Chapter II: Part 2

_o_ into _e_.

Hold, held, holden.

_o_ into _i_.

Do, did, done, i. e. doen.

_oo_ into _o_, _o_.

Choose, chose, chosen[35].

_ow_ into _ew_.

Blow, blew, blown.
Crow, crew, [crowed.]
Grow, grew, grown.
Know, knew, known.
Throw, threw, thrown.

_y_ into _ew_, _ow_.

Fly[36], flew, flown.

The following are Irregular only in the Participle; and that without changing the vowel.

Bake, [baked,] baken[28].
Grave, [graved,] graven[28].
Hew, [hewed,] hewen, or hewn[28].
Lade, [laded,] laden.
Load, [loaded,] loaden[28].
Mow, [mowed,] mown[28].
Rive, [rived,] riven.
Saw, [sawed,] sawn[28].
Shave, [shaved,] shaven[28].
Shew, [shewed,] shewn[28].
Sow, [sowed,] sown[28].
Straw, -ew, or -ow, [strawed, &c.] strown[28].
Wax, [waxed,] waxen[28].

Some Verbs which change _i_ short into _a_ or _u_, and _i_ long into _ou_, have dropt the termination _en_ in the Participle.

_i_ short into _a_ or _u_, _u_.

Begin, began, begun.
Cling, clang, or clung, clung.
Drink, drank, drunk, or drunken.
Fling, flung, flung.
Ring, rang, or rung, rung.
Shrink, shrank, or shrunk, shrunk.
Sing, sang, or sung, sung.
Sink, sank, or sunk, sunk.
Sling, slang, or slung, slung.
Slink, slunk, slunk.
Spin, span, or spun, spun.
Spring, sprang, or sprung, sprung.
Sting, stung, stung.
Stink, stank, or stunk, stunk.
String, strung, strung.
Swim, swam, or swum, swum.
Swing, swung, swung.
Wring, wrung, wrung.

In many of the foregoing the original and analogical form of the Past Time in _a_, which distinguished it from the Participle, is grown quite obsolete.

_i_ long into _ou_, _ou_.

Bind, bound, bound, or bounden.
Find, found, found.
Grind, ground, ground.
Wind, wound, wound.

That all these had originally the termination _en_ in the Participle, is plain from the following considerations. _Drink_ and _bind_ still retain it; _drunken_, _bounden_; from the Saxon, _druncen_, _bunden_: and the rest are manifestly of the same analogy with these. _Begonnen_, _sonken_, and _founden_, are used by Chaucer; and some others of them appear in their proper shape in the Saxon; _scruncen_, _spunnen_, _sprungen_, _stungen_, _wunden_. As likewise in the German, which is only another off-spring of the Saxon: _begunnen_, _geklungen_, _getruncken_, _gesungen_, _gesuncken_, _gespunnen_, _gesprungen_, _gestuncken_, _geschwummen_, _geschwungen_.

The following seem to have lost the _en_ of the Participle in the same manner:

Hang, hung, hung.
Shoot, shot, shot.
Stick, stuck, stuck.
Come, came, come.
Run, ran, run.
Win, won, won.

_Hangen_, and _scoten_, are the Saxon originals of the two first Participles; the latter of which is likewise still in use in its first form in one phrase; a _shotten_ herring. _Stuck_ seems to be a contraction from _stucken_, as _struck_ now in use for _strucken_. Chaucer hath _comen_ and _wonnen_: _becommen_ is even used by Lord Bacon[37]. And most of them still subsist intire in the German; _gehangen_, _kommen_, _gerunnen_, _gewonnen_.

To this third Class belong the Defective Verbs, Be, been; and Go, gone; i. e. goen.

From this Distribution and account of the Irregular Verbs, if it be just, it appears, that originally there was no exception whatever from the Rule, That the Participle Præterit, or Passive, in English ends in _d_, _t_, or _n_. The first form included all the Regular Verbs, and those which are become Irregular by Contraction ending in _t_. To the second properly belonged only those which end in _ght_, from the Saxon Irregulars in _hte_. To the third, those from the Saxon Irregulars in _en_, which have still, or had originally, the same termination.

The same Rule affords a proper foundation for a division of the English Verbs into Three Conjugations, of which the three different Terminations of the Participle might respectively be the Characteristics. The Contracted Verbs, whose Participles now end in _t_, might perhaps be best reduced to the first Conjugation, to which they naturally and originally belonged; and they seem to be of a very different analogy from those in _ght_. But as the Verbs of the first Conjugation would so greatly exceed in number those of both the others, which together make but about 110[38]; and as those of the third Conjugation are so various in their form, and so incapable of being reduced to one plain Rule; it seems better in practice to consider the first in _ed_ as the only Regular form, and the others as deviations from it; after the example of the Saxon and German Grammarians.

To the Irregular Verbs are to be added the Defective; which are not only for the most part Irregular, but are also wanting in some of their parts. They are in general words of most frequent and vulgar use; in which Custom is apt to get the better of Analogy. Such are the Auxiliary Verbs, most of which are of this number. They are in use only in some of their Times, and Modes; and some of them are a Composition of Times of several Defective Verbs having the same signification.

Present. Past. Participle.
Am, or Be, was, been.
Can, could.
Go, went, gone.
May, might.
Must.
Ought, ought.
Quoth, quoth.
Shall, should.
Weet, wit, or wot; wot.
Will, would.
Wist, wist.

There are not in English so many as a Hundred Verbs, (being only the chief part, but not all, of the Irregulars of the Third Class,) which have a distinct and different form for the Past Time Active and the Participle Perfect or Passive. The General bent and turn of the language is towards the other form, which makes the Past Time and the Participle the same. This general inclination and tendency of the language, seems to have given occasion to the introducing of a very great Corruption; by which the Form of the Past Time is confounded with that of the Participle in these Verbs, few in proportion, which have them quite different from one another. This confusion prevails greatly in common discourse, and is too much authorised by the example of some of our best Writers[39]. Thus it is said, _He begun_, for _he began_; _he run_, for _he ran_; _he drunk_, for _he drank_: the Participle being used instead of the Past Time. And much more frequently the Past Time instead of the Participle: as, _I had wrote_, _it was wrote_, for _I had written_, _it was written_; _I have drank_, for _I have drunk_; _bore_, for _born_; _chose_, for _chosen_; _bid_, for _bidden_; _got_, for _gotten_; &c. This abuse has been long growing upon us, and is continually making further incroachments: as it may be observed in the example of those Irregular Verbs of the Third Class, which change _i_ short into _a_ and _u_; as, Cling, clang, clung; in which the original and analogical form of the Past Time in _a_ is almost grown obsolete; and, the _u_ prevailing instead of it, the Past Time is now in most of them confounded with the Participle. The Vulgar Translation of the Bible, which is the best standard of our language, is free from this corruption, except in a few instances; as, _hid_ is used for _hidden_; _held_, for _holden_, frequently: _bid_, for _bidden_; _begot_, for _begotten_, once or twice: in which, and a few other like words, it may perhaps be allowed as a Contraction. And in some of these Custom has established it beyond recovery. In the rest it seems wholly inexcusable. The absurdity of it will be plainly perceived in the example of some of these Verbs, which Custom has not yet so perverted. We should be immediately shocked at _I have knew_, _I have saw_, _I have gave_, &c: but our ears are grown familiar with _I have wrote_, _I have drank_, _I have bore_, &c. which are altogether as barbarous.

ADVERB.

ADVERBS are _added to Verbs_ and Adjectives to denote some modification or circumstance of an action or quality: as, the manner, order, time, place, distance, motion, relation, quantity, quality, comparison, doubt, affirmation, negation, demonstration, interrogation.

In English they admit of no Variation; except some few of them, which have the degrees of Comparison: as,[40] “often, oftener, oftenest;” “soon, sooner, soonest.”

An Adverb is sometimes joined to another Adverb to modify or qualify its meaning; as, “very much; much too little; not very prudently.”

PREPOSITION.

PREPOSITIONS, so called because they are commonly _put before_ the words to which they are applied, serve to connect words with one another, and to shew the relation between them.

One great use of Prepositions in English, is to express those relations which in some languages are chiefly marked by Cases, or the different endings of the Noun.

Most Prepositions originally denote the relation of Place, and have been thence transferred to denote by similitude other relations. Thus, _out_, _in_, _through_, _under_, _by_, _to_, _from_, _of_, &c. _Of_ is much the same with _from_; “ask _of_ me,” that is, _from_ me: “made _of_ wood;” “Son _of_ Philip;” that is, sprung _from_ him. _For_, in its primary sense, is _pro_, _loco alterius_, in the stead, or place, of another. The notion of Place is very obvious in all the rest.

CONJUNCTION.

The Conjunction connects or _joins together_ Sentences; so as out of two to make one Sentence.

Thus, “You, _and_ I, _and_ Peter, rode to London,” is one Sentence made up of these three by the Conjunction _and_ twice employed; “You rode to London; I rode to London; Peter rode to London.” Again, “You _and_ I rode to London, _but_ Peter staid at home,” is one Sentence made up of three by the Conjunctions _and_ and _but_: both of which equally connect the Sentences, but the latter expresses an Opposition in the Sense. The first is therefore called a Conjunction Copulative; the other a Conjunction Disjunctive.

The use of Copulative Conjunctions is to connect, or to continue, the Sentence, by expressing an addition, _and_; a supposition, or condition, _if_, _as_; a cause, _because_[41], _then_; a motive, _that_; an inference, _therefore_; &c.

The use of Disjunctives is to connect and to continue the Sentence; but to express Opposition of meaning in different degrees: as, _or_, _but_, _than_, _altho’_, _unless_, &c.

INTERJECTION.

Interjections, so called because they are _thrown in_ between the parts of a sentence without making any other alteration in it, are a kind of Natural Sounds to express the affection of the Speaker.

The different Passions have for the most part different Interjections to express them.

The Interjection _O_ placed before a Substantive expresses more strongly an address made to that person or thing; as it marks in Latin what is called the Vocative Case.

SENTENCES.

A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words, expressed in proper form, and ranged in proper order, and concurring to make a complete sense.

Concord, or agreement of words, is when one word is required to be in like case, number, gender, or person, with another.

Regimen, or government, is when a word causeth a following word to be in some case, or mode.

Sentences are Simple, or Compounded.

A Simple Sentence hath in it but one Subject, and one Finite Verb; that is, a Verb in the Indicative, Imperative, or Subjunctive Mode.

A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together in order to make a part of a Sentence; and sometimes making a whole Sentence.

* * * * *

The most common PHRASES used in simple Sentences are as follows:

1st Phrase: The Substantive before a Verb Active, Passive, or Neuter; when it is said what thing _is_, _does_, or _is done_: as, “I am;” “Thou writest;” “Thomas is loved:” where _I_, _Thou_, _Thomas_, are the Nominative[42] Cases; and answer to the question _who_, or _what?_ as, “Who is loved? Thomas.” And the Verb agrees with the Nominative Case in number and person[43]; as, _Thou_ being the Second Person Singular, the Verb _writest_ is so too.

2d Phrase: The Substantive after a Verb Neuter or Passive; when it is said, that such a thing _is_, or _is made_, or _thought_, or _called_, such _another thing_; or, when the Substantive after the Verb is spoken of the same thing or person with the Substantive before the Verb: as, “a calf becomes an ox;” “Plautus is accounted a Poet;” “I am He.” Here the latter Substantive is in the Nominative Case as well as the former; and the Verb is said to govern the Nominative Case: or, the latter Substantive may be said to agree in Case with the former.

3d Phrase: The Adjective after a Verb Neuter or Passive, in like manner: as, “Life _is short_, and Art _is long_.” “Exercise _is esteemed wholesome_.”

4th Phrase: The Substantive after a Verb Active, or Transitive: as when one thing is said to _act_ upon, or _do_ something to another: as, “to open a door;” “to build a house;” “Alexander conquered the Persians.” Here the thing acted upon is in the Objective[44] Case; as it appears plainly when it is expressed by the Pronoun, which has a proper termination for that Case; “Alexander conquered _them_;” and the Verb is said to govern the Objective Case.

5th Phrase: A Verb following another Verb; as, “boys love to play:” where the latter Verb is in the Infinitive Mode.

6th Phrase: When one thing is said to belong to another; as, “Milton’s poems:” where the thing to which the other belongs is placed first, and is in the Possessive Case; or else last with the Preposition _of_ before it; as, “the poems of Milton.”

7th Phrase: When another Substantive is added to express and explain the former more fully; as, “Paul the Apostle;” “King George:” where they are both in the same case; and the latter is said to be put in Apposition to the former.

8th Phrase: When the quality of the Substantive is expressed by adding an Adjective to it: as, “a wise man;” “a black horse.” Participles have the nature of Adjectives; as, “a learned man;” “a loving father.”

9th Phrase: An Adjective with a Verb in the Infinitive Mode following it: as, “worthy to die;” “fit to be trusted.”

10th Phrase: When a circumstance is added to a Verb, or to an Adjective, by an Adverb: as, “you read well;” “he is very prudent.”

11th Phrase: When a circumstance is added to a Verb or an Adjective by a Substantive with a Preposition before it: as, “I write for you;” “he reads with care;” “studious of praise;” “ready for mischief.”

12th Phrase: When the same Quality in different Subjects is compared; the Adjective in the Positive having after it the Conjunction _as_, in the Comparative the Conjunction _than_, and in the Superlative the Preposition _of_: as, “white as snow;” “wiser than I;” “greatest of all.”

* * * * *

The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a Simple Sentence are the Agent, the Attribute, and the Object. The Agent is the thing chiefly spoken of; the Attribute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it; and the Object is the thing affected by such action.

In English the Nominative Case denoting the Agent, usually goes before the Verb, or Attribution, and the Objective Case, denoting the Object, follows the Verb; and it is the order that determines the cases in Nouns: as, “Alexander conquered the Persians.” But the Pronoun, having a proper form for each of those cases, sometimes when it is in the Objective Case is placed before the Verb, and when it is in the Nominative Case follows the Object and Verb: as, “Whom ye ignorantly worship, _him declare I_ unto you.” And the Nominative Case is sometimes placed after a Verb Neuter: as, “Upon thy right hand _did stand the Queen_:” “On a sudden _appeared the King_.” And frequently with the Adverbs _there_ and then: as, “There _was a man_:” “Then _came_ unto him _the Pharisees_.” The reason of it is plain: the Neuter Verb not admitting of an Objective Case after it, no ambiguity of case can arise from such a position of the Noun.

_Who_, _which_, _what_, and the Relative _that_, though in the Objective Case, are always placed before the Verb; as are also their Compounds, _whoever_, _whosoever_, &c: as, “He _whom_ you _seek_.” “This is _what_, or the thing _which_, or _that_, you _want_.” “_Whomsoever_ you please _to appoint_.”

When the Verb is a Passive, the Agent and Object change places in the Sentence; and the thing acted upon is in the Nominative Case, and the Agent is accompanied with a Preposition: as, “The Persians were conquered by Alexander.”

A Noun of Multitude[45], or signifying many; and two Nouns in the Singular Number, joined together by a Conjunction Copulative; have Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns, agreeing with them in the Plural Number: as, “When the King’s trump, the _mob are_ for the King.” Dryden. “_Socrates and Plato were_ wise; _they were_ the most eminent _Philosophers_ of Greece.”

If the Singulars so joined together are of several Persons, in making the Plural Pronoun agree with them in Person, the second Person takes place of the third, and the first of both: “_He and You and I_ won it at the hazard of _our_ lives: _You and He_ shared it between _you_.”

The Verb _to Be_ has always a Nominative Case after it; as, “it _was I_, and not _He_, that did it:” unless it be in the Infinitive Mode; “though you took it _to be Him_[46].”

The Adverbs _when_, _while_, _after_, &c. being left out, the Phrase is formed with the Participle independently of the rest of the Sentence: as, “The doors being shut, Jesus stood in the midst.” This is called the Case Absolute. And the Case is in English always the Nominative: as,

“God from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top
Shall tremble, _He descending_[47], will himself,
In thunder, lightning, and loud trumpet’s sound,
Ordain them laws.”

Milton, P. L. xii. 227.

_To_ before a Verb is the sign of the Infinitive Mode: but there are some few Verbs, which have other Verbs following them in the Infinitive Mode without the sign _to_: as, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear; and, let, have, not used as Auxiliaries: as, “I bade him do it; you dare not do it; I saw him[48] do it; I heard him say it.”

The Infinitive Mode has much of the nature of a Substantive, expressing the Action itself which the Verb signifies; as the Participle has the nature of an Adjective. Thus the Infinitive Mode does the office of a Substantive in different cases; in the Nominative; as, “_to play is_ pleasant:” in the Objective; as, “boys _love to play_.” In Greek it admits of the Article through all its cases, with the Preposition in the Oblique cases: in English the Article is not wanted, but the Preposition may be used: “For _to will is_ present with me; but _to perform_ that which is good I find not[49].” “All their works they do _for to be seen_ of men[50].”

“For not _to have been dip’d_ in Lethe’s lake
Could save the Son of Thetis _from to die_.”

Spenser.

Perhaps therefore the Infinitive and the Participle might be more properly called the Substantive Mode and the Adjective Mode[51].

The Participle with a Preposition before it, and still retaining its Government, answers to what is called in Latin the Gerund: as, “Happiness is to be attained, by avoiding evil, and by doing good; by seeking peace, and by pursuing it.”

The Participle, with an Article before it, and the Preposition _of_ after it, becomes a Substantive, expressing the action itself which the Verb signifies[52]: as, “These are the Rules of Grammar, by _the observing of_ which you may avoid mistakes.” Or it may be expressed by the Participle, or Gerund; “by _observing_ which:” not, “by _observing of_ which;” nor, “by _the observing_ which:” for either of those two Phrases would be a confounding of two distinct forms.

I will add another example, and that of the best authority: “The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated for _the gaining of_ wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon _the supplying of_ our wants, and riches _upon enjoying our_ superfluities.” Addison, Spect. Nᵒ 464.

The Participle frequently becomes altogether an Adjective; when it is joined to a Substantive merely to denote its quality; without any respect to time; expressing, not an Action, but a Habit; and as such it admits of the degrees of Comparison: as, “a learned, a more learned, a most learned, man; a loving, more loving, most loving, father.”

Simple Sentences are 1. Explicative, or explaining: 2. Interrogative, or asking: 3. Imperative, or commanding[53].

1. An Explicative Sentence is when a thing is said to be, or not to be; to do, or not to do; to suffer, or not to suffer; in a direct manner; as in the foregoing examples. If the Sentence be Negative, the Adverb _not_ is placed after the Auxiliary, or after the Verb itself when it has no Auxiliary: as, “it _did not_ touch him;” or, “it _touched_ him _not_[54].”

2. In an Interrogative Sentence, or when a Question is asked, the Nominative Case follows the Principal Verb, or the Auxiliary: as, “_was it_ he?” “_did Alexander_ conquer the Persians?” So that the Question depends intirely on the order of the words[55].

3. In an Imperative Sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the Nominative Case follows the Verb or the Auxiliary: as, “Go, thou traytor;” or, “do thou go:” or the Auxiliary _let_ with the Objective[56] Case after it is used: as, “Let us be gone[57].”

The Adjective in English, having no variation of Gender or Number, cannot but agree with the Substantive in those respects; some of the Pronominal Adjectives only excepted, which have the Plural Number: as, _these_, _those_, and _they_; which must agree in Number[58] with their Substantives.

The Adjective generally goes before the Noun: as, “a wise man; a good horse;” unless something depend on the Adjective; as, “food convenient for me:” or the Adjective be emphatical; as, “Alexander the great.” And the Article goes before the Adjective: except the Adjectives _such_ and _many_, and others subjoined to the Adverbs _so_, _as_, and _how_: as, “_such a_ man;” “_many a_ man;” “so _good a_ man;” “as _good a_ man as ever lived;” “how _beautiful a_ prospect is here!” And sometimes when there are two or more Adjectives joined to the Noun: as, “a man learned and religious.”

* * * * *

Every Verb, except in the Infinitive or the Participle, hath its Nominative Case, either expressed or implied[59]; as,

“Awake, arise, or be for ever fall’n:”

that is, “Awake _ye_, &c.”

Every Nominative Case, except the Case Absolute, and when an address is made to a Person, belongs to some Verb, either expressed or implied[60]: as in the answer to a Question; “Who wrote this book; Cicero:” that is, “Cicero _wrote it_.” Or when the Verb is understood; as, “To whom thus Adam:” that is, _spake_.

Every Possessive Case supposes some Noun to which it belongs: as when we say, “St. Paul’s, or St. James’s,” we mean St. Paul’s _Church_, or St. James’s _Palace_.

Every Adjective has relation to some Substantive, either expressed or implied: as, “The Twelve,” that is, _Apostles_; “the wife, the elect,” that is, _persons_.

In some instances the Adjective becomes a Substantive, and has an Adjective joined to it: as, “the chief Good;” “Evil, be Thou my Good!”[61]

* * * * *

ADVERBS have no Government.[62]

* * * * *

PREPOSITIONS have a Government of Cases; and in English they always require the Objective Case after them: as, “_with him_; _from her_; _to me_.”[63]

The Preposition is often separated from the Relative which it governs, and joined to the Verb at the end of the Sentence, or of some member of it: as, “Horace is an author, _whom_ I am much delighted _with_.” “The[64] world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth, _which_ generally their booksellers are the first that inform them _of_.” This is an Idiom which our language is strongly inclined to; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the Preposition before the Relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous; and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated Style.

Verbs are often compounded of a Verb and a Preposition; as, _to uphold_, _to outweigh_, _to overlook_: and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the Verb; as, _to understand_, _to withdraw_, _to forgive_[65]. But in English the Preposition is more frequently placed after the Verb, and separate from it, like an Adverb; in which situation it is no less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning; and may still be considered as belonging to the Verb, and a part of it. As, _to cast_ is to throw; but _to cast up_, or to compute, _an account_, is quite a different thing: thus, _to fall on_, _to bear out_, _to give over_; &c. So that the meaning of the Verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the Preposition subjoined[66].

As the Preposition subjoined to the Verb hath the construction and nature of an Adverb, so the Adverbs _here_, _there_, _where_, with a Preposition subjoined, as _hereof_, _therewith_, _whereupon_[67], have the construction and nature of Pronouns.

The Prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood; as, “give me the book; get me some paper;” that is, _to me_, _for me_[68].

* * * * *

Two or more Simple Sentences, joined together by one or more CONNECTIVE WORDS, become a Compounded Sentence.

There are two sorts of words which connect Sentences: 1. Relatives; 2. Conjunctions.

Examples: 1. “Blessed is the man, _who_ feareth the Lord.” 2. “Life is short, _and_ art is long.” 1. and 2. “Blessed is the Man, _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_ keepeth his commandments.”

* * * * *

The RELATIVES _who_, _which_, _that_, having no variation of gender or number, cannot but agree with their Antecedents. _Who_ is appropriated to persons; and so may be accounted Masculine and Feminine only: _which_ is used of things only; and so may be accounted Neuter. But formerly they were both indifferently used of persons: “Our Father, _which_ art in heaven.” _That_ is used indifferently both of persons and things: but perhaps would be more properly confined to the latter. _What_ includes both the Antecedent and the Relative: as, “This was _what_ he wanted;” that is, “_the thing which_ he wanted[69].”

The Relative is the Nominative Case to the Verb, when no other Nominative comes between it and the Verb: but when another Nominative comes between it and the Verb, the Relative is governed by some word in its own member of the Sentence: as, “The God _who_ preserveth me; _whose_ I am, and _whom_ I serve[70].”

Every Relative must have an Antecedent to which it refers, either expressed, or understood: as, “_Who_ steals my purse, steals trash:” that is, _the man, who_ ⸺.

The Relative is of the same person with the Antecedent; and the Verb agrees with it accordingly: as, “Who is _this, that cometh_ from Edom; _this that is_ glorious in his apparel?⸺_I that speak_ in righteousness.” Isaiah lxiii. 1. “O Shepherd of Israel, _Thou that leadest_ Joseph like a flock; _Thou that dwellest_ between the Cherubims.” Ps. lxxx. 1.[71]

The Relative is often understood, or omitted: as, “The man I love;” that is, “_whom_ I love[72].”

The accuracy and clearness of the Sentence depend very much upon the proper and determinate use of the Relative, so that it may readily present its Antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader without any obscurity or ambiguity. The same may be observed of the Pronoun and the Noun, which by some are called also the Relative and the Antecedent[73].

* * * * *

CONJUNCTIONS have sometimes a Government of Modes. Some Conjunctions require the Indicative, some the Subjunctive Mode after them: others have no influence at all on the Mode.

Hypothetical, Conditional, Concessive, and Exceptive Conjunctions seem to require properly the Subjunctive Mode after them: as, _if_, _tho’_, _unless_, _except_, _whether—or_, &c. but by use they often admit of the Indicative. Examples: “_If_ thou _be_ the Son of God.” Matt. iv. 3. “_Tho’_ he _slay_ me, yet will I put my trust in him.” Job xiii. 15. “_Unless_ he _wash_ his flesh.” Lev. xxii. 6. “No power, _except_ it _were_ given from above.” John xix. 11. “_Whether_ it _were_ I _or_ they, so we preach.” 1 Cor. xv. 11. The Subjunctive in these instances implies something contingent or doubtful; the Indicative would express a more absolute and determinate sense.

_That_ expressing the motive or end has the Subjunctive Mode, with _may_, _might_, _should_, after it.

_Lest_; and _that_ with a Negative following it; and _if_ with _but_ following it; necessarily require the Subjunctive Mode: Examples; “Let him that standeth, take heed, _lest_ he _fall_.” 1 Cor. x. 12. “Take heed, _that_ thou _speak not_ to Jacob.” Gen. xxxi. 24. “_If_ he _do but_ touch the hills, they shall smoke.” Ps. civ. 32.[74]

Other Conjunctions, expressing a Continuation, an Addition, an Inference, &c. being of a positive and absolute nature, require the Indicative Mode; or rather leave the Mode to be determined by the other circumstances and conditions of the Sentence.

When the Qualities of different things are compared, the latter Noun is governed, not by the Conjunction _than_, or _as_, (for a Conjunction has no Government of Cases,) but by the Verb or the Preposition, expressed, or understood. As, “Thou art wiser than _I_ [am.]” “You are not so tall as _I_ [am.]” “You think him handsomer than [you think] _me_; and you love him more than [you love] _me_.” In all other instances, if you complete the Sentence in like manner, by supplying the part which is understood, the Case of the latter Noun will be determined. Thus, “Plato observes, that God geometrizes; and the same thing was observed before by a wiser man than _he_:” that is, than _he was_. “It was well expressed by Plato; but more elegantly by Solomon than _him_:” that is, than _by him_[75].

The Conjunction _that_ is often omitted and understood: as, “I beg you would come to me:” “See, thou do it not:” that is, “_that_ you would;” “_that_ thou do[76].”

The Nominative Case following the Auxiliary, or the Verb itself, sometimes supplies the place of the Conjunctions _if_ and _tho’_: as, “Had he done this, he had escaped:” “Charm he never so[77] wisely:” that is, “_if_ he had done this;” “_tho’_ he charm.”

Some Conjunctions have their Correspondent Conjunctions belonging to them; so that in the subsequent Member of the Sentence the latter answers to the former: as, _although_ ⸺, _yet_, or _nevertheless_; _whether_ ⸺, _or_; _either_ ⸺, _or_; _neither_ ⸺, _nor_; _as_ ⸺, _as_; expressing a Comparison of equality; “_as_ white _as_ snow:” _as_ ⸺, _so_; expressing a Comparison sometimes of equality; “_as_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be;” that is, equal in number: but most commonly a Comparison in respect of quality; “and it shall be, _as_ with the people, _so_ with the priest; _as_ with the servant, _so_ with his master:” “_as_ is the good, _so_ is the sinner; _as_ the one dieth, _so_ dieth the other:” that is, in like manner: _so_ ⸺, _as_; with a Verb expressing a Comparison of quality; “To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in the sanctuary:” but with a Negative and an Adjective, a Comparison in respect of quantity; as, “Pompey had eminent abilities: but he was not either _so_ eloquent and politic a statesman, or _so_ brave and skilful a general; nor was he upon the whole _so_ great a man, _as_ Cæsar:” _so_ ⸺, _that_; expressing a Consequence: &c.[78]

* * * * *

INTERJECTIONS in English have no Government.

Though they are usually attended with Nouns in the Nominative Case[79], and Verbs in the Indicative Mode, yet the Case and Mode is not influenced by them, but determined by the nature of the sentence.

PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation is the art of marking in writing the several pauses, or rests, between sentences, and the parts of sentences, according to their proper quantity or proportion, as they are expressed in a just and accurate pronunciation.

As the several articulate sounds, the syllables and words, of which sentences consist, are marked by Letters; so the rests and pauses between sentences and their parts are marked by Points.

But, tho’ the several articulate sounds are pretty fully and exactly marked by Letters of known and determinate power; yet the several pauses, which are used in a just pronunciation of discourse, are very imperfectly expressed by Points.

For the different degrees of connexion between the several parts of sentences, and the different pauses in a just pronunciation, which express those degrees of connexion according to their proper value, admit of great variety; but the whole number of Points, which we have to express this variety, amounts only to Four.

Hence it is, that we are under a necessity of expressing pauses of the same quantity, on different occasions, by different points; and more frequently of expressing pauses of different quantity by the same points.

So that the doctrine of Punctuation must needs be very imperfect: few precise rules can be given, which will hold without exception in all cases; but much must be left to the judgement and taste of the writer.

On the other hand, if a greater number of marks were invented to express all the possible different pauses of pronunciation; the doctrine of them would be very perplexed and difficult, and the use of them would rather embarass than assist the reader.

It remains therefore, that we be content with the Rules of Punctuation, laid down with as much exactness as the nature of the subject will admit; such as may serve for a general direction, to be accommodated to different occasions, and to be supplied where deficient by the writers judgement.

The several degrees of Connexion between Sentences, and between their principal constructive parts, Rhetoricians have considered under the following distinctions, as the most obvious and remarkable: the Period, Colon, Semicolon, and Comma.

The Period is the whole Sentence, compleat in itself, wanting nothing to make a full and perfect sense, and not connected in construction with a subsequent Sentence.

The Colon, or Member, is a chief constructive part, or greater division, of a Sentence.

The Semicolon, or Half-member, is a less constructive part, or subdivision of a Sentence or Member.

A Sentence or Member is again subdivided into Commas, or Segments; which are the least constructive parts of a Sentence, or Member, in this way of considering it; for the next subdivision would be the resolution of it into Phrases and Words.

The Grammarians have followed this division of the Rhetoricians, and have appropriated to each of these distinctions its mark, or Point; which takes its name from the part of the Sentence which it is employed to distinguish; as follows:

The Period } { .
The Colon } is thus marked { :
The Semicolon} { ;
The Comma } { ,

The proportional quantity or time of the Points with respect to one another is determined by the following general rule: The Period is a pause in quantity or duration double of the Colon; the Colon is double of the Semicolon; and the Semicolon is double of the Comma. So that they are in the same proportion to one another as the Semibrief, the Minim, the Crotchet, and the Quaver, in Music. The precise quantity or duration of each Pause or Note cannot be defined; for that varies with the Time; and both in Discourse and Music the same Composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower Time: but in Music the proportion between the Notes remains ever the same; and in Discourse, if the Doctrine of Punctuation were exact, the proportion between the Pauses would be ever invariable.

The Points then being designed to express the Pauses, which depend on the different degrees of connexion between Sentences, and between their principal constructive parts; to understand the meaning of the Points, and to know how to apply them properly, we must consider the nature of a Sentence, as divided into its principal constructive parts; and the degrees of connexion between those parts, upon which such division of it depends.

To begin with the least of these principal constructive parts, the Comma. In order the more clearly to determine the proper application of the Point which marks it, we must distinguish between an Imperfect Phrase, a Simple Sentence, and a Compounded Sentence.

An Imperfect Phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a Proposition or Sentence.

A Simple Sentence has but one Subject and one finite Verb.

A Compounded Sentence has more than one Subject or one finite Verb, either expressed or understood; or it consists of two or more simple Sentences connected together.

In a Sentence, the Subject and the Verb may be each of them accompanied with several Adjuncts; as the Object, the End, the Circumstances of Time, Place, Manner, and the like; and this either immediately, or mediately, that is, by being connected with some thing, which is connected with some other; and so on.

If the several Adjuncts affect the Subject or the Verb in a different manner, they are only so many Imperfect Phrases, and the Sentence is Simple.

A Simple Sentence admits of no Point, by which it may be divided, or distinguished into parts.

If the several Adjuncts affect the Subject or the Verb in the same manner, they may be resolved into so many Simple Sentences: the Sentence then becomes Compounded, and it must be divided into its parts by Points.

For if there are several Subjects belonging in the same manner to one Verb, or several Verbs belonging in the same manner to one Subject, the Subjects and Verbs are still to be accounted equal in number: for every Verb must have its Subject, and every Subject its Verb; and every one of the Subjects, or Verbs, should or may have its point of distinction.

EXAMPLES.

“The passion for praise produces excellent effects in women of sense.” Addison, Spect. Nᵒ 73. In this Sentence _passion_ is the Subject, and _produces_ the Verb; each of which is accompanied and connected with its adjuncts. The Subject is not passion in general, but a particular passion determined by its Adjunct of Specification, as we may call it, the passion for praise. So likewise the Verb is immediately connected with its object, _excellent effects_; and mediately, that is, by the intervention of the word _effects_, with _women_, the Subject in which these effects are produced; which again is connected with its Adjunct of Specification; for it is not meant of women in general, but of women of sense only. Lastly it is to be observed, that these several Adjuncts are connected with the Verb each in a different manner; namely, with _effects_, as the object; with _women_, as the subject of them; with _sense_, as the quality or characteristic of those women. The Adjuncts therefore are only so many imperfect Phrases; the Sentence is a Simple Sentence, and admits of no Point, by which it may be distinguished into parts.

“The Passion for praise, which is so very vehement in the fair sex, produces excellent effects in women of sense.” Here a new Verb is introduced, accompanied with Adjuncts of its own; and the Subject is repeated by the Relative Pronoun _which_. It now becomes a Compounded Sentence, made up of two Simple Sentences, one of which is inserted in the middle of the other; it must therefore be distinguished into its component parts by a Point placed on each side of the additional Sentence.

“How many instances have we [in the fair sex] of chastity, fidelity, devotion? How many Ladies distinguish themselves by the education of their children, care of their families, and love of their husbands; which are the great qualities and achievements of woman-kind: as the making of war, the carrying on of traffic, the administration of justice, are those by which men grow famous, and get themselves a name?” Ibid.

In the first of these two Sentences the Adjuncts _chastity_, _fidelity_, _devotion_, are connected with the Verb by the word _instances_ in the same manner, and in effect make so many distinct Sentences: “how many instances have we of chastity? how many instances have we of fidelity? how many instances have we of devotion?” They must therefore be separated from one another by a Point. The same may be said of the Adjuncts “education of their children, &c” in the former part of the next Sentence: as likewise of the several Subjects, “the making of war, &c” in the latter part; which have in effect each their Verb; for each of these “is an atchievement by which men grow famous.”

As Sentences themselves are divided into Simple and Compounded, so the members of sentences may be divided likewise into Simple and Compounded members: for whole Sentences, whether Simple or Compounded, may become members of other Sentences by means of some additional connexion.

Simple members of Sentences closely connected together in one Compound member or sentence, are distinguished or separated by a Comma: as in the foregoing examples.

So likewise the Case Absolute; Nouns in Apposition, when consisting of many terms; the Participle with something depending on it; are to be distinguished by the Comma: for they may be resolved into Simple members.

When an address is made to a person, the Noun, answering to the Vocative Case in Latin, is distinguished by a Comma.

EXAMPLES.

“This said, He form’d thee, Adam; thee, O man,
Dust of the ground.”

“Now Morn, her rosy steps in th’ eastern clime
Advancing, sow’d the earth with orient pearl.”

Milton.

Two Nouns, or two Adjectives, connected by a single Copulative or Disjunctive, are not separated by a Point: but when there are more than two, or where the Conjunction is understood, they must be distinguished by a Comma.

Simple members connected by Relatives and Comparatives are for the most part distinguished by a Comma: but when the members are short in Comparative Sentences; and when two members are closely connected by a Relative, restraining the general notion of the Antecedent to a particular sense; the pause becomes almost insensible, and the Comma is better omitted.

EXAMPLES.

“Raptures, transports, and extasies are the rewards which they confer: sighs and tears, prayers and broken hearts, are the offerings which are paid to them.” Addison, Ibid.

“Gods partial, changeful, passionate, unjust;
Whose attributes were rage, revenge, or lust.”

Pope.

“What is sweeter than honey? and what is stronger than a lion?”

A member of a Sentence, whether Simple or Compounded, that requires a greater pause than a Comma, yet does not of itself make a compleat Sentence, but is followed by something closely depending on it, may be distinguished by a Semicolon.

EXAMPLE.

“But as this passion for admiration, when it works according to reason, improves the beautiful part of our species in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly.” Addison, ibid.

Here the whole Sentence is divided into two parts by the Semicolon; each of which parts are Compounded Members, divided into their Simple Members by Commas.

A member of a Sentence, whether Simple or Compounded, which of itself would make a compleat Sentence, and so requires a greater pause than a Semicolon, yet is followed by an additional part making a more full and perfect Sense, may be distinguished by a Colon.

EXAMPLE.

“Were all books reduced to their quintessence, many a bulky author would make his appearance in a penny paper: there would be scarce any such thing in nature as a folio: the works of an age would be contained on a few shelves: not to mention millions of volumes, that would be utterly annihilated.” Addison, Spect. Nᵒ 124.

Here the whole Sentence is divided into four parts by Colons: the first and last of which are Compounded Members, each divided by a Comma; the second and third are Simple Members.

When a Semicolon has preceded, and a greater pause is still necessary; a Colon may be employed, tho’ the Sentence be incompleat.

The Colon is also commonly used, when an Example, or a Speech is introduced.

When a Sentence is so far perfectly finished, as not to be connected in construction with the following Sentence, it is marked with a Period.

In all cases the proportion of the several Points in respect to one another is rather to be regarded, than their supposed precise quantity, or proper office, when taken separately.

Beside the Points which mark the pauses in discourse, there are others which denote a different modulation of the voice in correspondence with the sense. These are

The Interrogation Point } thus { ?
The Exclamation Point } marked { !
The Parenthesis } { ()

The Interrogation and Exclamation Points are sufficiently explained by their names: they are indeterminate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a Semicolon, a Colon, or a Period, as the sense requires. They mark an Elevation of the voice.

The Parenthesis incloses in the body of a Sentence a member inserted into it, which is neither necessary to the Sense, nor at all affects the Construction. It marks a moderate depression of the voice, with a pause greater than a Comma.

A PRAXIS, or Example of Grammatical Resolution.

1. In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Cæsar, Pontius Pilate late being Governour of Judea, the word of God came unto John the Son of Zecharias in the wilderness.

2. And he came into all the country about Jordan preaching the baptism of repentance for the remission of sins.

3. And the same John had his raiment of camel’s hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins, and his meat was locusts and wild honey.

4. Then said he to the multitude that came forth to be baptized of him, O generation of vipers, who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bring forth therefore fruits meet for repentance.

5. And as all men mused in their hearts of John, whether he were the Christ, or not; John answered, saying unto them all, I indeed baptize you with water; but one mightier than I cometh, the latchet of whose shoes I am not worthy to unloose: he shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire.

6. Now when all the people were baptized, it came to pass, that, Jesus also being baptized and praying, the heaven was opened, and the Holy Ghost descended in a bodily shape upon him; and lo! a voice from heaven saying, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased.

1. _In_ is a Preposition; _the_ the Definite Article; _fifteenth_, an Adjective; _year_, a Substantive, or Noun, in the Objective Case governed by the Preposition _in_; _of_, a Preposition; _the reign_, a Substantive, Objective Case, governed by the Preposition _of_; _of Tiberius Cæsar_, both Substantives, Proper Names, Government and Case, as before; _Pontius Pilate_, Proper Names; _being_, the Present Participle of the Verb Neuter _to be_; _Governour_, a Substantive; _of Judea_, a Proper Name, Government and Case as before: _Pontius Pilate being governour_, is the Case Absolute, that is, the Nominative Case with a Participle without a Verb following and agreeing with it; the meaning is the same as, _when_ Pilate _was_ governour: _the word_, a Substantive; _of God_, a Substantive; _came_, a Verb Neuter, Indicative Mode, Past Time, third Person Singular Number, agreeing with the Nominative Case _word_; _unto_, a Preposition; _John_, a Proper Name; _the Son_, a Substantive, put in Apposition to _John_; that is, in the same Case, governed by the same Preposition _unto_; _of Zecharias_, a Proper Name; _in_, a Preposition; _the wilderness_, a Substantive, Government and Case as before.

2. _And_, a Conjunction Copulative; _he_, a Pronoun, third Person Singular, Masculine Gender, Nominative Case, standing for _John_; _came_, as before; _into_, a Prep. _all_, an Adjective; the country, a Subst. _about_, a Prep. _Jordan_, a Proper Name; _preaching_, the Present Participle of the Verb Active _to preach_, joined like an Adjective to the Pronoun _he_; _the baptism_, a Substantive in the Objective Case following the Verb Active _preaching_, and governed by it; _of repentance_, a Subst. Government and Case as before; _for_, a Prep. _the remission of sins_, Substantives, the latter in the Plural Number, Government and Case as before.

3. _And_, (b. that is, _as before_) _the same_, an Adjective; _John_ (b.) _had_, a Verb Active, Indicative Mode, Past Time, third Person Sing. agreeing with the Nominative Case _John_; _his_, a Pronoun, third Person Sing. Possessive Case; _raiment_, a Subst. in the Objective Case, following the Verb Active _had_, and governed by it; _of camel’s_, a Substantive, Possessive Case; _hair_, Subst. Objective Case, governed by the Preposition _of_, the same as, _of the hair of a camel_; _and_, (b.) _a_, the Indefinite Article; _leathern_, an Adj. _girdle_, a Subst. _about_, (b.) _his_, (b.) _loins_, Subst. plural Number; _and his_, (b.) _meat_, Subst. _was_, Indicative Mode, Past Time, third Person Singular of the Verb Neuter _to be_; _locusts_, Subst. plural Number, Nominative Case after the Verb _was_; _and_, (b.) _wild_, Adj. _honey_, Subst.

4. _Then_, an Adverb; _said_, a Verb Active, Past Time, third Person Sing. agreeing with the Nominative Case _he_ (b.) _to_, a Prep. _the multitude_, Subst. Objective Case, governed by the Prep. _to_; _that_, a Relative Pronoun, its Antecedent is _the multitude_; _came_, (b.) _forth_, an Adverb; _to_, a Prep. and before a Verb the sign of the Infinitive Mode; _be baptized_, a Verb Passive, made of the Participle Passive of the Verb _to baptize_, and the Auxiliary Verb _to be_, in the Infinitive Mode; _of him_, Pronoun, third Person Sing. standing for _John_, in the Objective Case governed by the Prep. _of_; _O_, an Interjection; _generation_, Subst. Nominative Case; _of vipers_, Subst. plural Number; _who_, an Interrogative Pronoun; _hath warned_, a Verb Active, Present Perfect Time, made of the Perfect Participle _warned_ and the Auxiliary Verb _hath_, third Person Singular agreeing with the Nominative Case _who_; _you_, Pronoun, second Person plural, Objective Case, following the Verb Active _warned_ and governed by it; _to flee_, Verb Neuter, Infinitive Mode; _from_, a Prep.; _the wrath_, Subst. Objective Case, governed by the Prep. _from_; _to come_, Verb Neuter, Infinitive Mode; _bring_, Verb Active, Imperative Mode, second Person plural, agreeing with the Nominative Case _ye_ understood, as if it were, _bring ye_; _forth_, an Adverb; _therefore_, a Conjunction; _fruits_, a Subst. plur. Objective Case, following the Verb Active _bring_, and governed by it; _meet_, an Adjective, joined to _fruits_, but placed after it, because it has something depending on it; _for repentance_, a Subst. governed by a Prep. as before.

5. _And_, (b.) _as_, an Adverb; _all_, (b.) _men_, Subst. plural Number; _mused_, a Verb Neuter, Past Time, third Person plural, agreeing with the Nominative Case _men_; _in_, (b.) _their_, a Pronominal Adjective, from the Pronoun _they_; _hearts_, Subst. plural Number, Objective Case governed by the Prep. _in_; _of John_, (b.) _whether_, a Conjunction; _he_, (b.) _were_, Subjunctive Mode, governed by the Conjunction _whether_, Past Time, third Person Sing. of the Verb _to be_, agreeing with the Nominative Case _he_; _the Christ_, Subst. Nominative Case after the Verb _were_; _or_, a Disjunctive Conjunction, corresponding to the preceding Conjunction _whether_; _not_, an Adverb; _John_, (b.) _answered_, a Verb Active, Indicative Mode, Past Time, third Person Sing. agreeing with the Nominative Case _John_; _saying_, Present Participle of the Verb Active _to say_, joined to the Substantive _John_; _unto_, (b.) _them_, a Pronoun, third Person plural, Objective Case governed by the Prep. _unto_; _all_, (b.) _I_, Pronoun, first Person Singular; _indeed_, an Adverb; _baptize_, a Verb Active, Indicative Mode, Present Time, first Person Singular, agreeing with the Nominative Case _I_; _you_, Pronoun, second Person plural, Objective Case, following the Verb Active _baptize_, and governed by it; _with_, a Prep. _water_, Subst. _but_, a Disjunctive Conjunction; _one_, a Pronoun, standing for some Person not mentioned by name; _mightier_, an Adjective in the Comparative Degree, from the Positive _mighty_; _than_, a Conjunction, used after a Comparative word; _I_, (b.) the Verb _am_ being understood, that is, _than I am_; _cometh_, a Verb Neuter, Indicative Mode, Present Time, third Person Sing. agreeing with the Nominative Case _one_; _the latchet_, Subst. _of_, (b.) _whose_, Pronoun Relative, _one_ being the Antecedent to it, in the Possessive Case; _shoes_, Subst. plural; _I_, (b.) _am_, Indicative Mode, Present Time, first Person Sing. of the Verb _to be_, agreeing with the Nominative Case _I_; _not_, (b.) _worthy_, an Adjective; _to unloose_, a Verb Active, in the Infinitive Mode, governing the Substantive _latchet_ in the Objective Case; _he_, (b.) _shall baptize_, a Verb Active, Indicative Mode, Future Time, made by the Auxiliary _shall_, third Person Sing. agreeing with, the Nominative Case _he_; _you_, (b.) _with the_, (b.) _Holy_, an Adjective; _Ghost_, a Subst. _and with_, (b.) _fire_, a Subst. this and the former both in the Objective Case governed by the Prep. _with_.