Chapter I: Part 1

A SHORT
INTRODUCTION
TO
ENGLISH GRAMMAR:
WITH CRITICAL NOTES.

Nam ipsum _Latine_ loqui est illud quidem in magna laude ponendum:
sed non tam sua sponte, quam quod est a plerisque neglectum. Non enim
tam præclarum est scire _Latine_, quam turpe nescire; neque tam id
mihi oratoris boni, quam civis _Romani_ proprium videtur.

CICERO.

LONDON: Printed by J. HUGHS;
For A. MILLAR in the Strand;
And R. and J. DODSLEY in Pall-mall. 1762.

PREFACE.

_The English Language hath been much cultivated during the last two hundred years. It hath been considerably polished and refined; it hath been greatly enlarged in extent and compass; its force and energy, its variety, richness, and elegance, have been tried with good success, in verse and in prose, upon all subjects, and in every kind of stile: but whatever other improvements it may have received, it hath made no advances in Grammatical accuracy._

_It is now about fifty years since Doctor ~Swift~ made a public remonstrance, addressed to the Earl of ~Oxford~, then Lord Treasurer, of the imperfect State of our Language; alledging in particular, “that in many instances it offended against every part of Grammar.” ~Swift~ must be allowed to have been a good judge of this matter. He was himself very attentive to this part, both in his own writings, and in his remarks upon those of his friends: he is one of our most correct, and perhaps our very best prose writer. Indeed the justness of this complaint, as far as I can find, hath never been questioned; and yet no effectual method hath hitherto been taken to redress the grievance of which he complains._

_But let us consider, how, and in what extent, we are to understand this charge brought against the ~English~ Language. Does it mean, that the ~English~ Language as it is spoken by the politest part of the nation, and as it stands in the writings of our most approved authors, oftentimes offends against every part of Grammar? Thus far, I am afraid, the charge is true. Or does it further imply, that our Language is in its nature irregular and capricious; not subject, or not easily reduceable, to a System of rules? In this respect, I am persuaded, the charge is wholly without foundation._

_The ~English~ Language is perhaps of all the present European Languages by much the most simple in its form and construction. Of all the ancient Languages extant that is the most simple, which is undoubtedly the most ancient: but even that Language itself does not equal the ~English~ in simplicity._

_The Words of the ~English~ Language are subject to fewer variations from their original Form, than those perhaps of any other Language whatsoever. Its Substantives have but one variation of Case: nor have they any beside the natural distinction of Gender. Its Adjectives admit of no change at all, except that which expresses the degrees of Comparison. All the possible variations of the original form of the Verb are not above six or seven; whereas in many Languages they amount to one or two hundred: and almost the whole business of Modes, Times, and Voices is managed with great ease by the assistance of eight or nine commodious little Verbs; called from their use Auxiliaries. The Construction of this Language is so easy and obvious, that our Grammarians have thought it hardly worth while to give us any thing like a regular and systematical Syntax. The last ~English~ Grammar that hath been presented to the public, and by the Person best qualified to have given us a perfect one, comprises the whole Syntax in ten lines. The reason, which he assigns for being so very concise in this part, is, “because our Language has so little inflection, that its Construction neither requires nor admits many rules.” In truth, the easier any subject is in its own nature, the harder is it to make it more easy by explanation; and nothing is commonly more unnecessary, and at the same time more difficult, than to give a Demonstration in form of a proposition almost self-evident._

_It is not owing then to any peculiar irregularity or difficulty of our Language, that the general practice both of speaking and writing it is chargeable with inaccuracy. It is not the Language, but the practice, that is in fault. The truth is, Grammar is very much neglected among us: and it is not the difficulty of the Language, but on the contrary the simplicity and facility of it, that occasions this neglect. Were the Language less easy and simple, we should find ourselves under a necessity of studying it with more care and attention. But as it is, we take it for granted, that we have a competent knowledge and skill, and are able to acquit ourselves properly, in our own native tongue: a faculty solely acquired by use, conducted by habit, and tried by the ear, carries us on without reflection; we meet with no rubs or difficulties in our way, or we do not perceive them; we find ourselves able to go on without rules, and we do not so much as suspect that we stand in need of them._

_A Grammatical Study of our own Language makes no part of the ordinary method of instruction which we pass thro’ in our childhood; and it is very seldom that we apply ourselves to it afterward. And yet the want of it will not be effectually supplied by any other advantages whatsoever. Much practice in the polite world, and a general acquaintance with the best authors, are good helps, but alone will hardly be sufficient: we have writers, who have enjoyed these advantages in their full extent, and yet cannot be recommended as models of an accurate style. Much less then will what is commonly called Learning serve the purpose; that is, a critical knowledge of ancient languages, and much reading of ancient authors: the greatest Critic and most able Grammarian of the last age, when he came to apply his Learning and his Criticism to an English Author, was frequently at a loss in matters of ordinary use and common construction in his own ~Vernacular Idiom~._

_But perhaps the Notes subjoined to the following pages will furnish a more convincing argument, than any thing that can be said here, both of the truth of the charge of inaccuracy brought against our Language as it subsists in practice, and of the necessity of investigating the Principles of it, and studying it Grammatically, if we would attain to a due degree of skill in it. It is with reason expected of every person of a liberal education, and much more is it indispensably required of every one who undertakes to inform or entertain the public, that he should be able to express himself with propriety and accuracy. It will evidently appear from these Notes, that our best Authors for want of some rudiments of this kind have sometimes fallen into mistakes, and been guilty of palpable errors in point of Grammar. The examples there given are such as occurred in reading, without any very curious or methodical examination: and they might easily have been much increased in number by any one, who had leisure or phlegm enough to have gone through a regular course of reading with this particular view. However, I believe, they may be sufficient to answer the purpose intended; to evince the necessity of the Study of Grammar in our own Language, and to admonish those, who set up for Authors among us, that they would do well to consider this part of Learning as an object not altogether beneath their regard._

_The principal design of a Grammar of any Language is to teach us to express ourselves with propriety in that Language, and to be able to judge of every phrase and form of construction, whether it be right or not. The plain way of doing this, is to lay down rules, and to illustrate them by examples. But besides shewing what is right, the matter may be further explained by pointing out what is wrong. I will not take upon me to say, whether we have any Grammar that sufficiently performs the first part: but the latter method here called in, as subservient to the former, may perhaps be found in this case to be of the two the more useful and effectual manner of instruction._

_Besides this principal design of Grammar in our own Language, there is a secondary use to which it may be applied, and which, I think, is not attended to as it deserves. A good foundation in the General Principles of Grammar is in the first place necessary for all those who are initiated in a learned education; and for all others likewise, who shall have occasion to furnish themselves with the knowledge of modern, languages. Universal Grammar cannot be taught abstractedly: it must be done with reference to some language already known, in which the terms are to be explained, and the rules exemplified. The learner is supposed to be unacquainted with all but his own native tongue; and in what other, consistently with reason and common sense, would you go about to explain it to him? When he has a competent knowledge of the main principles, the common terms, the general rules, the whole subject and business of Grammar, exemplified in his own Language; he then will apply himself with great advantage to any foreign language, whether ancient or modern. To enter at once upon the Science of Grammar, and the Study of a foreign Language, is to encounter two difficulties together, each of which would be much lessened by being taken separately and in its proper order. For these plain reasons a competent Grammatical knowledge of our own Language is the true foundation upon which all Literature, properly so called, ought to be raised. If this method were adopted in our Schools; if children were first taught the common principles of Grammar by some short and clear System of ~English~ Grammar, which happily by its simplicity and facility is perhaps of all others the fittest for such a purpose, they would have some notion of what they were going about, when they should enter into the ~Latin~ Grammar; and would hardly be engaged so many years, as they now are, in that most irksome and difficult part of literature, with so much labour of the memory, and with so little assistance of the understanding._

_A design somewhat of this kind gave occasion to the following little System, intended merely for a private and domestic use. The chief end of it was to explain the general principles of Grammar as clearly and intelligibly as possible. In the Definitions therefore easiness and perspicuity have been sometimes prefered to logical exactness. The common Divisions have been complied with, as far as truth and reason would permit. The known and received Terms have been retained, except in one or two instances, where others offered themselves, which seemed much more significant. All disquisitions, which appeared to have more of subtilty than of usefulness in them, have been avoided. In a word, it was calculated for the use of the Learner even of the lowest class. Those, who would enter more deeply into this Subject, will find it fully and accurately handled, with the greatest acuteness of investigation, perspicuity of explication, and elegance of method, in a Treatise intitled HERMES, by JAMES HARRIS Esq; the most beautiful and perfect example of Analysis that has been exhibited since the days of ~Aristotle~._

_The following short System is proposed only as an Essay, upon a Subject, tho’ of little esteem, yet of no small importance; and in which the want of something better adapted to real use and practice, than what we have at present, seems to be generally acknowledged. If those, who are qualified to judge of such matters, and do not look upon them as beneath their notice, shall so far approve of it, as to think it worth a revisal, and capable of being improved into something really useful; their remarks and assistance, communicated through the hands of the Bookseller, shall be received with all proper deference and acknowledgement._

A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRAMMAR.

Grammar is the Art of rightly expressing our thoughts by Words.

Grammar in general, or Universal Grammar, explains the Principles which are common to all languages.

The Grammar of any particular Language, as the English Grammar, applies those common principles to that particular language, according to the established usage and custom of it.

Grammar treats of Sentences, and the several parts of which they are compounded.

Sentences consist of Words; Words, of one or more Syllables; Syllables, of one or more Letters.

So that Letters, Syllables, Words, and Sentences, make up the whole subject of Grammar.

LETTERS.

A Letter is the first Principle, or least part of a Word.

An Articulate Sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech.

A Vowel is a simple articulate sound, formed by the impulse of the voice, and by the opening only of the mouth in a particular manner.

A Consonant cannot be perfectly sounded by itself; but joined with a vowel forms a compound articulate sound, by a particular motion or contact of the parts of the mouth.

A Diphthong, or Double Vowel, is the union of two or more vowels pronounced by a single impulse of the voice.

In English there are twenty-six Letters:

A, a; B, b; C, c; D, d; E, e; F, f; G, g; H, h; I, i; J, j; K, k; L, l; M, m; N, n; O, o; P, p; Q, q; R, r; S, s; T, t; U, u; V, v; W, w; X, x; Y, y; Z, z.

_J j_, and _V v_, are consonants; the former having the sound of the soft _g_, and the latter that of a coarser _f_: they are therefore intirely different from the vowels _i_ and _u_, and distinct letters of themselves; they ought also to be distinguished by a peculiar Name; the former may be called _ja_, and the latter _vee_.

Six of the letters are vowels, and may be sounded by themselves; _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, _y_.

_Y_ is in sound wholly the same with i; and is written instead of it at the end of words; or before another _i_, as _flying_, _denying_: it is retained likewise in some words derived from the Greek; and it is always a vowel.

_W_ is either a vowel, or a diphthong: its proper sound is the same as the Italian _u_, the French _ou_, or the English _oo_: after _o_, it is sometimes not sounded at all, sometimes like a single _u_.

The rest of the letters are consonants; which cannot be sounded alone: some not at all, and these are called Mutes, _b_, _c_, _d_, _g_, _k_, _p_, _q_, _t_: others very imperfectly, making a kind of obscure sound, and these are called Semi-vowels, or Half-vowels, _l_, _m_, _n_, _r_, _f_, _s_; the first four of which are also distinguished by the name of Liquids.

The Mutes and the Semi-vowels are distinguished by their names in the Alphabet, those of the former all beginning with a consonant; _bee_, _cee_, &c; those of the latter all beginning with a vowel, _ef_, _el_, &c.

_X_ is a double consonant, compounded of _c_, or _k_, and _s_.

_Z_ seems not to be a double consonant in English, as it is commonly supposed: it has the same relation to _s_, as _v_ has to _f_, being a thicker and coarser expression of it.

_H_ is only an Aspiration, or Breathing: and sometimes at the beginning of a word is not sounded at all; as, _an hour_, _an honest_ man.

_C_ is pronounced like _k_, before _a_, _o_, _u_; and soft, like _s_, before _e_, _i_, _y_: in like manner _g_ is pronounced always hard before _a_, _o_, _u_; sometimes hard and sometimes soft before _i_, and _y_; and for the most part soft before _e_.

The English Alphabet, like most others, is both deficient and redundant; in some cases, the same letters expressing different sounds, and different letters expressing the same sounds.

SYLLABLES.

A Syllable is a sound either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word.

Spelling is the art of reading by naming the letters singly, and rightly dividing words into their syllables. Or, in writing, it is the expressing of a word by its proper letters.

In Spelling, a syllable in the beginning or middle of a word ends in a vowel, unless the consonant _x_ follow it, or two consonants, whereof the former is a liquid, or the same as the latter.

But the best and only sure rule for dividing the syllables in spelling, is to divide them as they are naturally divided in a right pronunciation.

WORDS.

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent as signs of ideas, or notions.

There are in English nine Sorts of Words, or, as they are commonly called, Parts of Speech.

1. The ARTICLE, prefixed to substantives, when they are common names of things, to point them out, and to shew how far their signification extends.

2. The SUBSTANTIVE, or NOUN, being the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion.

3. The PRONOUN, standing instead of the noun.

4. The ADJECTIVE, added to the noun to express the quality of it.

5. The VERB, or Word by way of eminence, signifying to be, to do, or to suffer.

6. The ADVERB, added to verbs, and also to adjectives and other adverbs, to express some circumstance belonging to them.

7. The PREPOSITION, put before nouns and pronouns chiefly, to connect them with other words, and to shew their relation to them.

8. The CONJUNCTION, connecting sentences together.

9. The INTERJECTION, thrown in to express the affection of the speaker, though unnecessary with respect to the construction of the sentence.

EXAMPLE.

1 2 7 2 5 1 2 4 7 2 8 5 5
The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man, and was bestowed

7 3 7 3 4 2 7 1 4 8 6 4
on him by his beneficent Creator for the greatest and most excellent

2 8 9 6 6 5 3 5 3 7 1 4 7 2
uses; but alas! how often do we pervert it to the worst of purposes?

In the foregoing sentence the Words _the_, _a_, are Articles; _power_, _speech_, _faculty_, _man_, _creator_, _uses_, _purposes_, are Substantives; _him_, _his_, _we_, _it_, are Pronouns; _peculiar_, _beneficent_, _greatest_, _excellent_, _worst_, are Adjectives; _is_, _was_, _bestowed_, _do_, _pervert_, are Verbs; _most_, _how_, _often_, are Adverbs; _of_, _to_, _on_, _by_, _for_, are Prepositions; _and_, _but_, are Conjunctions; and _alas_ is an Interjection.

The Substantives _power_, _speech_, _faculty_, and the rest, are General, or Common, Names of things; whereof there are many sorts belonging to the same kind, or many individuals belonging to the same sort: as there are many sorts of power, many sorts of speech, many sorts of faculty, many individuals of that sort of animal called man; and so on. These general or common names are here applied in a more or less extensive signification, according as they are used without either, or with the one, or with the other, of the two Articles _a_ and _the_. The words _speech_, _man_, being accompanied with no article, are taken in their largest extent, and signify all of the kind or sort, all sorts of speech, and all men. The word _faculty_, with the article _a_ before it, is used in a more confined signification, for some one out of many of that kind; for it is here implied, that there are other faculties peculiar to man beside speech. The words _power_, _creator_, _uses_, _purposes_, with the article _the_ before them, (for _his_ Creator is the same as _the_ Creator _of him_) are used in the most confined signification for the things here mentioned and ascertained: _the power_ is not any one indeterminate power out of many sorts, but that particular sort of power here specified, namely, the power of speech; _the creator_ is the One great Creator of man and of all things; _the uses_, and _the purposes_, are particular uses and purposes; the former are explained to be those in particular, that are the greatest and most excellent; such for instance, as the glory of God, and the common benefit of mankind; the latter, to be the worst, as lying, slandering, blaspheming, and the like.

The Pronouns _him_, _his_, _we_, _it_, stand instead of some of the nouns, or substantives, going before them; as _him_ supplies the place of _man_; _his_ of _man’s_; _we_ of _men_ (implied in the general name _man_, including all men, of which number is the speaker;) _it_ of _the power_, before mentioned. If instead of these pronouns the nouns for which they stand had been used, the sense would have been the same, but the frequent repetition of the same words would have been disagreeable and tedious: as, The power of speech peculiar to _man_, bestowed on _man_, by _man’s_ Creator, &c.

The Adjectives _peculiar_, _beneficent_, _greatest_, _excellent_, _worst_, are added to their several substantives to denote the character and quality of each.

The Verbs _is_, _was bestowed_, _do pervert_, signify severally, being, suffering, and doing. By the first it is implied, that there is such a thing as the power of speech, and it is affirmed to be of such a kind; namely, a faculty peculiar to man: by the second it is said to have been acted upon, or to have suffered, or to have had something done to it; namely, to have been bestowed on man: by the last, we are said to act upon it, or to do something to it; namely, to pervert it.

The Adverbs _most_, _often_, are added to the adjective _excellent_, and to the verb _pervert_, to shew the circumstance belonging to them; namely, that of the highest degree to the former, and that of frequency to the latter: concerning the degree of which frequency also a question is made by the adverb _how_, added to the adverb _often_.

The Prepositions _of_, _to_, _on_, _by_, _for_, placed before the substantives and pronouns _speech_, _man_, _him_, &_c._ connect them with other words, substantives, adjectives, and verbs, as _power_, _peculiar_, _bestowed_, &_c._ and shew the relation which they have to those words; as the relation of subject, object, agent, end; _for_ denoting the end, _by_ the agent, _on_, the object; _to_ and _of_ denote possession, or the belonging of one thing to another.

The Conjunctions _and_, and _but_, connect the three parts of the sentence together; the first more closely both with regard to the sentence and the sense; the second connecting the parts of the sentence, tho’ less strictly, and at the same time expressing an opposition in the sense.

The Interjection _alas!_ expresses the concern and regret of the speaker; and though thrown in with propriety, yet might have been omitted without injuring the construction of the sentence, or destroying the sense.

ARTICLE.

The Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point them out, and to shew how far their signification extends.

In English there are but two articles, _a_, and _the_: _a_ becomes _an_ before a vowel or a silent _h_.

_A_ is used in a vague sense to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate: _the_ determines what particular thing is meant.

A substantive without any article to limit it is taken in its widest sense: thus _man_ means all mankind; as,

“The proper study of mankind is man:”

POPE.

where _mankind_ and _man_ may change places without making any alteration in the sense. _A man_ means some one or other of that kind, indefinitely; _the man_ means, definitely, that particular man, who is spoken of: the former therefore is called the Indefinite, the latter the Definite, Article[1].

Example: “_Man_ was made for society, and ought to extend his good-will to all _men_: but _a man_ will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for _the men_ with whom he has the most frequent intercourse; and enter into a still closer union with _the man_, whose temper and disposition suit best with his own.”

It is of the nature of both the Articles to determine or limit the thing spoken of: _a_ determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which; _the_ determines which it is, or of many which they are. The first therefore can only be joined to Substantives in the singular number[2]; the last may also be joined to plurals.

There is a remarkable exception to this rule in the use of the Adjectives _few_ and _many_, (the latter chiefly with the word _great_ before it) which, though joined with plural Substantives, yet admit of the singular Article _a_: as, _a few men_, _a great many men_;

“Told of _a many thousand_ warlike French:”—
“The care-craz’d mother of _a many children_.”

SHAKESPEAR.

The reason of it is manifest from the effect which the Article has in these phrases: it means a small or great number collectively taken, and therefore gives the idea of a Whole, that is, of Unity. Thus likewise _a hundred_, _a thousand_, is one whole number, an aggregate of many collectively taken; and therefore still retains the Article _a_, tho’ joined as an Adjective to a plural Substantive: as, _a hundred years_;[3]

“For harbour at _a thousand doors_ they knock’d;
Not one of all _the thousand_, but was lock’d.”

DRYDEN.

The Definite Article _the_ is sometimes applied to Adverbs in the comparative degree, and its effect is to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely: as, “_The more_ I examine it, _the better_ I like it. I like this _the least_ of any.”

SUBSTANTIVE.

A Substantive, or Noun, is the Name of a thing; of whatever we conceive in any way to subsist, or of which we have any notion.

Substantives are of two sorts; Proper, and Common, Names. Proper Names are the names appropriated to individuals; as the names of persons and places: such are _George_, _London_. Common Names stand for kinds, containing many sorts; or sorts, containing many individuals under them; as, _Animal_, _Man_.

Proper Names being the names of individuals, and therefore of things already as determinate as they can be made, admit not of Articles, or of Plurality of Number; unless by a Figure, or by Accident: as when great Conquerors are called _Alexanders_; and some great Conqueror _An_ Alexander, or _The_ Alexander of his age; when a Common Name is understood, as _The_ Thames, that is, the _River_ Thames; _The_ George, that is, the _Sign_ of St. George: or when it happens that there are many persons of the same name; as, _The_ two _Scipios_.

Whatever is spoken of is represented as one, or more, in Number: these two manners of representation in respect of number are called the Singular, and the Plural, Number.

In English, the Substantive Singular is made Plural, for the most part, by adding to it _s_; or _es_, where it is necessary for the pronunciation: as, _king_, _kings_; _fox_, _foxes_; _leaf_, _leaves_; in which last, and many others, _f_ is also changed into _v_, for the sake of an easier pronunciation, and more agreeable sound. Some few Plurals end in _en_: as, _oxen_, _chicken_, _children_, _brethren_; and _men_, _women_, by changing the _a_ of the Singular into _e_[4]. This form we have retained from the Teutonic; as likewise the introduction of the _e_ in the former syllable of two of the last instances; _weomen_, (for so we pronounce it) _brethren_, from _woman_, _brother_[5]: something like which may be noted in some other forms of Plurals; as, _mouse_, _mice_; _louse_, _lice_; _tooth_, _teeth_; _foot_, _feet_; _goose_, _geese_[6].

The English Language, to express different connexions and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, Prepositions. The Greek and Latin among the antient, and some too among the modern languages, as the German, vary the termination or ending of the Substantive to answer the same purpose. These different endings are in those languages called Cases. And the English being derived from the same origin as the German, that is, from the Teutonic[7], is not wholly without them. For instance, the relation of Possession, or Belonging, is often expressed by a Case, or a different ending of the Substantive. This Case answers to the Genitive Case in Latin, and may still be so called; tho’ perhaps more properly the Possessive Case. Thus, “_God’s_ grace:” which may also be expressed by the Preposition; as, “the grace _of God_.” It was formerly written _Godis_ grace; we now very improperly always shorten it with an Apostrophe, even tho’ we are obliged to pronounce it fully; as, “_Thomas’s_ book:” that is, “_Thomasis_ book;” not “_Thomas his_ book,” as it is commonly supposed[8].

When the thing, to which another is said to belong, is expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the Possessive Case is added to the last term: as, “The King of Great _Britain’s_ Soldiers.” When it is a Noun ending with _s_, or in the Plural Number in _s_, the sign of the Possessive Case is not added: as, “for _righteousness_ sake; on _eagles_ wings.” Both the Sign and the Preposition seem sometimes to be used: as, “a soldier _of the king’s_:” but here are really two Possessives; for it means, “one _of_ the soldiers _of_ the king.”

The English in its Substantives has but two different terminations for Cases; that of the Nominative, which simply expresses the Name of the thing, and that of the Possessive Case.

Things are frequently considered with relation to the distinction of Sex or Gender; as being Male, or Female, or Neither the one, nor the other. Hence Substantives are of the Masculine, or Feminine, or Neuter, that is, Neither, Gender: which latter is only the exclusion of all consideration of Gender.

The English Language, with singular propriety, following nature alone, applies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to the names of Animals; all the rest are Neuter: except when by a Poetical or Rhetorical fiction things inanimate and Qualities are exhibited as Persons, and consequently become either Male or Female. And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the Poetical and Rhetorical Style: for when Nouns naturally Neuter are converted into Masculine and Feminine[9], the Personification is more distinctly and forcibly marked.

Some few Substantives are distinguished as to their Gender by their termination: as, _prince_, _princess_; _actor_, _actress_; _lion_, _lioness_; _hero_, _heroine_; &c.

The chief use of Gender in English is in the Pronoun of the Third Person, which must agree in that respect with the Noun for which it stands.

PRONOUN.

A Pronoun is a word standing instead of a Noun, as its Substitute or Representative.

In the Pronoun are to be considered the Person, Number, Gender and Case.

There are Three Persons which may be the Subject of any discourse: first, the Person who speaks may speak of himself; secondly, he may speak of the Person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other Person.

These are called, respectively, the First, Second, and Third, Persons: and are expressed by the Pronouns _I_, _Thou_, _He_.

As the Speakers, the Persons spoken to, and the Persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these Persons hath the Plural Number; _We_, _Ye_, _They_.

The Persons speaking and spoken to are supposed to be present, from which and other circumstances their Sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked by a distinction of Gender in their Pronouns: but the Person spoken of being absent and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of Gender; at least when some particular Person is spoken of, who ought to be more distinctly marked: accordingly the Pronoun Singular of the Third Person hath the Three Genders, _He_, _She_, _It_.

Pronouns have Three Cases; the Nominative; the Genitive, or Possessive; like Nouns; and moreover a Case, which follows the Verb Active, or the Preposition, expressing the Object of an Action, or of a Relation. It answers to the Oblique Cases in Latin; and may be properly enough called the Objective Case.

PRONOUNS;

according to their Persons, Numbers, Cases, and Genders.

PERSONS.

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3.

Singular. Plural.

I, Thou, He; We, Ye or You, They.

CASES.

Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.

First Person.

I, Mine, Me; We, Ours, Us.

Second Person.

Thou, Thine, Thee; Ye or You, Yours, You[10].

Third Person.

_Masc._ He, His, Him; }
_Fem._ She, Hers, Her; } They, Theirs, Them.
_Neut._ It, Its[11], It; }

The Personal Pronouns have the nature of Substantives, and as such stand by themselves: the rest have the nature of Adjectives, and as such are joined to Substantives; and may be called Pronominal Adjectives.

_Thy_, _My_, _Her_, _Our_, _Your_, _Their_, are Pronominal Adjectives: but _His_, (that is, _Hee’s_) _Her’s_, _Our’s_, _Your’s_, _Their’s_, have evidently the Form of the Possessive Case: and by Analogy, _Mine_, _Thine_[12], may be esteemed of the same rank. All these are used, when the Noun they belong to is understood: the two latter sometimes also instead of _my_, _thy_, when the Noun following them begins with a vowel.

Beside the foregoing there are several other Pronominal Adjectives; which tho’ they may sometimes seem to stand by themselves, yet have always some Substantive belonging to them, either referred to, or understood: as, _This_, _that_, _other_, _any_, _some_, _one_, _none_; these are called Definitive, because they define and limit the extent of the thing, to which they either refer, or are joined. The three first of these are varied to express Number; as, _These_, _those_, _others_; the last of which admits of the Plural form only when its Substantive is not joined to it, but referred to, or understood: none of them are varied to express the Gender or Case. _One_ is sometimes used in an Indefinite sense (answering to the French _on_) as in the following phrases; “_one_ is apt to think;” “_one_ sees;” “_one_ supposes.” _Who_, _which_, _that_, are called Relatives, because they more directly refer to some Substantive going before; which therefore is called the Antecedent. They also connect the following part of the Sentence with the foregoing. These belong to all the three Persons; whereas the rest belong only to the Third. One of them only is varied to express the three Cases; _Who_, _whose_[13], (that is, _who’s_[14]) _whom_: none of them have different endings for the Numbers. _Who_, _which_, _what_, are called Interrogatives, when they are used in asking questions. The two latter of them have no variation of Number or Case.

_Own_, and _self_, in the Plural _selves_, are joined to the Possessives _my_, _our_, _thy_, _your_, _his_, _her_, _their_; as, _my own_ hand; _myself_, _yourselves_; both of them expressing emphasis, or opposition; as, “I did it _my own self_,” that is, and no one else: the latter also forming the Reciprocal Pronoun; as, “he hurt _himself_.” _Himself_, _themselves_, seem to be used in the Nominative Case by corruption instead of _his self_, _their selves_: as, “he came _himself_;” “they did it _themselves_;” where _himself_, _themselves_, cannot be in the Objective Case. If this be so, _self_ must be in these instances, not a Pronoun, but a Noun. Thus Dryden uses it:

“What I show,
Thy _self may_ freely on thy self bestow.”

_Ourself_, the Plural Pronominal Adjective with the Singular Substantive, is peculiar to the Regal Style.

_Own_ is an Adjective; or perhaps the Participle (_owen_) of the obsolete verb _owe_; to possess; to be the right owner of a thing.

All Nouns whatever in Grammatical Construction are of the Third Person: except when an address is made to a Person; then the Noun, answering to the Vocative Case in Latin, is of the Second Person.

ADJECTIVE.

An Adjective is a word joined to a Substantive to express its Quality[15].

In English the Adjective is not varied on account of Gender, Number, or Case. The only variation it admits of is that of the Degrees of Comparison.

Qualities admit of _more_ and _less_, or of different degrees: and the words that express Qualities have accordingly proper forms to express different degrees. When a Quality is simply expressed, without any relation to the same in a different degree, it is called the Positive; as, _wise_, _great_. When it is expressed with augmentation, or with reference to a less degree of the same, it is called the Comparative; as, _wiser_, _greater_. When it is expressed as being in the highest degree of all, it is called the Superlative; as, _wisest_, _greatest_.

So that the simple word, or Positive, becomes Comparative by adding _r_ or _er_; and Superlative by adding _st_, or _est_, to the end of it. And the Adverbs _more_ and _most_ placed before the Adjective have the same effect; as, _wise_, _more wise_, _most wise_[16].

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by _er_ and _est_; and Dissyllables by _more_ and _most_: as, _mild_, _milder_, _mildest_; _frugal_, _more frugal_, _most frugal_. Dissyllables ending in _y_ easily admit of _er_ and _est_; as _happy_, _lovely_. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of _er_ and _est_.

In some few words the Superlative is formed by adding the Adverb _most_ to the end of them: as, _nethermost_, _uttermost_, or _utmost_, _undermost_, _uppermost_, _foremost_.

In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common use that are irregular in this respect: as, _good_, _better_, _best_; _bad_, _worse_, _worst_; _little_, _less_[17], _least_; _much_, _or many_, _more_, _most_; and a few others.

VERB.

A VERB is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer.

There are three kinds of Verbs; Active, Passive, and Neuter Verbs.

A Verb Active expresses an Action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon: as, _to love_; “I love Thomas.”

A Verb Passive expresses a Passion, or a Suffering, or the receiving of an Action; and necessarily implies an Object acted upon, and an Agent by which it is acted upon: as, _to be loved_; “Thomas is loved by me.”

So when the Agent takes the lead in the Sentence, the Verb is Active, and the Object follows: when the Object takes the lead, the Verb is Passive, and the Agent follows.

A Verb Neuter expresses Being, or a state or condition of being; when the Agent and the Object acted upon coincide, and the event is properly neither Action nor Passion, but rather something between both: as, _I am_; _I walk_; _I sleep_.

The Verb Active is called also Transitive, because the Action _passeth over_ to the Object, or hath an effect upon some other thing: and the Verb Neuter is called Intransitive, because the effect is confined within the Agent, and doth _not pass over_ to any object.

In English many Verbs are used both in an Active and a Neuter signification, the construction only determining of which kind they are.

In a Verb are to be considered the Person, the Number, the Time, and the Mode.

The Verb varies its endings to express, or agree with, the different Persons: as, “I _love_, Thou _lovest_, He _loveth_, or _loves_.”

So also to express the different Numbers of the same Person: as, “Thou _lovest_, ye _love_; He _loveth_, they _love_[18].”

So likewise to express different Times: as, “I _love_, I _loved_; I _bear_, I _bore_, I have _born_.”

The Mode is the _Manner_ of representing the Action or Passion. When it is simply _declared_, or a question is asked concerning it, it is called the Indicative Mode; when it is _bidden_, it is called the Imperative; when it is _subjoined_ as the end or design, or mentioned under a condition, a supposition, or the like, for the most part depending on some other Verb, and having a Conjunction before it, it is called the Subjunctive; when it is barely expressed _without any limitation_ of person or number, it is called the Infinitive; and when it is expressed in a form in which it may be joined to a Noun as its quality or accident, _partaking_ thereby of the nature of an Adjective, it is called the Participle.

But to express the Time of the Verb the English uses also the assistance of other Verbs, called therefore Auxiliaries, or Helpers; _do_, _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_: as, “I _do_ love, I _did_ love; I _am_ loved, I _was_ loved; I _have_ loved, I _have been_ loved; I _shall_, or _will_, love, or _be_ loved.”

The two principal auxiliaries, _to have_, and _to be_, are thus varied according to Person, Number, Time, and Mode.

Time is Present, Past, or Future.

To HAVE.

Indicative Mode.

Present Time.

Person. Sing. Plur.

1. I have, We }
2. Thou hast[19], Ye } have.
3. He hath, or has; They }

Past Time.

1. I had, We }
2. Thou hadst, Ye } had.
3. He had; They }

Future Time.

1. I shall, or will, } We } shall,
2. Thou shalt, or wilt, } have; Ye } or will,
3. He shall, or will, } They } have.

Imperative Mode.

1. Let us have,
2. Have thou, or, Do thou have, Have ye, or, Do ye have,
3. Let him have; Let them have.

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Time.

1. I } We }
2. Thou } have; Ye } have.
3. He } They }

Infinitive Mode.

Present, To have: Past, To have had.

Participle.

Present, Having: Perfect[20], Had: Past, Having had.

To BE.

Indicative Mode.

Present Time.

1. I am, We }
2. Thou art, Ye } are.
3. He is; They }

Or,

1. I be, We }
2. Thou beest, Ye } be.
3. He is; They }

Past Time.

1. I was, We }
2. Thou wast, Ye } were.
3. He was; They }

Future Time.

1. I shall, or will, } We } shall,
2. Thou shalt, or wilt, } be; Ye } or will,
3. He shall, or will, } They } be.

Imperative Mode.

1. Let us be,
2. Be thou, or, Do thou be, Be ye, or, Do ye be,
3. Let him be; Let them be.

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Time.

1. I } We }
2. Thou } be; Ye } be.
3. He } They }

Past Time.

1. I were, We }
2. Thou wert[21], Ye } were.
3. He were; They }

Infinitive Mode.

Present, To be: Past, To have been.

Participle.

Present, Being: Perfect, Been: Past, Having been.

The Verb Active is thus varied according to Person, Number, Time and Mode.

Indicative Mode.

Present Time.

Person. Sing. Plur.

1. I love, We }
2. Thou lovest, Ye } love.
3. He loveth, or loves; They }

Past Time.

1. I loved, We }
2. Thou lovedst, Ye } loved.
3. He loved; They }

Future Time.

1. I shall, or will, } We }
2. Thou shalt, or wilt, } love; Ye } shall, or will, love.
3. He shall, or will, } They }

Imperative Mode.

1. Let us love,
2. Love thou, or, Do thou love, Love ye, or, Do ye love,
3. Let him love; Let them love.

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Time.

1. I } We }
2. Thou } love; Ye } love.
3. He } They }

And,

1. I may } We } may love;
2. Thou mayst } love; Ye } and
3. He may } They } have loved[22].

Past Time.

1. I might } We } might love;
2. Thou mightest } love; Ye } and
3. He might } They } have loved[22].

And,

I could, should, would; Thou couldst, &c. love; and have loved.

Infinitive Mode.

Present, To love: Past, To have loved.

Participle.

Present, Loving: Perfect, Loved: Past, Having loved.

But in discourse we have often occasion to speak of Time not only as Present, Past, and Future, at large and indeterminately, but also as such with some particular distinction and limitation; that is, as passing, or finished; as imperfect, or perfect. This will best be seen in an example of a Verb laid out and distributed according to these distinctions of Time.

Indefinite, or Undetermined, Time:

Present, Past, Future,
I love; I loved; I shall love.

Definite, or Determined, Time:

Present Imperfect: I am (now) loving.
Present Perfect: I have (now) loved.

Past Imperfect: I was (then) loving.
Past Perfect: I had (then) loved.

Future Imperf. I shall (then) be loving.
Future Perf. I shall (then) have loved.

To express the Present and Past Imperfect of the Active and Neuter Verb the Auxiliary _do_ is sometimes used: I _do_ (now) love; I _did_ (then) love.

Thus with very little variation of the Principal Verb the several circumstances of Mode and Time are clearly expressed by the help of the Auxiliaries, _be_, _have_, _do_, _let_, _may_, _can_, _shall_, _will_.

The peculiar force of the several Auxiliaries is to be observed. _Do_ and _did_ mark the Action itself, or the Time of it[23], with greater force and distinction. They are also of frequent and almost necessary use in Interrogative and Negative Sentences. _Let_ does not only express permission; but praying, exhorting, commanding. _May_ and _might_ express the possibility or liberty of doing a thing; _can_ and _could_, the power. _Must_ is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity. _Would_ expresses the intention of the doer; _should_ simply the event. _Will_ in the first Person singular and plural promises or threatens; in the second and third Persons only foretells: _shall_ on the contrary, in the first Person simply foretells; in the second and third Persons commands or threatens[24].

_Do_ and _have_ make the Present Time; _did_, _had_, the Past; _shall_, _will_, the Future: _let_ the Imperative Mode; _may_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, the Subjunctive. The Preposition _to_ placed before the Verb makes the Infinitive Mode. _Have_, through its several Modes and Times, is placed only before the Perfect Participle; and _be_, in like manner, before the Present and Passive Participles: the rest only before the Verb itself in its Primary Form[25].

The Passive Verb is only the Participle Passive, (which for the most part is the same with the Indefinite Past Time Active, and always the same with the Perfect Participle) joined to the Auxiliary Verb _to be_ through all its Variations: as, I _am loved_; I _was loved_; I _have been loved_; I _shall be loved_: and so on through all the Persons, Numbers, Times, and Modes.

The Neuter Verb is varied like the Active; but, having somewhat of the Nature of the Passive, admits in many instances of the Passive form, retaining still the Neuter signification; chiefly in such Verbs as signify some sort of motion, or change of place or condition: as, I _am come_; I _was gone_; I _am grown_; I _was fallen_[26]. The Verb _am_ in this case precisely defines the Time of the action or event, but does not change the nature of it; the Passive form still expressing, not properly a Passion, but only a state or condition of Being.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

In English both the Past Time Active and the Participle Perfect, or Passive, are formed by adding to the Verb _ed_; or _d_ only when the Verb ends in _e_: as, _turn_, _turned_; _love_, _loved_. The Verbs that vary from this rule, in either or in both cases, are esteemed Irregular.

The nature of our language, the Accent and Pronunciation of it, inclines us to contract even all our Regular Verbs: thus _loved_, _turned_, are commonly pronounced in one syllable, _lov’d_, _turn’d_; and the second Person which was originally in three syllables, _lovedest_, _turnedest_, is become a dissyllable, _lovedst_, _turnedst_: for as we generally throw the accent as far back as possible towards the first part of the word, (in some even to the fourth syllable from the end,) the stress being laid on the first syllables, the rest are pronounced in a lower tone, more rapidly and indistinctly; and so are often either wholly dropt, or blended into one another.

It sometimes happens also, that the word which arises from a regular change does not sound easily or agreeably; sometimes by the rapidity of our pronunciation the vowels are shortened or lost; and the consonants which are thrown together do not easily coalesce with one another, and are therefore changed into others of the same organ, or of a kindred species: this occasions a further deviation from the regular form: thus, _loveth_, _turneth_, are contracted into _lov’th_, _turn’th_, and these for easier pronunciation immediately become _loves_, _turns_.

Verbs ending in _ch_, _ck_, _p_, _x_, _ll_, _ss_, in the Past Time Active and the Participle Perfect or Passive admit the change of _ed_ into _t_; as, _snatcht_, _checkt_, _snapt_, _mixt_, dropping also one of the double letters, _dwelt_, _past_; for _snatched_, _checked_, _snapped_, _mixed_, _dwelled_, _passed_: those that end in _l_, _m_, _n_, _p_, after a diphthong, moreover shorten the diphthong, or change it into a single short vowel; as, _dealt_, _dreamt_, _meant_, _felt_, _slept_, &c: all for the same reason; from the quickness of the pronunciation, and because the _d_ after a short vowel will not easily coalesce with the preceding consonant. Those that end in _ve_ change also _v_ into _f_; as, _bereave_, _bereft_; _leave_, _left_; because likewise _v_ after a short vowel will not easily coalesce with _t_.

All these, of which we have hitherto given examples, are considered not as Irregular, but as Contracted only; and in all of them the Intire as well as the Contracted form is used.

The formation of Verbs in English, both Regular and Irregular, is derived from the Saxon.

The Irregular Verbs in English are all Monosyllables, unless Compounded; and they are for the most part the same words which are Irregular Verbs in the Saxon.

As all our Regular Verbs are subject to some kind of Contraction, so the first Class of Irregulars is of those that become so from the same cause.

I.

Irregulars by Contraction.

Some Verbs ending in _d_ or _t_ have the Present, the Past Time, and the Participle Perfect and Passive, all alike, without any variation: as, Beat, burst[27], cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, knit, let, lift[28], put, read[29], rent, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, slit, spread, thrust, wet[28].

These are Contractions from _beated_, _bursted_, _casted_, &c; because of the disagreeable sound of the syllable _ed_ after _d_ or _t_[30].

Others in the Past Time, and Participle Perfect and Passive, vary a little from the Present by shortening the diphthong, or changing the _d_ into _t_: as, Lead, led; sweat, swet; meet, met; bleed, bled; breed, bred; feed, fed; speed, sped; bend, bent[28]; lend, lent; rend, rent; send, sent; spend, spent; build, built[28]; geld, gelt[28]; gild, gilt[28]; gird, girt[28].

Others not ending in _d_ or _t_ are formed by Contraction; have, _had_, for _haved_; make, _made_, for _maked_; flee, _fled_, for _flee-ed_.

The following beside the Contraction change also the Vowel; Sell, sold; tell, told; clothe, clad[28].

Stand, stood; and dare, durst, (which in the Participle hath regularly _dared_;) are directly from the Saxon, _standan_, _stod_; _dyrran_, _dorste_.

II.

Irregulars in _ght_.

The Irregulars of the Second Class end in _ght_, both in the Past Time and Participle; and change the vowel or diphthong into _au_ or _ou_: they are taken from the Saxon, in which the termination is _hte_.

Saxon.
Bring, brought: Bringan, brohte.
Buy, bought: Bycgean, bohte.
Catch, caught:
Fight, fought: Feotan, fuht.
Teach, taught: Tæchan, tæhte.
Think, thought: Thencan, thohte.
Seek, sought: Secan, sohte.
Work, wrought: Weorcan, worhte.

_Fraught_ seems rather to be an Adjective than the Participle of the Verb _to freight_, which has regularly _freighted_. _Raught_ from _reach_ is obsolete.

III.

Irregulars in _en_.

The Irregulars of the Third Class form the Past Time by changing the vowel or diphthong of the Present; and the Participle Perfect and Passive by adding the termination _en_, beside, for the most part, the change of the vowel or diphthong. These also derive their formation in both parts from the Saxon.

Present. Past. Participle.

_a_ changed into _e_.

Fall, fell, fallen.

_a_ into _o_.

Awake, awoke, [awaked.]

_a_ into _oo_.

Forsake, forsook, forsaken.
Shake, shook, shaken.
Take, took, taken.

_aw_ into _ew_.

Draw, drew, drawn[31].

_ay_ into _ew_.

Slay, slew, slayn[31].

_e_ into _a_ or _o_, _o_.

Get, gat, or got, gotten.
Help, [helped,] holpen.
Melt, [melted,] molten[28].
Swell, [swelled,] swollen[28].

_ea_ into _a_ or _o_.

Eat, ate, eaten.
Bear, bare, or bore, born.
Break, brake, or broke, broken.
Cleave, clave, or clove[28], cloven[28].
Speak, spake, or spoke, spoken.
Swear, sware, or swore, sworn.
Tear, tare, or tore, torn.
Wear, ware, or wore, worn.
Heave, hove[28], hoven.
Shear, shore, shorn.
Steal, stole, stolen, or stoln.
Tread, trode, trodden.
Weave, wove, woven.

_ee_ into _o_, _o_.

Creep, crope, [creeped, or crept.]
Freeze, froze, frozen.
Seethe, sod, sodden.

_ee_ into _aw_.

See, saw, seen.

_i_ long into _i_ short, _i_ short.

Bite, bit, bitten.
Chide, chid, chidden.
Hide, hid, hidden.
Slide, slid, slidden.

_i_ long into _o_, _i_ short.

Abide, abode.
Drive, drove, driven.
Ride, rode, ridden.
Rise, rose, risen.
Shine, shone, [shined.]
Shrive, shrove, shriven.
Smite, smote, smitten.
Stride, strode, stridden.
Strive, strove[28], striven[28].
Thrive, throve, thriven.
Write[32], wrote, written.

_i_ long into _u_, _i_ short.

Strike, struck, stricken, or strucken.

_i_ short into _a_.

Bid, bade, bidden.
Give, gave, given.
Sit[33], sat, sitten.
Spit, spat, spitten.

_i_ short into _u_.

Dig, dug[28], [digged.]

_ie_ into _ay_.

Lie[34], lay, lien, or lain.