planning the home vegetable garden there are a few essential points to be kept in mind. The time to plan the garden is in winter when adequate consideration can be given to the selection of those vegetables that the family likes best and can use in large amounts. Seeds required should be ordered early for the entire garden. By drawing the plan of the garden on paper and following it, the procedure is simplified and the most efficient results attained.

Vegetables should be planted in rows rather than in beds, and those maturing at about the same time should be grouped together to facilitate succession planting. After the early-maturing crops have been harvested, other crops can be sown on the same area, thus fully utilizing the land throughout the growing season. Perennial crops, including asparagus and rhubarb, should be kept by themselves.

A practical farmer wanting to express perfection in soil preparation is apt to say, "It is just like a garden." This implies good fertility, optimum moisture conditions and proper tilth. To attain these conditions in garden soil it is desirable to cover it with strawy manure some time previous to plowing, in order that rains may carry the soluble fertility elements into the surface inches of the soil. In the early spring a thorough job of plowing or spading should be done to reasonable depth, completely covering the surface straw or dead plants. Every two or three years lime should be applied after plowing and worked into the top soil at the rate of 1 pound of hydrated lime to every 25 square feet of soil.

_Fertilizing and Culture._--The fertility supplied through application of manure should be supplemented by the use of commercial fertilizer. This can be purchased in burlap bags from local supply agencies and should contain about 5 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 per cent potash. Moderate variations in analysis from 5-8-7, as above, are not important so long as the amounts of each element are well balanced. The fertilizer should be broadcast over the garden after plowing, at the rate of 1 pound to every 25 square feet and worked into the soil before planting. Poultry or sheep manure may be used as top dressing to alternate with commercial fertilizer. It should be borne in mind that such animal manures are richer in nitrogen than in other elements and if used to excess may stimulate leaf growth at the expense of yield and quality.

Frequent shallow cultivations are desirable. The ordinary wheel hoe will be found helpful in the cultivating procedure. It should be well understood that cultivation is essential to prevent weed growth and conserve moisture.

If watering or irrigating is necessary in dry weather, it should be thoroughly done. One soaking of the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches is far more effective than frequent light sprinklings. The latter may be more harmful than beneficial through reestablishing capillary movement, permitting the escape of subsoil moisture. Water should be applied under the same conditions that apply when rain falls--on cloudy days or after sunset to prevent "baking" or encrusting of the surface soil as well as to conserve the amount of water needed.

_Meeting the Insect Problem._--The sponsor of a garden in which diversified vegetables are grown must be prepared to meet the onslaught of equally diversified insect species. While it is true that insects are multiplying as to species and voraciousness, it is equally true that methods of control are becoming available to cope adequately with most of them. One unfamiliar with our insect infestations will be amazed to find that certain species apparently have had advance notice of his intentions and are sitting about the planted rows awaiting the appearance of the tender shoots.

One of the best methods of combating insects is to create ideal conditions for plant growth. Plants that are underfed through inadequate soil fertility or are weakened by other causes suffer severely from insect attack, while vigorous plants will come through with much less damage. It is advisable to insure rapid germination of seed through careful soil preparation, to seed at the proper time for a quick and vigorous start and to have sufficient available fertility to stimulate growth once the plants have started.

There are two distinct classes of insects, the division being based upon their feeding habits. The larger group, both in the size of the insects themselves and in the number of species, is the leaf-chewing group. These can be destroyed by the application of stomach poisons to the plants under attack. The other group consists of the sucking insects, which penetrate the veins carrying nourishment to the leaves and appropriate it for themselves. Such insects multiply with extreme rapidity, generally feed on the underside of the leaves and may cause complete wilting of the plant before their presence is suspected. In such cases a "contact" spray or dust must be used. This is based on the principle of causing the insect to "inhale" the material through breathing pores along its body. The insecticide must be composed of extremely fine particles or must be of such an oily nature that it will readily penetrate such pores. In addition to these, certain repellent materials are being developed which cause the insect to seek food where the disagreeable conditions do not prevail.

TABLE III

PRINCIPAL INSECTS AND REMEDIES[3]

-----------------+--------------+---------------+---------------------
Plants attacked | Chewing | Character | Treatment
| insects | of damage |
-----------------+--------------+---------------+---------------------
Tomato, pepper, |Flea Beetles |They gnaw or |Dust or spray with
eggplant, turnip,| |eat small holes|a prepared nicotine
cabbage, etc. | |in the leaves. |or pyrethrum mixture.
| | |Bordeaux mixture
| | |sprayed, or dusting
| | |for disease is also
| | |effective as
| | |a repellent.
| | |
| | |
Asparagus |Asparagus |Feeds on the |Dust with either
|Beetle |shoots and |arsenate of lead or
| |brush. |calcium arsenate,
| | |mixed with 1 part of
| | |wheat flour. Spray
| | |with arsenate of lead
| | |or calcium arsenate,
| | |1 tablespoonful if a
| | |paste or 1/2
| | |tablespoonful if a
| | |powder, and 1
| | |tablespoonful of lime
| | |to 1 gallon of water.
| | |
| | |
All kinds of |Mexican Bean |Eats the under |Dust with 1 part of
beans |Beetle |side of leaves |magnesium arsenate
| | |mixed with 3 parts of
| | |lime, or dust the
| | |yellow larva under
| | |the leaves with a
| | |pyrethrum dust.
| | |
| | |
{|Cabbage Maggot| |Keep the ground
{| | |thoroughly cultivated
{| | |around the base of
Early cabbage {| | |the plant or use tar
and cauliflower {| | |paper discs for
{| | |larger plantings.
{| | |
{|Common Cabbage|Feed on the |Same as for asparagus
{|Worm |shoots and |beetle. Pyrethrum
{|and Cabbage |brush. |dust is also very
{|Looper | |effective.
| | |
| | |
Cucumber, squash,|Striped |Eats the leaves|Protect with a
and melons. |Cucumber |and the stem of|cheesecloth or do the
|Beetle |the very young |same as for the
| |plants. |asparagus beetle.
| | |
| | |
Pumpkins and |Squash Vine |Kills the vines|Take a sharp
squashes |Borer |by eating in |thin-bladed penknife
| |the stem. |and slit the stem
| | |lengthwise, opening
| | |it and killing the
| | |borer. Then bank the
| | |ground around the
| | |stem of the plant.
| | |
| | |
Tomato, eggplant,|Potato Beetle |Eats the |Same as for Cabbage
potato | |leaves. |Worm.
| | |
| | |
Tomato |Tomato Horn |Eats the |Same as for Common
|Worm |leaves. |Cabbage Worm.
| | |
| | |
Tomato fruits |Tomato Fruit |Eats the tomato|Same as for Cabbage
|Worm |fruits. |Worm.
| | |
Tomato, eggplant,|Cutworms |Cut the plants |Protect with paper
pepper, cabbage, | |off near |collars placed
and other crops. | |the surface |around the stem of
| |of the ground. |the plant, extending
| | |2 or 3 inches above
| | |the ground, or
| | |distribute poisoned
| | |bran mash, placing
| | |it near the plant.
| | |Thoroughly mix
| | |2 level
| | |tablespoonfuls of
| | |paris green in
| | |5 pounds of dry bran,
| | |then add from 4 to 6
| | |quarts of water in
| | |which 1/2 pint of
| | |cheap molasses has
| | |been mixed. Cutworms
| | |work at night,
| | |therefore apply the
| | |mash in the late
| | |afternoon or
| | |evening.
-----------------+--------------+---------------+---------------------
Plants attacked | Sucking | Character | Treatment
| insects | of damage |
-----------------+--------------+---------------+---------------------
Tomato, potato, |Leaf Hopper |Feeds under the|Dust or spray with
strawberries, | |leaf, causing |a prepared nicotine
and beans. | |a whitening and|or pyrethrum mixture.
| |curve of the |Bordeaux mixture is
| |leaves with |also effective as
| |a dying of the |a repellent.
| |edges. |
| | |
| | |
Practically all |Aphis |Sucks the |Either dust or spray
garden vegetable |(plant lice) |juices on the |with a nicotine or
plants. | |under side of |pyrethrum mixture as
| |the leaves and |recommended on the
| |on the stems. |package. Be sure to
| | |hit the insects on
| | |the under side of the
| | |leaves.
| | |
| | |
Cabbage group, |Red Spider |Sucks the |Apply a dusting
strawberries, | |juices from the|sulfur.
and beans. | |under side of |
| |the leaves, |
| |producing |
| |a whitish cast |
| |on the cabbage |
| |group and |
| |a brownish cast|
| |on the other |
| |groups. |
| |Especially |
| |prevalent |
| |during |
| |prolonged dry |
| |hot spells. |
-----------------+--------------+---------------+---------------------

Table III (pages 107-108) describes the character of damage done by both groups of insects, the plants attacked and the most effective methods of control.

_Do's_

Grow vegetables for health, recreation and economy.

Organize the vegetable garden for a maximum of output, variety of foods and to facilitate its care.

Use lime and chemical fertilizer or manure liberally for intensive culture.

Combat insects by stimulating plant growth and by using appropriate lethal products.

_Don'ts_

Don't plant a garden in hit-or-miss fashion, if maximum food return is expected.

Don't neglect first appearances of insect damage. Find out the cause of injury and use recommended measures for control.

_Chapter_ VIII

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

A wide variety of fruits may be grown satisfactorily for home use. Where no fruit trees are growing the best plan is to set out individual trees or bush fruits of the standard types and varieties, adding to the collection later as the needs of the family develop and the adaptability of the area for varieties manifests itself through crop production.

All fruits thrive best on a deep, well-drained soil. It is difficult to secure good results where the area is depressed and air drainage is poor. Elevation of the area planted is desirable therefore from the standpoint of both water and air drainage.

A number of questions confront the prospective grower of fruits. He needs to know, among other things, the kind of fruit to plant, the necessary distance between the trees or plants and the probable yield. The following planting guide will be found helpful in answering these questions.

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

PLANTING GUIDE[4]

The selection of varieties of tree fruits is highly important. Some sorts are preeminently adapted to home use because of their high quality of edibility while others are preferred for commercial production on account of their good shipping qualities and high yields per acre. It is advisable for the grower to inquire of his state agricultural college regarding varieties to plant. Responsible nursery firms will also advise on varieties that will best meet the needs of the purchaser from the standpoint of family use and adaptability to soil and climatic conditions.

The following varieties are recommended for general home use in north-central areas of the United States, subject to check by local authorities. The apple and peach varieties are given in the order of ripening.

Apples:
William
Wealthy
McIntosh
Rome
Stayman
Peaches (all freestone):
Golden Jubilee
Georgia Belle
Elberta
J. H. Hale
Pears:
Bartlett
Seckel
Cherries:
Montmorency or Early Richmond (sour)
Black Tartarian (sweet)
Plums:
Damson (blue)
Burbank (red)

About fifty strawberry plants will be needed for a row 100 feet long. Because of weed infestations in old beds, it will be more satisfactory to set a new row each year and destroy the old one. The plants during the season of setting should be trained to form a matted row about 2 feet wide. Mulching the plants after a freeze in the fall with straw or other similar material will prevent injury caused by "heaving" of the soil.

Currants and gooseberries should be pruned annually and only the one- or two-year-old wood retained for production. Thinning out in this manner will give better size and quality. Where the currant worm is troublesome the foliage should be dusted with arsenate of lead or Paris green as soon as it is well developed and before the fruit is started. About thirty currant or gooseberry plants will be needed for a 100-foot row, and they can be planted along a fence or other boundary line.

Blackberries and raspberries should be set 3 feet apart in the row, 100 feet requiring thirty to thirty-five plants. Old canes should be pruned out after fruiting and the weaker new canes should be removed when dormant, leaving 6 or 8 inches between the standing canes. Lateral branches should be cut back in early spring to about 1 foot in length and the upright canes cut back to uninjured wood, thus removing about two-thirds of the growth.

Grapes need severe pruning to produce satisfactory yields of good quality. This is best done in late winter. It is a good plan to prune so that from 15 to 30 or possibly 40 buds are left on each mature vine, depending upon the vitality of the plant. Two or three clusters of fruit will develop on the shoot that grows from each bud. A 100-foot row of grapes will require twelve plants. There are many fine varieties of grapes and several can be used in a single row.

In ordering stock for planting, care should be exercised in making sure of the reliability of the nursery. As a general rule it is better to order from a nursery in the vicinity, thus eliminating losses due to shipping great distances and also making sure that the varieties or strains were grown for use in the area in question. Upon the arrival of the stock from the nursery, it should be "heeled in" at once. That is, the roots should be covered in a trench so that they will not dry out before they can be planted in the desired location. In the case of a few trees that can be set immediately, this is not necessary.

Nearly all country places have sufficient area for planting small fruits and, as is the case with vegetables, freshness and fine-flavored varieties will compensate for the labor involved in growing them. Strawberries, currants, gooseberries, blackberries, red and black raspberries and grapes are especially desirable for home plantings. Some high-quality varieties are given for the choice of the home owner, subject to confirmation by authorities acquainted with specific conditions and intended primarily for home use.

Strawberries (in order of ripening):
Howard 17
Fairfax
Aberdeen
Joe
Chesapeake
Mastodon is recommended for the everbearing type.
Currants:
Fay
Wilder
Gooseberries:
Chautauqua
Poorman
Blackberries:
Russell
Ward
Eldorado for bush types
Black Diamond for the trailing type requiring a trellis and
ripening late in the season.
Red Raspberries (in order of ripening):
Ranere
Viking
Latham
Black Raspberries:
Cumberland
Quillen
Grapes (general list, in order of ripening):
Ontario (white)
Fredonia (black)
Delaware (red)
Brighton (red)
Golden Muscat (white)
Concord (blue)
Sheridan (black)
For those desiring a succession of blue-black varieties,
Fredonia, Concord and Sheridan are recommended.

_Controlling Insect and Fungous Pests._--Plant pests of various kinds infest tree fruits and small fruits. In general, the best method of controlling leaf-chewing insects is by applying arsenate of lead on the foliage. Care must be taken to avoid staining the fruit with poisonous spray or thorough washing will be necessary before it is safe to consume. The control of other insect pests and fungous plant diseases has been well worked out by agricultural experiment stations throughout the country, and these methods should be sought before attempting any campaign of suppression. A barrel spray pump, mounted on a hand truck or on a vehicle, equipped with plenty of hose will be found satisfactory for spraying plantings of modest size.

_Rejuvenating an Old Orchard._--The purchaser of an old-established farm will usually find he has acquired some apple trees of uncertain age and health. In many instances these trees can be renovated and rejuvenated so that they will again bear fruit. If the trees have several sound limbs and are making some growth each year, they may be considered worth saving. On the other hand, broken tops and limbs accompanied by large rotted cavities will create too great an expense if an attempt is made to restore them to usefulness. The varieties should be determined before serious efforts at renovation are undertaken, so that the strenuous work necessary for restoration may not be wasted on undesirable fruit.

_Steps in Renovation._--The first operation in renovation is pruning. Most of this should be done in early spring during the dormant season and supplemented in June or July when the trees are in leaf. Large broken limbs and dead wood should be removed, together with interfering branches, and those reaching too high should be headed back. At about the same time that pruning is started the loose bark should be thoroughly scraped off and burned, thus destroying insects and fungi that attack the fruit. Harboring places for further infestations are also thus removed. If the trees are badly in need of pruning, it is best to do the job over a period of two or three years rather than all at one time, due to the tendency of trees to "sucker" and develop a multiplicity of small non-bearing branches.

Spraying, fertilizing and cultivation, where that is possible, should follow the pruning and scraping jobs. Spray schedules and cultural practices best adapted to the region can be obtained without cost by applying to state or county agricultural agencies. Ordinarily two or three years are required to rejuvenate these trees and begin to secure a crop. Production will then increase in quantity and quality during succeeding years.

_Bees as Pollinators._--The production of fruits of all kinds is dependent upon pollination of their blossoms by bees and other winged insects. Bees of many species are useful in pollen distribution, but the most important is the honey bee, which is available in larger numbers just at flowering time, seeking nectar from the flowers. In large commercial orchards colonies of honey bees are set at regular intervals to insure adequate pollination, usually one hive per acre.

A practical method of adding to county life enjoyment and adding to income as well is the keeping of bees for honey production.

_Securing a Honey Crop._--Bee husbandry can be carried on successfully as a specialized side line where only small areas of land are available. Colonies can be located at one side of the garden or placed under trees where they will not be disturbed either through accident or by cultivation of the plot immediately surrounding them. The activity of the bees during the nectar-gathering season, accompanied by the well-known hum as they dart in and out of the hive, makes a genuine appeal to the country dweller. This appeal is heightened by the fact that they are working for him, in part at least, and without his having to pay for their raiding the nectar from the flowers around. He knows that his efforts in providing favorable working conditions for the bees will be repaid by a harvest of salable honey. A colony at full strength just at the right time will invariably gather a surplus.

_First Principles in Beekeeping._--The beginner in bee husbandry should purchase established colonies from a reputable business concern or from beekeepers in the neighborhood of his home. He should begin in a small way with a few colonies, learn the business with a small investment and then increase as his liking for the work develops and the market for the product expands. Being able to read the signs at the entrance to the hive is the surest way to success. Too much manipulation is just as harmful as neglect. The novice in beekeeping who is really interested and follows carefully a few details gained from a reliable bee book should harvest at least 30 pounds of honey a year from each colony. Experts get much larger yields and have been known to secure 200 pounds per colony and 200 sections of comb honey from one hive. The deciding factor in producing honey is the skill of the watchful beekeeper, assuming of course that there is a sufficient supply of nectar-secreting blossoms in the area.

The cost of engaging in bee husbandry is nominal. An established colony of the preferred Italian bees should cost about $8. The equipment should include two fitted supers for each colony in which the bees may store the honey, costing about $3 each; a veil to protect the head and face, linseed-oil-soaked canvas gloves, a bee smoker, a hive tool and a bee escape (needed for removing the bees from filled supers), each item costing less than a dollar. An additional piece of apparatus, a queen "excluder," is needed for each hive, to keep the queen in the lower chamber and prevent the mixing of stored honey surplus and developing bees.

The principal nectar-secreting plants are the clovers, sumac, buckwheat, cranberry and blueberry blossoms, goldenrod, asters and mallows. Since these plants bloom at varying periods during the growing season, the beekeeper will find it necessary to adjust his operations in accordance with the nectar-producing capacity of his own region. The experience of successful beekeepers will be found helpful as a guide in taking the successive and orderly steps necessary to secure maximum honey crops. In many states there are associations of beekeepers formed for mutual advantage and the promotion of the industry. The novice can hardly expect to learn unless he affiliates himself with such groups and attends their meetings. Subscription to a good bee journal is also desirable.

_Selling the Product._--Honey can be marketed in the comb or in glass jars in the extracted or crystal form. Many suburban beekeepers dispose of their crop in their own neighborhood or at roadside stands. Many food products are being promoted which contain honey as one ingredient, and this opens an attractive field to the resourceful beekeeper. The healthful qualities of honey for human consumption are being given greater recognition and it appears that the market for locally produced honey of high quality is steadily expanding.

_Do's_

Fruit trees should be included in every country homeowner's plan.

Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully, good quality fruit.

Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to be put in cans.

Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agricultural college.

Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems of management.

Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to produce honey.

Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get advice from experienced bee culturists.

Sell surplus honey in home markets.

_Don'ts_

Don't plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to climatic conditions.

Don't overlook the necessity of preparing for insect attacks in advance of appearance.

Don't establish bee colonies without making sure that proper care of them can be taken.

Don't try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry without frequently obtaining expert advice.

_Chapter_ IX

POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

The majority of the owners of small farm properties are interested in the possibilities of poultry keeping as a means of adding to the family income. Efforts in this direction are logical from a number of angles. For example, the keeping of poultry appeals to them as an interesting line of work for the sake of the activity itself. Furthermore, the cost of housing a comparatively large number of laying hens is not expensive, as compared with the investment required in other agricultural enterprises. Again, there is a ready market for the eggs and for the poultry in the neighborhood where the enterprise is carried on. No doubt, too, the more or less fabulous stories of easy profits have stimulated a desire to get into this business and to make it a rather important source of income. Again, there is the thought that the work involved in feeding and caring for the flock can be carried on by another member of the family when the owner or principal bread-winner is engaged in some other activity temporarily.

All these factors have tended to develop in the mind of the settler in the country a pretty definite idea that he can supplement the family income with poultry. Sometimes this idea is erroneous and there is apt to be little definite knowledge on the part of the new owner as to costs, problems and profits that are likely to accrue. It is the thought of the writer to outline some definite recommendations for the prospective poultryman which will enable him to safeguard his investment and prevent the very serious losses that have occurred to many who have not taken into consideration all of the factors involved.

_Soil Type._--The prospective poultryman will, if he is wise, make sure that the soil is adapted to the project. The ideal soil for poultry raising is sufficiently porous to furnish good water drainage and yet not so open or sandy as to be incapable of crop production. A porous soil is warmer than a clay soil and is more conducive to good sanitation through permitting moisture and debris to be carried quickly to the subsoil. If the subsoil is of a gravelly nature the natural condition will be improved. Presumably the same type of soil that will bear the poultry plant should be capable of producing garden crops, growing shade or fruit trees satisfactorily and producing grass and short-rooted crops that can be used in conjunction with the poultry plant or the beautification of the home surroundings. Consequently, the soil type must be productive and capable of improvement while being well drained and conducive to good sanitation. Heavy clay soils or those with rock strata close to the surface are to be avoided.

Successful poultry farms are operated on both level and rolling lands. Extremely flat topography should be avoided and also precipitous slopes. If the site is on rolling land the poultry plant should be located on a slope with southern exposure to secure warmth, quicker drying conditions and protection from cold north winds.

_Breeds of Poultry._--Fowls have been domesticated and bred for ages all over the world. As the result of various crossings a large number of types or breeds of poultry are available for present-day use and propagation. Some of these breeds are maintained for show or novelty purposes only and furnish an interesting field for the fancier.

For the person who is engaging in the commercial poultry business the choice of breed narrows to a very few utility types. For purely egg-producing purposes or for broilers weighing slightly over a pound at killing time, the light Mediterranean breeds are the most efficient. Less feed is needed for maintaining the egg machine itself and less room per bird required. Of these so-called egg breeds, the White Leghorn is in a class by itself. This breed is noted for its large white-shelled eggs which top the markets where this color egg is in demand. In the most intensive egg-producing areas of the country the White Leghorn predominates. On the other hand, this breed is not a good meat producer, the mature birds being light in weight.

For the dual purpose of egg and meat production the American breeds are the most popular. The principal commercial types of this general purpose group are Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. In some instances crosses of these breeds are proving good layers and highly efficient meat producers.

The Rocks, Wyandottes and Reds have bright yellow skin, shanks and beak which are desired in market poultry. They are good winter layers, particularly, and some strains have been developed that rival the Leghorn in the number of eggs per bird. Both the White and the Barred Plymouth Rocks are popular among those seeking a dual purpose breed, and being slightly heavier than White Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds they are preferred by many poultrymen. The latter two breeds are rapidly increasing in popularity and their best qualities are being brought out more uniformly by careful selection of breeding stock in each case. All of these American breeds lay brown eggs.

In addition to the egg and the dual purpose types of poultry epitomized by the Leghorn and the Plymouth Rock, respectively, there are breeds which are primarily meat producers. Less attention is paid to the egg-producing ability of these than is the case with the others mentioned. The Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans stand in high regard as economical meat producers. The Jersey Black Giant is a more recent addition to the popular heavy breeds, especially for the capon trade.

These Asiatic types grow slowly and are phlegmatic in movement so that they utilize feed for the economical development of high quality meat and attain great weight. For broilers of more than 1-1/2 pounds each, for roasting chickens and for capons, the dual purpose breeds are becoming more popular than the extremely heavy breeds due to their more rapid growth and more popular weight average at marketing time.

_Buying Stock._--The advantages of buying and maintaining definite breeds of poultry are now so well understood that the mixed or mongrel flock is fast disappearing. Having decided which type of fowl is best adapted to one's market and ideas, there is no difficulty in finding a breed that will fit the need. As has been pointed out, the attributes of high egg production or fine quality of meat are inherent in certain breeds. A single breed means uniformity in color, size and shape of the eggs which increases their marketability. More attractive appearance of the flock and greater efficiency from feeding without additional cost are other advantages pertaining to standardizing the flock as to breed.

Stock may be acquired as day-old chicks, as ten- to twelve-week-old pullets or as adult birds ready to lay. Hatching eggs may also be bought if desired, but it will be found more satisfactory and just as economical for the inexperienced person to buy the hatched chick or the more mature birds. The hatching and brooding processes are fraught with difficulties which may be especially acute for the amateur. The greatest demand at the present time, and properly so, is for day-old chicks. A highly specialized industry has been developed for the purpose of supplying this demand and a reputation for reliability has been established by many concerns catering to this trade.

_Poultry House Construction._--Where flocks of poultry are to be kept for egg production, special laying houses must be provided in addition to brooder houses that will be needed in any case.

One of the best types of brooder house is the two-room type developed by Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Such a house should be about 8 by 14 feet, and mounted on skids for convenience in moving. A movable partition divides the house into two rooms. Thus a cold room is provided for exercising and a warm room for sleeping. The marked difference in temperature between the two rooms helps to harden the chicks, while the reduced space about the hover conserves the heat.

A great deal of study has been given to the construction of laying houses for poultry. The purposes in mind have been to obtain maximum sunlight throughout the day, protection from storms and from dampness, and adequate ventilation.

In the construction of a modern laying house, 1 square foot of glass should be provided for every 20 square feet of floor space. The windows should be hinged so that they may be opened in warm weather. One of the commercial glass substitutes that are now on the market may be used instead of ordinary glass to allow violet light rays to reach the birds. The other openings permit free circulation of air through the house. They should be equipped with muslin curtains to be used during storms and in extremely cold weather. Such a house can be used the year round.

This sketch shows an end view of a practical and inexpensive shed-roof laying house. Detailed blue prints for use in constructing such a house can usually be obtained from county agricultural agents or state agricultural colleges.]

The floor of the laying house must be dry at all times if vigor and health are to be maintained. During the winter there should be about 10 inches of dry litter in the form of straw, peat moss or shavings mixed with the straw. Small windows in the rear wall will make for better distribution of the litter, since the birds scratch away from the light.

_Equipment and Appliances._--A great deal of hand labor and daily drudgery can be eliminated by equipping the house with properly constructed appliances. These will not only save labor but will also supply the birds with their needs at the time the need for certain materials is felt and thus contribute to health and flock efficiency.

The best method of feeding dry mash is from a hopper. This should be so constructed as to hold a reserve supply at all times that will run into the feed trough as it is consumed. Care should be taken in construction to prevent the birds from throwing out the mash with their beaks and thus wasting it.

Water fountains of a standard type that will furnish the birds with a constant amount of fresh water are available at poultry supply houses. Receptacles should also be provided for grit, ground oyster shell and charcoal which can be easily filled. A sloping board should be placed over these receptacles to prevent the birds from roosting on them and soiling the contents.

Bins so constructed as to be vermin-proof and moisture-proof should be available for storing the scratch grain and other concentrated feeds. Provision for storing litter where it can be kept clean and dry will be necessary. If long straw is to be used, a cutter operated by hand or by a motor will prove useful in fining the straw. The scratch grain will be spread through the litter on the floor, compelling the birds to scratch for it and thus obtain needed exercise.

_Artificial Lighting._--Modern laying houses are equipped with electric lights that are turned on and off automatically. Artificial lighting prolongs the hen's working day when the days are short, resulting in greater food consumption and more exercise which will increase egg production and give better health and stamina at seasons when more eggs augment profits. A 40-watt bulb should be placed in one receptacle with reflector for each 200 square feet of floor space, located midway between the front wall and the front line of perches.

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A Living from the LandChapter XII: Marketing Farm Products 170 (3)

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