Chapter II: Part 2

If the lower part of a wall is thicker by a brick than the upper part, it should be carried up its full thickness nearly to the top of the joists Fire Stops where ft is stepped back to the inside face of the upper part, thus forming with the plastering a fire stop at the top of the joists, while a projection of a quarter brick length should always be provided as a fire stop at the bottom of the joists, as shown in Fig. 12. If the wall is the same thickness throughout, the brickwork should be corbeled out between the joists two inches, the full height of the joists, to form a fire stop as in Fig. 13. The object of the fire stop is to block all possible passage of fire from the space between the joists to that between the furring strips on the wall, or the reverse. Without these fire stops, a fire originating in the floor could communicate with the furring space on the wall above, or originating in the furring space could communicate with the floor. With the stops, the fire is confined to certain spaces and is retarded instead of spreading. These corbels also serve the wholesome purpose of checking vermin of all kinds from passage through the floor and wall spaces.

[Sidenote: Ceiling Lath]

Figs. 12 and 13 also show the proper way of placing the lath at the corner of the ceiling so as to take full advantage of the fire stops. The ceiling lath, usually placed first, should be started far enough away from the side walls so that when the side wall lath is placed tight, as it ought to be, against the underside of the floor joist, there will be space enough for the plaster to push through and form a key touching the bottom brick of the corbel. As the corbel by construction is necessarily the distance of a mortar joint above the bottom of the joists, the openings are thus completely sealed by the plaster key. In cheap speculative buildings, these fire stops are too often omitted or a pretext for them is resorted to by projecting only one brick at the top or bottom of the joists. This, however, is as good as no fire stop at all. Figs. 14 and 15 show the lath as they ought not to be placed and also how false corbeling leaves the passages really unstopped, thus defeating altogether the purpose of fire stops.

False Corbeling Between Joists]

Masonry walls that are to be furred, sometimes have, as the work progresses, common wood laths laid in the joints of the brickwork on the inside face of the wall, about every seventh course, except over chimneys. The lath should be staggered so as to avoid two vertical lath joints in succession. These serve as nail holds for the furring strips as explained on page 24.

[Sidenote: Laying a 2-inch Wall]

Where local requirements demand a 12-inch wall, the method of construction is the same as in the 8-inch wall, except that two rows or tiers of backing brick, instead of one, are carried up to the advanced level of the face brick, leaving the thin spaces between the tiers of brick open as the best way of securing a warmer and drier wall. Of course, in the case of piers and points in the wall that carry heavy loads, all interior joints should be well slushed with mortar for evident structural reasons.

[Sidenote: Roof Plate Anchor]

Before the top of the wall is reached, the anchors for bolting down the roof plate should be placed and the brickwork carried up around them (Fig. 16). They should be made of half-inch bolts at least 12 inches long, with a tee or washer at the bottom and a nut and washer at the top, and should be set approximately every 6 feet along the wall. After the carpenter has placed the roof plate and before it is bolted down, the mason should bed with cement mortar under it.

[Sidenote: Nogging]

When the wall is finally carried to the top and the roof rafters set, but before the roof boarding is in place, the mason should fill in between the roof rafters with one tier of brick as shown in Fig. 16. This is called nogging. Its purpose is to block effectually the openings between the roof rafters and prevent the wind from entering the walls and attic. This adds greatly to the comfort of the house in cold weather. In warm climates nogging will be found unnecessary.

The Chimney

While the chimney may be made one of the most charming and effective elements of the house design, its structural and practical necessities are its most striking features.

The proper construction, size, and height of chimneys are of the utmost importance both for the successful working of the heating system and for the prevention of fires. The chimney may, though it need not be, a point of danger to the safety of the home. A little intelligent care in its construction will prove to be the best insurance. As a first precaution, all wood framing of floor and roof must be kept at least 2 inches away from the chimney and no other woodwork of any kind be projected into the brickwork surrounding the flues.

Chimneys should be tightly built of solid brick, have no openings except those required for the connection of the heating apparatus, and should always extend at least one foot above the highest point of the roof. In some cases, depending on local surroundings, it may be desirable to carry them somewhat higher. Those terminating below the level of the roof usually have poor draft because the wind, sweeping across or against the roof, may form eddies that drive down the chimney or check the natural rise of the smoke (Fig. 17).

[Sidenote: Flue Lining]

The flues of chimneys should not start from the bottom of the foundation but only about a foot below the first smoke pipe openings, and should be lined with terra cotta flue lining their entire height. Care should be taken in setting flue linings to be sure that the joints are well cemented and, at the same time, that all spaces between the lining and brickwork are tightly filled with mortar. Any openings in the joints of the tile lining, or even of the brickwork, not only check the draft but are a fire menace. Cement plaster should not be substituted for the flue lining as it is likely to crack and fall off, thus leaving the flue in a dangerous condition. However, where flue linings are not available, a strong smooth cement plaster may be used, in which case the chimney wall should be at least 8 inches thick.

Modern heating plants necessitate accurate construction of chimneys, and most manufacturers of heating apparatus nowadays recommend the area and height of the flue necessary for their installations. The following table will prove useful in considering the question of heating plant or fireplace, by showing the dimensions of flue linings to be ordered when the required area is ascertained.

Table of Commercial Flue Linings

_Outside Dimensions_ _Actual Inside Area_

8-1/2" × 8-1/2" 52 sq. in.
8-1/2" × 13 " 80 " "
13 " × 13 " 126 " "
13 " × 18 " 169 " "
18 " × 18 " 240 " "

[Sidenote: Offsets]

Where two or more flues are contained in one chimney, they should always be separated by a brick partition 4 inches thick, called a withe, and bonded to the outside brickwork as shown in Fig. 18. Chimneys should run as straight as possible from bottom to top, in order to secure better draft and facilitate cleaning. If, however, offsets are necessary from one story to another, they should be very gradual, never less than at an angle of 30° from the vertical. If abrupt offsets occur in flues, soot will soon be deposited, choking the flue and making cleaning almost impossible (Fig. 19). Care should be taken while the chimney is building that the bottom does not become filled with mortar or brick bats. At the bottom of the furnace flue in the basement, an iron cleanout door should be provided as a convenience for removing soot.

Chimneys erected on the interior of a building are apt to be more efficient because the warm air surrounding them facilitates the draft, while those located on the exterior naturally are somewhat affected by the cool air on the outside.

Angles, Bays, and Corners

All the houses represented in this book are designed without any obtuse or acute angled corners. If, however, you wish to erect a brick building with an angular corner or bay, specially shaped face brick for the purpose, called splay or octagon brick, may be obtained from the dealers or manufacturers. If for any reason these special shapes are not easily available, the angle may be formed by the use of standard size brick. The method shown in Fig. 20 is used only on cheap work and should be discouraged, for it leaves ledges for the lodgment of snow and dirt, decreases the thickness of the wall, and besides is rather unsightly. The better method, as shown in Fig. 21, also has the objection of forming ledges for the lodgment of snow and dirt, but it makes a wall of full thickness, and has been used by some architects in a very artistic manner. The best method of all, for treating these corners, is shown in Fig. 22. Standard bricks are used with the minimum amount of cutting. Fig. 23 shows a method of laying brick at an acute angled corner. It is simple to lay up, there is little cutting of brick, and it presents a better looking corner than one with a sharp angle.

Openings

Window sills in brick buildings should be of brick or stone. Cement, unless pre-cast, is not well adapted for the purpose. Brick window sills are preferable to stone for, besides adding a charming touch to the building, they are inexpensive since they are of the same material as the wall and placed by the same workmen who lay up the wall, thus obviating the necessity of additional labor to place the heavy stone. Brick for sills should be laid on edge and pitched approximately at an incline of 1 inch in 6 to shed the water. They should also project at least an inch beyond the face of the wall to form a drip, and be laid in rich cement mortar composed of equal parts of cement and sand, with joints well filled and finished with a hard smooth surface. Door sills may be of wood, brick, or stone. In case of a stone sill, it should be exactly the height of either two or three courses of brick.

[Sidenote: Window Frames]

The window frames are set by the carpenter on top of the sill in a thin bed of mortar. When they are leveled, plumbed, and braced, the brickwork is carried up around the jambs or weight boxes, as shown in Fig. 24, always making certain that the corner or jamb of the brick opening is perfectly plumb. Great care should be taken to fill solid with mortar the spaces between the brickwork and the window frame, to stop the wind.

Stock Window Sizes

_Double Hung Sash, 1-3/8" Thick_

_Glass Size, _Masonry
D. S._ _Lights[A]_ _Sash Size_ Opening_

16" × 16" 2 1'- 8" × 3'- 2" 2'-0" × 3'- 6"
16" × 26" 2 1'- 8" × 4'-10" 2'-0" × 5'- 2"
22" × 20" 2 2'- 2" × 3'-10" 2'-6" × 4'- 2"
28" × 26" 2 2'- 8" × 4'-10" 3'-0" × 5'- 2"
30" × 24" 2 2'-10" × 4'- 6" 3'-2" × 4'-10"
30" × 26" 2 2'-10" × 4'-10" 3'-2" × 5'- 2"
34" × 16" 2 3'- 2" × 3'- 2" 3'-6" × 3'- 6"
34" × 20" 2 3'- 2" × 3'-10" 3'-6" × 4'- 2"
34" × 26" 2 3'- 2" × 4'-10" 3'-6" × 5'- 2"
40" × 26" 2 3'- 8" × 4'-10" 4'-0" × 5'- 2"
42" × 26" 2 3'-10" × 4'-10" 4'-2" × 5'- 2"
52" × 26" 2 4'- 8" × 4'-10" 5'-0" × 5'- 2"

_Basement Sash, 1-3/8" Thick_

20" × 14" 2 2'- 0" × 1'- 5" 2'-4" × 1'- 9"
30" × 14" 3 2'-10" × 1'- 5" 3'-2" × 1'- 9"
42" × 14" 3 3'-10" × 1'- 5" 4'-2" × 1'- 9"

_Casement Sash, 1-3/8" or 1-3/4" Thick_

20" × 24" 4 2'- 0" × 2'- 5" 2'-4" × 2'- 9"[B]
20" × 36" 6 2'- 0" × 3'- 5" 2'-4" × 3'- 9"[B]
20" × 42" 6 2'- 0" × 3'-11" 2'-4" × 4'- 3"[B]
20" × 48" 8 2'- 0" × 4'- 5" 2'-4" × 4'- 9"[B]
20" × 56" 8 2'- 0" × 5'- 1" 2'-4" × 5'- 5"[B]

[Footnote A: If divided lights are wanted, a special order will be necessary, the total glass size remaining the same.]

[Footnote B: These heights are for outswinging casements; for inswinging casements, add 3/8" to the height of the dimensions given.]

Stock Door Sizes[C]

_Exterior Doors 1-3/8" or 1-3/4" Thick_

2'-8" × 6'-8"
2'-8" × 7'-0"
3'-0" × 6'-8"
3'-0" × 7'-0"

[Footnote C: Openings will be 4" wider and 2-3/4" higher than dimensions given.]

[Sidenote: Stock Sizes]

Brick linear dimensions should, wherever possible, be calculated so as to reduce cutting of brick to a minimum, especially where openings, bays, chimneys, and the like are concerned. Our plans are drawn with this in view; and to facilitate readily obtaining sash and exterior door sizes, we would suggest that contractors, so far as possible, use stock dimensions taken from the accompanying tables which cover the vast majority of requirements. For each mullion between grouped, double-hung windows allow 6 inches, and between casement windows 2 inches. The stock window frames, which are essentially the same as those used in frame construction, require no more labor to set and brace than in case of frame walls. All that is necessary is to box them in to make a housing for the sash weights. After the brickwork is laid around the frame, a staff bead or brick mold is nailed to its outside face, fitting snugly up to the brickwork, adding if so desired a scribing bead.

Should local stock frames vary slightly from the dimensions given, or if a scribing bead is used in addition to the regular staff mold, the brickwork can easily be laid so as to take up the difference. In case the masonry opening is finished before the frames arrive on the job, great care should be taken to have them built the exact size of the frame ordered, always taking into consideration the 1 inch to 6 inches slope of the sill, and the scribing bead if used.

Opening Supports

[Sidenote: Lintels and Arches]

[Sidenote: Relieving Arches]

The brickwork over all openings may be supported, either by a steel or wood lintel, or by a brick arch. Either the full thickness of the wall or the face brick only may be carried on a steel lintel or an arch. Lintels are rarely used in combination with semi-circular arches. When a steel lintel or an arch supports the face brick, the backing usually rests on a wooden lintel, set higher than the arch or else concealed by the frame. There should be a brick relieving arch above wooden lintels, spanning more than 3 feet, bearing on the wall beyond the ends of the lintel, so that the brickwork will not be weakened should the lintel be destroyed by fire (Fig. 28). The space between arch and lintel is filled with brick after the arch is built. Seasoned brickwork will support itself over the smaller spans.

[Sidenote: Steel Lintels]

For a steel lintel over a small opening, an angle is sufficient. If the interior wall surface is also to be of face brick, the lintel is made by placing two angles back to back, as the usual wood lintel in such a place would be unsightly. For openings up to 4 feet wide, a 4" × 3" or a 3" × 3" angle is sufficient; wider openings up to 5 feet would require a 3" × 5" angle. Over larger openings heavier sections of steel have to be used. Both steel and wood lintels are usually made 8 inches longer than the width of the opening.

[Sidenote: Brick Arches]

The brick arches generally employed in small buildings are flat, segmental, or full semi-circular (Figs. 25-29). The segmental and semi-circular arches are usually best built of rowlock courses, their number depending upon the width of the opening. Flat brick arches over two feet wide should be supported by steel, the brick being usually set soldier fashion. As these brick are slightly inclined from the vertical, their end edges should be clipped to make the joints on the face of the arch come in a horizontal line, as in Fig. 26. In Fig. 25, the appearance of the arch face is not so workmanlike and neat because the brick have not been clipped along the line of the middle joints. For either type of arch, the brickwork both sides of the opening must be beveled in the form of skewbacks, to serve as beds for receiving the thrust of the arch as shown in the figures. If these arches are properly handled both as to design and execution, they add greatly to the appearance of the entire wall surface.

Various Methods of Furring

[Sidenote: Wood]

[Sidenote: Hollow Tile]

[Sidenote: Metal]

The inside of all exterior brick walls should be furred, except in climatic conditions where it has proved unnecessary, in order to form an air space between the brickwork and the plaster. This furring may be of wood, hollow tile, or metal. The first, which is ordinarily used, consists of 1" × 2" wooden strips placed vertically on the wall and spaced 16 inches on center (Fig. 24). The strips are either nailed to the lath which have been placed in the joints of the brickwork by the mason, or attached by driving the nails into the mortar joints. The carpenter, in placing the strips, should wedge behind them where necessary to make them plumb. The grounds and lath are placed directly on these strips. Hollow tile furring is formed by splitting 3-inch or 4-inch "split furring" tile, which have been scored in manufacturing for this purpose, placing the webs against the brick wall, and anchoring them by driving ten-penny nails into the mortar joints over every third tile in every second course. The tile should be laid without mortar so as not to make a solid connection which would transmit moisture. This tile furring makes a good surface for interior plastering. Metal furring is only used with metal lath and consists of small steel rods or other stiffening members either placed separately on the wall or as part of the metal lath.

Cleaning and Pointing

Not until after the plasterer has left the job should the face brick be cleaned or washed down. This is done with a 5 per cent muriatic acid solution or about one pint of acid to four gallons of water. A stronger solution is likely to do injury. Apply with a good scrubbing brush to remove all dirt and spattered mortar, and then rinse with clean water. While washing the wall, defects in joints should be pointed up.

The Hollow Brick Wall

A variation of solid brick construction is the so-called hollow or vaulted wall in which the face and common brick are separated by a two-inch air space and bonded together by metal ties laid in the mortar joints at proper intervals. This type of wall has been extensively used for many years, especially in the East.

[Sidenote: For and Against]

Its friends claim that it is stiffer than a solid wall of the same amount of brick; that it offers a better insulation, by reason of the air space, against cold and dampness; and that therefore it saves the necessity of furring and fire stops on the interior wall surface. On the other hand, admitting the value of the air space and the consequent saving of furring, objection is made that the air space is apt to get filled with mortar and brick chips during construction; that the metal ties, unless heavily galvanized or dipped in asphaltum, rust out in a comparatively short time; and that it is not as strong a bearing wall as the solid wall of the same brick content. Mr. Arthur W. Joslin, a contractor and builder of Boston, whose extensive practice gives his judgment weight, says in summing up the pros and cons: "The 10-inch vaulted wall is strong enough for ordinary dwellings, even though the ties do rust out, unless it is built out of the poorest kind of brick with very poor mortar. In my opinion, a vaulted wall, if properly built, the vault not filled up with droppings, and provisions made for ventilating from the inside, is an ideal wall for dwelling house construction, but I would not recommend it for buildings for other purposes where there would be more or less of a dead load coming on the floors." On the matter of comparative costs, Mr. Joslin adds: "It is cheaper to build an 8-inch solid than a 10-inch vaulted wall, and slightly cheaper to build a 10-inch vaulted than a 12-inch solid wall."

The accompanying drawing shows a cross section of this type of brick wall. Except in a few particulars, its construction does not differ essentially from that of the solid brick wall as already described.

A 12-inch brick foundation is wide enough for the 10-inch wall and a 16-inch foundation for the 14-inch wall. The metal ties, heavily galvanized or coated with asphaltum, should be placed about 18 inches apart at every fifth or sixth course and extend at least 2 inches into the mortar joints.

Fire stops are not needed, nor is furring, as the plaster may be laid directly on the brick. In order to preserve the chief merit of this type of brick wall, great care should be taken, during construction, that the 2-inch air space be not allowed to fill up with mortar and brick chips.

FACE BRICK ON HOLLOW TILE CONSTRUCTION

The local ordinances in some municipalities require thicker walls with hollow tile construction than where common brick backing is used, which affects the comparative cost of the buildings; but, where the total thickness may be kept the same as for solid brick, the cost is practically the same, with slight differences one way or the other in different communities. The tile used for backing may be either soft or hard burned, but never with an absorption of over 12 per cent, and are scored variously so that there may always be a good keying surface for plaster. These tile may be set with the hollow spaces or cells running either horizontally or vertically, as the case demands or the builder chooses.

[Sidenote: Construction]

Walls of this form of construction are built in much the same manner as walls with common brick backing, except that it is always desirable to use cement mortar with the tile to insure the needed strength of bond. The face brick are first carried up four or five courses and then the hollow tile units, of whatever thickness chosen, are laid up behind the brick, leaving an inch space between the tile and brick (Fig. 31). The tile are laid, with broken joint as in running bond, in a half-inch mortar bed. When the tile width is over 4 inches, the mortar should be spread only on the front and back edges of the tile, leaving a hollow space in the center. In the vertical joints only the front and back webs require mortar. If vertical tile are used all the webs should be well mortared, while the vertical joints are simply buttered.

Care must be taken that the space between the tile and brick does not get filled up with mortar, for this would defeat its purpose of serving as an insulation against moisture and cold. With this one-inch space between brick and tile open, furring and lathing are saved, as the plaster may be directly laid on the tile and the necessity of fire stops avoided.

At window and door openings, in case 4" × 5" × 12" or 8" × 5" × 12" horizontal tile are laid, either common brick or special half and full closure tile (Figs. 31 and 59) should be used, in order to close the openings at the end of the horizontal tile courses, thus making around the frames good joints which should be tightly filled with mortar. When the 12" × 12" tile are laid horizontal, those in the window and door jambs need simply be set vertical to serve as closures.

It will be found that an even number of tile does not always work out with the length of the wall or pier, leaving a space of a few inches. This space may be filled by cutting a tile or using pieces of tile slabs.

[Sidenote: Tile Sizes]

For houses of the character presented in this Manual, tile either 4, 6, or 8 inches wide may be used, depending on local ordinance or the choice of the owner. A 5-inch backing may be obtained by simply laying the 4" × 5" × 12" tile on the 5-inch edge. Both 4- and 8-inch widths are made 5" × 12" or 12" × 12" in height and length. The 6-inch width generally comes 12" × 12" in height and length, but may be obtained in the 5" × 12" size from certain manufacturers, if so desired.

The 5" × 12" tile in either width are laid horizontal, while the 12" × 12" tile in either width may be laid vertical or horizontal. Either method is satisfactory although, for heavy bearing walls, some builders prefer the vertical method on the ground that it gives a stronger bearing wall because the vertical webs directly bear on each other. If laid vertical, the top course of tile should be placed horizontal to give a good bed for the wall plate.

[Sidenote: Face Brick to Tile]

Four courses of standard size brick, provided a 3/8-inch mortar joint is used, will equal in height two 5" × 12" tile, making every fifth course a bonding course (Fig. 31). And five courses of standard size brick, provided a 1/4-inch mortar joint is used, will equal in height one 12" × 12" tile, or if 1/2-inch joints are used, will equal in height 3 courses of 4" × 12" tile 5 inches wide, making every sixth course a bonding course. If wider mortar joints are desired, you can in the latter case make every fifth course a bonding course by using 12" × 12" vertical tile which you can order cut to any length required. But where either the 5" × 12" or the 12" × 12" tile are laid horizontal, the number of courses of face brick and the size of mortar joints cannot be changed.

[Sidenote: Bonding]

The face brick are bonded to the tile backing (Fig. 31) precisely in the same manner as previously explained for common brick, double headers being used in case of Stretcher Bond and the headers, wherever required, in other bonds (See page 18). But as this wall is full 9 inches or more thick, the headers in the bonding courses leave recesses one inch or more deep at intervals on the inside face of the wall (Fig. 31). These if shallow, should be filled with plaster, containing a large amount of fibre, before the regular plastering is started; if deep, as when the 8-inch wide tile is used for backing, a stretcher course of common brick or brick-size hollow tile fills the space.

The chimney construction does not differ in any essential from that used for the solid brick wall, but we strongly urge the use of brick for the chimney, rather than tile or concrete blocks, as affording more reliable protection for the flue.

The window sills, door sills, and lintels are the same as in solid brick construction except that, preferably, instead of the wooden lintel supporting the backing, the lintel be made of hollow tile filled with cement and reinforced by one or more steel rods (Fig. 32). These tile lintels should be made on the ground by standing the tile on end for filling. When the concrete is set, they are ready to be lifted into place.

[Sidenote: Laying Out]

The story heights should be figured so that an exact number of whole tile may be used from the bottom of the joists on one floor to the bottom of those on the next floor, always allowing one-half inch for the bed joints. But where this is not possible, special tile slabs one inch thick, which may be had from the dealer, should be used to obtain the exact height required, so that an even and solid bearing may be formed for the floor joists. The wall plates for the roof construction are anchored in the same manner as in the solid brick wall, except that anchors should be 20 inches long; likewise, brick nogging should be placed between the roof rafters.

As in the case of the solid brick construction, when the plasterers have gone, the face brick should be cleaned down and pointed where necessary.

FACE BRICK VENEER CONSTRUCTION

[Sidenote: Advantages]

As already indicated, this type of wall construction is preferred by some builders because it is somewhat less expensive than solid brick or hollow tile and can be more quickly built. The wooden frame may be completed and roofed before the brick veneer is started on the outside. If constructed according to our specifications, the veneered wall makes a much warmer and more comfortable house than frame, not only because the veneer wall is over 2 inches thicker than the frame, but because the brick veneering forms a solid monolithic shell that steadies the framework and is proof against the wind pressure that searches out the cracks and crannies of the less substantial construction. Furthermore, while the veneer house does not get the favored insurance rates of the solid brick structure, it is, if provided with a non-combustible roof, safe against adjacent fires; in fact, from the exterior, presents the advantages of a solid face brick house.

[Sidenote: Construction]

In this type of construction the studding is not placed at the face of the foundation wall, but set at the back of the wall, allowing sufficient space in front of the sheathing for the veneer of face brick. The studs are then sheathed as for the usual frame building and covered with building paper, held in place with 2" × 1" or 1" × 5/8" furring strips, laid on vertically or horizontally over each lap of paper and once between. The face brick, set one inch from the sheathing, are laid up, so far as the outer bond is concerned, in the same manner as for facing the solid masonry wall, and are fastened to the framework by metal ties spaced horizontally about on every stud and vertically every four or five courses (Fig. 33).

[Sidenote: Bonding Ties]

These ties are of two kinds, either corrugated metal strips with one end nailed to the sheathing and the other laid in the bed joints, or thirty-penny wire nails which must be spaced with the studs into which they are driven through the sheathing, so as to leave a projection sufficient to extend about one inch into the bed joints of the brickwork.

The last method is recommended as the most substantial and permanent, but care should be taken that the nails be driven with a slant into the wood frame at a point somewhat above the brick so that when tapped by a hammer they may be bent down to the level of the joint (Fig. 34). If they are driven in at the exact level of the brick, they will, when bent down, push the brick out of alignment.

[Sidenote: Sills and Lintels]

Brick window sills with this type of construction are the same as for the solid masonry wall, except that the inner ends of the brick must be cut to fit against the sheathing. The window and door frames are set in place as in frame construction. While the brickwork over openings may be carried on arches, steel angles are almost universally used for this purpose.

The brick porches should have the porch walls and piers of solid brickwork faced on both sides, with bond pattern or ornamentation following, in the main, the design of the house walls.

Chimney construction for the veneer house is the same as for the brick house, except that care should be taken in setting outside chimneys clear of the sheathing, so as not to cut into the frame construction.

Veneering Old Frame Structures

[Sidenote: Old House Made New]

It often occurs that a frame house is not kept in repair and depreciates to such an extent that the expenditure for necessary painting and repairs to restore it would amount to an unwarranted figure. Or, as in many cases, the frame house, though kept in fair condition by dint of frequent painting and repairs, is decidedly out of date, or lacks the "class" that surrounding buildings may have. This often applies also to the old spotted and stained stucco house. In either case, the owner suffers loss in the value of his investment. There is a simple way, however, to recover this loss and more than restore the value of his investment, and that is by veneering the house with an attractive face brick. The framing of the house is in all probability substantially sound, it is only the exterior that is dilapidated and outclassed. By veneering his house with a well-chosen face brick, laid in proper bond and mortar joint, the owner at a comparatively small expenditure has got what is to all intents and purposes a new house.

[Sidenote: Paying Investments]

In the first place, he has "painted" it once and for all with beautiful colors that will never come off, and he has eliminated all future paint and repair bills for the exterior where much of his cost of upkeep for the old frame house came. In the second place, he has a far more uniformly comfortable house with a very appreciable reduction of his coal bills, due to the solid, monolithic shell of brick covering the frame. Practical heating engineers engaged in installing heating apparatus calculate that in a moderate sized veneer house as compared with frame there is, during an average winter in the North, a saving of approximately 8 per cent on the coal bill.

Finally, he would have, so far as the community is concerned, or a possible future purchaser, an attractive modern face brick house, of which he may be proud as a place of residence, or which would be more profitable as a renting or selling property. The enhanced value of his property would be far beyond his expenditure.

[Sidenote: Increasing Your Profits]

Many contractors could comfortably increase their profits and keep busy through dull months by presenting the above facts to the owner whose old frame or stucco house needs repairs. Instead of giving him a staggering figure for repair work that is only temporary, he could be shown how, by investing a little more, he could greatly contribute to his personal satisfaction and substantially increase the value of his property. Veneering an old house, either frame or stucco, is no more difficult than veneering a new structure and is accomplished in much the same manner.

[Sidenote: How It is Done]

An eight-inch concrete footing should be placed against the outside of the existing foundation wall, extending from grade to below frost line and resting on good solid soil. The brick veneer, starting from this footing, is carried up with an inch air space between it and the old siding (which is not removed) and tied by driving thirty-penny nails through the siding or other finish into the sheathing and studs (Fig. 35).

The usual steel lintels are used over window and door openings. Where the veneer is to be carried over porches or other low additions, the siding immediately above the roof should be removed and a steel angle placed against the sheathing and securely attached to the studs by lag screws, so that no weight of the brickwork comes on the roof. See illustrations of work on page 16.

The brickwork is laid up to the door and window trim and a staff bead molding, in the corner formed by the brick, securely nailed to the old trim, making a tight joint (See Fig. 35). Similar mouldings should be placed at the underside of roofs, porch ceilings, and like places where the brick meets the old frame finish.

New Store Fronts

A very remunerative addition to his business may be made by the builder in veneering old frame or stucco store buildings. All that applies to the advantage of veneering the old frame house especially applies here. An attractive store front is one of the merchant's best advertisements. It indicates that he is prosperous, and it draws customers who always prefer to deal with the successful merchant, and where the surroundings are pleasant. Show the merchant of your town the increased value of his property and the increased profits of his business made possible by a beautiful store front of face brick, and you will get more business yourself.

A New Face Brick Porch

[Sidenote: Method of Construction]

Sometimes the porch on a frame building is in need of a new floor, railing, and steps. Instead of rebuilding the frame porch which will need constant repair and painting, a new face brick porch with either a brick or wooden floor could be built which would not only end all repair bills but vastly improve the appearance of the house. This may be accomplished very easily. Remove the entire porch except the roof which should be held by temporary supports. After excavating to the necessary depth, build a common brick foundation to grade for the piers and wall of the porch. The piers should be the same dimensions as the brick piers above, and the connecting wall should be 8 inches thick. Above the grade this 8-inch wall should be finished with face brick on the outside, while above the porch floor it should be face brick on both sides; and, at the correct height, should have a coping of face brick laid on edge. The piers should be carried up to the porch cornice and may be finished with a course of brick on edge, projecting slightly, to match the coping on the porch wall, or in any other plain or ornamental fashion desired. Where the walls join the frame building they should be anchored with nails driven into the wall the same as already explained for brick veneer work.

While the cost of a new brick porch on an old house is moderate, it adds greatly to the appearance of the house and thus appreciably increases its market value.

SPECIAL USES OF FACE BRICK

The Glow of the Friendly Hearth

It is the dream of most people when planning a home to have a real fireplace in which they may have a real fire of real logs, around which to sit with family or friends during the long winter evenings. Every home, even one built of frame or stucco, should be provided with at least one real fireplace.

And no matter what kind of a house a man may build, he won't find anything else quite so good or appropriate for a fireplace as brick. For having stood the test of flame in their making, they defy the flame in their use. The feeling that the roaring fire on the hearth beats harmlessly against the enduring brick, as the sea beats in vain against a granite headland, gives a genuine sense of security and satisfaction. Then the texture and color of the brick make them at once adaptable to any type of room or scheme of interior decoration the lady of the house may choose.

[Sidenote: Location]

The location of the fireplace in the room is of great importance to its enjoyment. As it is the most ornamental feature of the interior of the house, it should be given a prominent position, but it should not be in the line of travel through the room, near the entrance door, or where a cross draft sweeps it. The far end of the room is one of the best locations; or better still, an ingle nook. If placed on the broad side of a room, it is pretty sure to project so far as to reduce the practicable width of-the room and force the rug over the hearth. If placed on an outside wall, it is best not to have large flanking windows, as one does not like to sit facing too much light, especially where a strong sun is shining.

Proper proportions of the fireplace opening and flue are among the most essential features of fireplace construction. The larger the opening, the larger the fire may be and the more air required or taken from the room for proper combustion, provided the flue is large enough to give sufficient draft. In the average home, the actual inside area of flue should never be less than one-tenth of the area of the fireplace opening. Each fireplace should have its own individual flue carried full size to the top of the chimney without connections of any kind from other sources. A low, broad opening is preferred to a narrow, high one, and splayed sides are best in any case, because better draft and radiation are thus secured. A low, broad opening will catch the smoke better and direct it up the chimney.

The following dimensions for fireplaces are considered good practice:

Fireplace Openings

_Width_ _Height_ _Depth_

2'-8" 2'-4" 17" to 21"
3'-0" 2'-4" to 6" 21"
4'-0" 2'-8" 21" to 25"

Arched openings may be higher than indicated in the above dimensions, as their average height may be taken as the top line of the opening.

[Sidenote: Construction]

The ideal form of a fireplace would be a cone with all sides tapering to the apex for the escape of smoke. Therefore, to approach this ideal in practice, the sides of the fireplace are splayed and the back curved forward as shown in Figs. 36 and 37. This forward curve of the back throws the smoke from the fire forward to a throat 4 inches wide, extending the full width of the opening at the front and top of the fireplace, and at the same time forms a shelf above for the deflection of down drafts in the chimney. The rear wall of the fireplace should never be straight, having the throat at the rear, as down drafts would be sure to blow smoke and dust into the room.

[Sidenote: The Damper]

Always place a damper in the throat for regulation of the draft. The damper should completely fill the throat. There are many dampers on the market that also serve the purpose of a lintel for the brickwork, giving a smooth surface for the exit of the smoke. These patent combinations of damper and throat give a good draft, prevent smoke, and deserve a more general use.

Especial care should be taken in laying up the brickwork above and around the damper. The joints should be well filled, and nowhere should there be less than an 8-inch thickness of brickwork unless protected by the flue lining.

[Sidenote: The Flue]

Immediately above the damper, the brickwork should be corbeled in both ways to the size of the flue lining, which should always be started on a line with the middle of the fireplace and run vertically for one length. It then may be jogged over to the location desired on the floor above. It should be started as low as possible as this is the hottest part of the chimney.

The back and sides of the fireplace, as well as the back portion of the hearth are usually built of fire brick. Certain kinds of face brick are suitable for this purpose and have been used by architects with very artistic results.

[Sidenote: The Hearth]

The hearth may be either of face brick or tile. If of brick, they should be preferably smooth so as to facilitate cleaning. They may be laid either on edge or flat in a variety of patterns. Two examples of brick hearths are shown in Figs. 38 and 39, one with the brick set on edge and the other with the brick laid flat. Tiles may be of any size and laid in various patterns, and if suitable, may be used also in the back portion of small hearths. The mortar joints of the hearth should be thin and preferably of a fire clay mortar, though pure cement mortar will answer the purpose. Wherever possible, an opening and ash chute in the back hearth, with a pit and iron cleanout door in the basement, should be installed.

Always build the fireplace in the rough first, leaving the brick facing and hearth to be finished after the plasterer has completed his work. The accompanying designs, A, B, and C, suggest various methods of treatment.

Outside Ornamental Features

The possibilities of the use of brick for floors, walks, steps, pergolas, gate posts, seats, and other places about the house and garden are unlimited. For outside work it is a most permanent and beautiful material which never cracks or decays requiring periodic repairs or painting such as other materials do. It may always be the same color and texture as the brickwork of the house, thereby linking the house and garden together into one harmonious whole.

[Sidenote: Steps]

Brick steps, except where supported by the foundation wall, as shown in our working drawings, should always be laid over a concrete slab, reinforced, unless resting on solid, undisturbed soil. The concrete slab is poured in the form of steps, to correspond to the finished brick steps, but with proper allowance for laying the brick flat or on edge in a cushion of sand, at the option of the owner. Figs. 40-42 illustrate different pitches of steps and methods of setting the brick. Great care should be taken in the laying of brick steps, if they have to withstand severe usage. The joints should all be filled with a rich cement mortar composed of one part cement to two parts sand.

[Sidenote: Walks and Floors]

Brick walks and floors, with the brick on edge or flat, are usually laid on a filling of cinders or sand, but if subjected to hard use, they should be placed on a bed of concrete the same as steps. Two favorite patterns of edge set brick are shown in Figs. 55 and 56. The brick may be laid flat in the same patterns, but the effect is not quite so pleasing. The joints in the brick walk or floor are usually filled with sand, swept into place with a broom so as thoroughly to fill the joints, but they may be filled with cement grouting if desired. The thin grouting is carefully poured into the joints after the brick are laid, and all grouting that spills on the surface of the brick cleaned off before it hardens. The borders of the walk or floor may be made of brick set on edge or on end; or, if preferred, of concrete, especially when the walk or floor is placed on concrete. If it is desired to prevent grass and moss from growing in sanded joints, mix salt with the sand before filling the joints.

[Sidenote: Pergolas]

For pergola posts, brick imparts a feeling of strength and solidity, yet care must be taken not to make the posts too large, as they will be entirely out of fit proportion to the light wooden rafters and vines which they support. In most cases, a post 12 inches square will be about the right size. Foundations for these posts should always extend below the frost line and be of brick or concrete. A long, one half inch steel rod with nuts and large washers at each end should be imbedded about 18 inches in this foundation and extend beyond the top of the finished post. The brickwork of the post above grade should be one brick thick, laid in cement or cement-lime mortar giving a hollow space 4 inches square in the center of the 12-inch post. As the work progresses this space is filled with concrete around the rod, which, passing through the center, binds the brickwork together in a solid, reinforced mass (Fig. 43). The cap of the post may be either brick, stone, or concrete placed when filling the interior. The wooden girders of the pergola may now be bolted to the post by means of the bolt projecting above the top.

If conditions or design demand a heavier post than 12 inches square, as in Fig. 44, no steel rod reinforcing will be necessary for stability.

[Sidenote: Gate posts]

Gate posts are usually lower and heavier than pergola posts and made stable enough to carry whatever weight the iron or wooden gate may demand. Large driveway gates (Fig. 45) should have a steel I-beam or angle placed in the center of the post and extending from the bottom of the foundation to the top of the post. The anchors for the support of the gates should be riveted to this steel beam or angle so that no undue strain will be exerted on the brickwork. The brickwork should always be laid in cement or cement-lime mortar. If ornamental caps are desired, they should be of stone or concrete. On large posts, it is desirable to lay brickwork in some natural bond as this not only increases the rigidity of the post but gives a beautiful effect.

[Sidenote: Garden Walls]

Long, straight garden walls under 4 feet in height may be built 8 inches thick; over 4 feet high they should be 12 inches thick. If the walls are snort or reinforced at intervals with buttresses they may be only 8 inches thick provided they are not carried up over 6 feet. A footing is not needed but the foundation of common brick should extend below frost line. The wall should be finished on both sides with face brick, laid with cement-lime mortar in a natural bond, and should have a brick rowlock coping laid in rich cement mortar. Fig. 45 gives an idea of a garden wall with soldier base and rowlock coping.

BRICK BONDS

Bond in brickwork is the overlapping of the brick one upon the other, either along the length of the wall or through its thickness, in order to bind them together into a secure structural mass. It is true, mortar is used to cement the brick together into a monolithic whole, but the real bond is the overlapping of the brick which the mortar serves to maintain. Units are shifted back and forth so that the vertical joints in two successive layers or "courses" do not come into line; in other words, the brick are laid so as to break joint, the whole forming a natural bond or a structural unity giving strength to the wall.

The strength and rigidity of a wall due to this bonding are clearly shown in Fig. 46. A concentrated load at any point on the wall is thus distributed over a larger area as indicated by the dotted arrows.

[Sidenote: Stretcher and Header]

In speaking of brick bond, two terms are constantly recurring, viz., "stretcher" and "header." When a brick is laid lengthwise of the wall, thus showing its long, narrow dimension or "face" on the surface, it is called a stretcher. If its length extends back into the wall, so that its short dimension shows on the surface, it is called a header. The stretcher secures strength in the length of the wall. The header serves to form the transverse bond, that is, the strength of the wall through its thickness. When a brick is broken, as the case may require, the fragment is called a "bat." Bats are used either simply to fill in; or, as definite sized pieces, cut and used to make the bond come out right, in which case they are called "closures." While at certain points of the wall bats may be necessary, they should be sparingly used and then only according to the best practices of the craft.

[Sidenote: Design in Bonds]

In the old days, and indeed up to comparatively recent times, brick bond was used only in a structural or natural way, that is, to secure the strength of the wall as a solid mass; but in the seventeenth century European builders began to see an artistic possibility in the bond as it appeared on the surface. They began to see the fine tracery of the mortar joint running over the background of the brick, which could be varied into attractive patterns by different arrangement of the brick bond. As a consequence, there have been developed, in the main, three different types of bond, Running or Stretcher, English, and Flemish, which are used at the present day, with various modifications, to secure attractive effects in pattern.