Chapter XI: Part II: , Showing Predominance of Malarial Element . . . . 617 (10)

IV. CLIMATE.--The literature of the effects of different climates upon the human body is very extensive, following the general rule that the less positive or precise knowledge there is upon a given subject the more will be written about it. Of all animals, man seems to adapt himself most readily to the extremes of climate; and, although it is commonly supposed that a tropical climate is injurious to those coming from cooler regions, yet it has been found that where he takes the same precautions to ensure cleanliness, pure water and air, and proper food, the European does not have a higher rate of mortality in Algeria or in the East or West Indies than he does at home, if the effects of cholera and yellow fever be excepted.

Dr. Parkes defines the effect of climate upon the human body to be "the sum of the influences which are connected with the solar agencies, the soil, the air, or the water of a place;" in other words, he makes it nearly equivalent to the locality or the environment. By "climate" we understand, commonly, the sum of meteorological influences, the most important of which, as regards health, are temperature, humidity, and wind. The effects of temperature in producing disease are often confounded with the effects of change of temperature, which last is perhaps the more important of the two, and should be specially borne in mind in advising climato-therapy for chronic or wasting diseases.

The influence of climate in causing disease, although well known for over two thousand years, has not led to much effort to avoid or prevent effects which are accepted as inevitable by the great majority. It is true that in the effort to secure physical comfort by houses, clothing, artificial heat, and the like, much hygienic work has been done, and the steadily increasing tendency on the part of all who can afford it to seek rest and comfort at the seaside or in the mountains during hot weather is no doubt due, in part, to the fact that experience has shown that the money expended in thus securing health and strength is a good investment. It is unfortunate that "health resorts," so called, do not always prove to be such: they become fashionable, overcrowded; the arrangements for the disposal of excreta are cheap makeshifts, leading to soil- and water-pollution, until finally an epidemic of diarrhoea or typhoid fever occurs, with the usual results.

The consideration of climate as a therapeutic agent belongs with the articles relating to the several diseases to which it is applicable. The great desideratum wherewith to place this subject upon a scientific and practical basis is a system of reliable returns of the deaths, and if possible of {186} certain diseases, throughout the country, and especially at those points most in vogue as health resorts.

V. HABITATIONS.--That a man's health depends very much on the character, condition, and location of his dwelling-place is now so generally admitted that in many cases where a physician is called in he will be asked whether he thinks the disease has been caused by any peculiarity about the house or the bedroom of the patient. And a careful examination will usually discover in one of them several evils to be remedied, although their connection with the case in hand may be very doubtful. There are very few homes properly constructed from a sanitary point of view; and, although we may not agree with Dr. Wilson, that "the modern prison is in all sanitary essentials the best existing type of what a healthy dwelling ought to be," it is nevertheless certain that the health of the inmates is much more carefully consulted in planning a penitentiary than it usually is in planning a college, a hotel, or a dwelling-house. Matters are gradually improving in this respect: the worst of the tenement-house rookeries and fever-nests in most of our large cities have been improved or abolished, and our wealthier citizens are beginning to pay some attention to their house-drainage as well as to the pattern of their mantelpieces. But the great majority of men are still careless and negligent as to the sanitary condition of their homes, and probably two physicians out of three live in houses in which numerous defects would be pointed out by a sanitary engineer--defects of which they are themselves more or less aware. The majority of people in our large cities under existing conditions cannot afford to have healthy houses, and the great causes of the excessive mortality, and brevity of life, in all such cities, are poverty and overcrowding, the latter resulting from the former. The problem as to the best mode of improving the sanitary condition of the tenement-house population does not, however, come before the practising physician for special consideration, and need not be considered here. Nor is the physician liable to be consulted with regard to the sufficiency, from a sanitary point of view, of the plan of a house yet to be built, although he will occasionally be asked as to the healthfulness of a proposed site. The questions which he will be asked are such as the following: "Is the cause of this particular case of disease in the house, or connected with it? and if so, what is it?"--"Do you think this is a healthy house?"--"Is the location a healthy one?"--"Is it necessary that I should give up this house to preserve the lives and health of my children?" While it is, of course, often impossible to answer with precision such questions as these, an answer of some kind must be given; and this should not be a mere random guess, but based on a deliberate estimate of the probabilities in the case. The healthfulness of a house is to be judged of, in part, from its history, if it be possible to obtain any; in part, from such facts as can be discovered by a careful examination of the premises and vicinity. The sanitary history of a house is the history of the diseases and deaths which have occurred in it, together with a set of plans showing the precise location and character of the house-drainage and of its fresh-air supply. Such a record is in most cases, unfortunately, not attainable, although to a person proposing to buy or rent a house it would often be quite as important as a record of title. In a well-organized health-office it should be possible to ascertain the number and causes of the deaths which have {187} occurred in any given house or square in the city, and also the character and location of its drainage and sewer connections. Such records are especially valuable in an investigation of an outbreak of disease in a community.

The sanitary inspection of a house includes the site and the building itself. The character of the site is mainly determined by its dryness, by the presence or absence of organic matter in the soil, and by its porosity taken in connection with the character of the vicinity. One-third of the volume of some soils consists of air, and all dry soils and rocks contain a much larger quantity of air than is commonly supposed. The influence of soil upon health is exerted mainly through the media of water and air, but it also affects temperature and vegetation, being an important factor in climate. Residence on a damp soil has a tendency to produce diseases of the lungs, and especially phthisis; but how it does this is unknown, though it would be easy to construct a plausible theory in connection with the supposed causation of phthisis by a bacillus. The practical point for the physician is, that the prevalence of phthisis in a locality, even if it be so limited as to comprise but a single house, should cause suspicion and investigation as to the character of the soil-drainage. Soil-moisture is also an important factor in the development of periodical fevers, and the effect of thorough drainage in diminishing malaria is now generally understood.

It sometimes becomes an important question as to the influence which a collection of water, such as a mill-pond or a reservoir, has upon the health of a community, and the physician may be called on for an opinion in such cases where large property interests are involved. The essential points to be borne in mind are--first, that stagnant water and damp soil do not in themselves produce malaria; there is something else necessary, which is commonly designated by the word "germ." Second, that they are in most cases essential conditions for the production of the disease, so that if removed the disease will disappear. Third, that the development of malaria may follow either the rise or fall of the ground water. Fourth, that the condition of the border of the collection of water as to presence of organic matter and moisture is of more importance than the pool itself. And, finally, that each case is a problem by itself, to be determined by the history of the sickness of the vicinity, and that only probabilities can be stated in any case, although these probabilities may be so great as to amount, practically, to certainty. Of the four factors which appear to be essential to the production of the malarial poison--viz. moisture, high temperature, organic matter of vegetable origin, and certain micro-organisms--the first is the one which in any given locality is most under human control; it is the link in the chain of causation which is most easily broken.

The influence of the rise and fall of the soil water in typhoid fever, upon which so much stress is laid by Pettenkofer and others, no doubt exists, acting in some cases through pollution of the drinking water by the subsoil water leaking through a polluted soil; in other cases, perhaps, by air from the soil bearing the unknown germ. The filtering power of soil as regards air is, however, very great, a few inches of sand being sufficient to remove the ordinary germs of putrefaction from air drawn through it, and this for a long period; while, on the {188} contrary, many feet of the same sand will not remove the germs from water passed through it. Usually, as Dr. Parkes remarks, in an examination of soil the immediate local conditions are of more importance than the general geological formation, yet this last, as influencing conformation and the movement of water and air over and through a country, is also important. The practical questions on this point are, what higher ground than the site in question exists in the vicinity? what are the character and direction of the strata between such elevation and the site? and, what sources of soil-pollution exist on the higher level? As to the site itself, is it on made ground? what is the height of the foundation above the subsoil water? and, what precautions have been taken to secure drainage and to cut off communication between the interior of the house and the ground air? Probably a trial excavation or boring may be necessary to determine some of these points.

The level of the subsoil water should be at least five feet below the foundations, although it is often impossible to obtain this. At all times when the temperature of the house is higher than that of the external air--_i.e._ during a large part of the year and nearly every night--there is a strong and constant aspirating force at work to draw into the house, through the cellar floor and walls, all gases and vapors contained in the adjoining soil. If this soil contains a large proportion of organic matter, as is often the case in filled-in ground in cities, or if there be a leaky cesspool or sewer or gas-pipe under or near the house, the ground air passing into the house may be of such a character as to be positively dangerous to its occupants. For this reason it is very undesirable to have a sewer or soil-pipe crossing beneath the site of a house, and when such location is a necessity, as it often is in cities, the soil-pipe should be laid in a cement-lined trench covered with a movable flap, so that it can always be easily inspected and any leaks detected and remedied. Dampness in the cellar or basement of a house is always a sign of danger. The exhalation of gases and vapors from the ground into the house can be to a great extent cut off by a layer of impervious material, such as concrete covered with asphalt, but this layer must cover the sides of the cellar as well as the floor to be thoroughly efficient. If a house have no cellar, the space between the floor and the ground should be thoroughly ventilated; and for this purpose, as well as to secure cleanliness, the floor should be sufficiently elevated to permit of easy access beneath it.

Next to its dryness, the nature and condition of the arrangements for removing excreta and soiled water from a house are of the greatest importance in determining its healthfulness; and in cities it is with regard to the sufficiency of these, including the whole system of house-plumbing and pipe-fitting, that the inquiries of one wishing to determine as to the presence or absence of causes of disease will most frequently be directed. The soil-pipes, etc. of a house are commonly referred to as constituting the system of house-drainage, but it is desirable to use another term, for we need the word "drainage" to describe the removal of surface and subsoil water, and it should be distinguished from "sewerage," which has a different purpose and requirements.

In a properly-arranged system of house sewerage all the pipes, traps, etc. are easily accessible for purposes of inspection, and an examination of them is a comparatively simple matter. This examination is to be {189} made with reference to the following points: 1. Are all the pipes, joints, and connections air-tight? 2. Is the soil-pipe well ventilated, or has it dead ends? 3. Is the communication between the soil-pipe and the street sewer uninterrupted? 4. Are the pipes properly trapped, and is there liability to the removal of water from any of the traps, either by siphonage or evaporation, to such an extent as to break the seal? 5. Is the water-supply of each closet entirely cut off from the main supply to the house by means of a tank or cistern?

In houses as heretofore constructed it is often very difficult to obtain satisfactory information upon these points, because a large part of the soil-pipe and its connections is buried beneath the house or concealed in the walls or floors; in which case the services of a skilled mechanic will usually be necessary to obtain access to the various parts of the system. In a paper of this kind it is of course impossible to go into details as to methods of inspection, or as to what is and what is not satisfactory; but the following are the general principles upon which a judgment as to the merits of a system should be formed, and these should be so clearly understood by every physician that he can be neither persuaded nor frightened into thinking them incorrect by the eloquence of the man with a patent remedy to dispose of. The principal dangers to health from house sewerage are due, first, to the passage of air from the general system of sewers or from a cesspool into the house through the soil-pipe and its connections; second, to the generation of offensive and dangerous gases and organisms in the soil-pipe itself, and the passage of these into the house; third, to leakage of soil-pipe causing contamination of the water-supply either by improper connections of water-pipes with water-closets or slop-hoppers, or by contamination of wells, cisterns, or tanks with sewage or sewer gases.

There is, of course, no such thing as a sewer gas having a definite and distinctive composition, and the nature of the mixture of gases in sewers is constantly varying according to season, temperature, etc. The tendency which sewer air has to cause disease depends in part upon certain gases, in part on minute particles of solid or semi-solid matter which are suspended in the air. In rare instances the sewers also contain illuminating gas, derived from leakage of gas-pipes in the vicinity. These gases produce debility, headache, loss of appetite, etc. As found in sewers and soil-pipes, they are so diluted that they are not absorbed by the water of a trap and given off on the other side to a sufficient extent to produce an evil effect. The air in a soil-pipe which is not ventilated is much more impure than that of the ordinary sewer, since the process of decomposition is constantly going on in the slimy coat which lines the interior of the pipes; and it is for this reason that it is so important to secure thorough ventilation of all the soil-pipes in a building. When this ventilation is secured, the proportion of dangerous gas in the pipes becomes very small, and the amount absorbed by the water in traps is almost inappreciable. The chief danger to life from sewer and soil-pipe air arises from the presence of minute particles of organic matter, dead and living, the so-called germs. Danger to life from these germs cannot be entirely removed by dilution, as can be done with gases. It has been found by the experiments of Dr. Carmichael and Dr. Wernick that an ordinary water-trap entirely prevents the passage of these germs, and that organic putrescible fluid will remain unchanged when exposed only to the air immediately {190} above such a trap. A pin-hole or minute sand-crack in the soil-pipe, or a very slight defect in a joint, is far more dangerous than a trap.

The forms of disease produced by sewer air and its contents are more especially diphtheria, typhoid fever, and ill-defined disorders of the throat and digestive organs. It is possible that the germs of other specific diseases, such as scarlet fever, may be at times transmitted through sewer air, but such transmission must be very rare. While it is true that the germs of the specific diseases are very rarely present in sewer air, the house system of sewerage must be arranged as if they were always present, in order to obtain security. It must also be remembered that a system originally well planned and properly constructed will not always remain so; the pipes will corrode, the joints will become loosened, the valves will become clogged, and whenever alterations or repairs are made there is always danger of injury. Bearing these points in mind, the method of investigating a system can be readily understood.

The first step is to ascertain whether there is a trap outside the house disconnecting the sewer from the house system and permitting inspection. If there is not, the first thing to be done is to make an excavation and open the drain at the proper point for placing such a trap. The next step is to set the water flowing in the various closets and watch the flow at the external trap, or opening, which has been made to ascertain whether there is any obstruction in the pipe within the house. If the sewer is properly arranged for inspection, as has been above suggested, to determine whether there is any leakage from the sewer under the house will be an easy matter; if, however, it is buried beneath the cellar floor, as is usually the case, an excavation should be made along the floor in the line of the pipe, with a view to having it properly arranged, as well as for the purpose of examining the soil. It may also be tested by opening the upright soil-pipes at the farther end of the house-drain at the height of three or four feet above the floor and pouring water into it, having temporarily stopped up the drain at the external trap or opening. If the water remain at a constant level in the upright piece, the sewer is water-tight; if not, the leakage may be ascertained by the rate at which it sinks. Having settled this, the next point is to determine whether all the soil-pipes are air-tight and properly trapped. The test usually applied for this purpose is the pouring of a small quantity of strong oil of peppermint, followed by a dash of hot water, into the top of the soil-pipe, which should always pass through the roof and be freely opened to the outer air. If the odor of the oil is perceptible in the house, it indicates a leak, which must be further sought for. Ether may be used for the same purpose. The smoke test is, however, the best, but it requires a special apparatus which as yet is little used in this country. It is applied by a small machine with a fan, by which the smoke from burning cotton-waste saturated with oil, or of coarse brown paper impregnated with sulphur, can be blown into the pipes; this locates leaks with great precision.

It is not, of course, expected that a physician will personally make the examination necessary to determine whether the plumbing of a house is in good order, but he should be able to make it, if necessary, if for no other purpose than to know whether the inspector employed for the purpose understands his business.

The dangers to health from a properly-constructed system of house {191} sewerage, such as is now generally agreed upon by sanitary engineers, are so very small as to practically amount to nothing, being, in fact, less than those of a well-kept yard privy of a country house, setting aside altogether the question of water pollution. The real difficulties in the way are the expense of such a system, which is considerable, and the finding of skilled and honest workmen to construct it and keep it in repair. Not every one who chooses to style himself a sanitary engineer or a sanitary plumber is to be regarded as such, by any means, but the physician should make it his business to know who are really reliable in this respect, for he will constantly be called in for advice on this point by those who have learned that good plumbing is the only true economy, but who do not feel themselves competent to distinguish between good and bad work. The main points of a satisfactory system are the following.[3]

[Footnote 3: For further details consult the following: _American Sanitary Engineering_, by E. S. Philbrick, N.Y., 1881; _House-Drainage and Water-Service_, by James C. Bayles, N.Y., 1878; "House-Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing," by W. P. Gerhard, in _Fourth Annual Report State Board of Health Rhode Island_, 1882; _The Sanitary Engineer_, a weekly journal published at 140 William St., New York City.]

1. All soil- and waste-pipes should be extended up to and through the roof, and be freely open at the top. The extension of the soil-pipe should be full size--_i.e._ from four to six inches in diameter.

2. There should be a fresh-air inlet in the house sewer just outside the house, and between this inlet and the main sewer should be a trap so arranged as to permit of inspection. This prevents the ventilation of sewers through the soil-pipes. If a perfect system of sewers, uniformity of house-connections, and uniform height of houses could be guaranteed, this inlet and trap would not be so necessary, although even then it would be useful.

3. Every water-closet, wash-bowl, bath-tub, sink, etc. should have a trap placed as close to it as possible. This trap is desirable, whether the discharge be into the sewer system or not. For example, a kitchen sink, the pipe from which passes to the outer air and discharges there, should be trapped, for this pipe is foul, and if it be untrapped will act as an air-inlet.

4. The nearer to the soil-pipe that the fixtures can be arranged the better. It is especially desirable to avoid the necessity for long horizontal waste-pipes from stationary waste-bowls and from bath-tubs.

5. Bell traps, D traps, bottle traps, and mechanical traps are objectionable. The S trap is, upon the whole, the best, but it should be provided with a vent-pipe to prevent siphonage.

6. The best kind of water-closet for general use is probably some form of what are known as the wash-out closets. They are made in one piece of earthenware, have no machinery inside them, have a quantity of water in the basin into which the excreta drop, and do not require a separate trap beneath them. Each closet must, however, be carefully tested by itself: a very small warp or twist produced in the baking may so interfere with the siphonage as to make it practically worthless, and the basin cannot be altered or repaired. For use in public places some of the hopper closets are very satisfactory, the best which I have examined being the Rhoads Hopper and the Hellyer Hoppers. Where there are no {192} children, and it is certain that the fixtures will be used with reasonable care, valve closets may be used. No form of pan closet can be considered as satisfactory, nor have I found any form of plunger closet that I would specially recommend.

7. Water-closets should always be flushed from a special tank provided for the purpose, and never direct from the main system of water-pipes. The flush must be large and rapid, and this requires a large supply-pipe, and for many forms of closets a flushing rim. Whatever be the form of closet, it should not be encased in a wooden box or closet, as is usually done, but it should stand freely exposed to light and air. Sanitarians commonly advise that water-closets should be located in outer walls and have an open window for ventilation. Such a position is usually impossible, and is not specially desirable in our climate. The open window acts as an inlet quite as often as it does as an outlet, and the air of the closet is thus swept into the house. The room should be ventilated in such a way that the tendency of the air at the door shall always be from the house into it. This is to be effected by a shaft passing through the room up and through the roof; and it is well to have this shaft take its air-supply from just behind the closet or from beneath the seat. It is best made of galvanized iron, and at a convenient point should be expanded into a lantern and have a gas-jet placed in it. The air-supply for the closet is to be taken at the bottom of the door or through a transom or louvres. Ventilating pipes from a water-closet should never be run into a brick flue. While it is not so important as many writers seem to think that a water-closet should be placed on an outer wall, it is very important that it should be as light as possible, and the placing it in a dark corner in the basement or under the stairs is very objectionable.

8. No overflow-pipe from any cistern or tank, except the one used for flushing water-closets, should be connected with the soil-pipe or sewer. Trapping such an overflow-pipe does not prevent the danger. The same rule applies to waste-pipes from refrigerators and to the waste-pipes from the safes which are commonly placed beneath fixtures.

9. Grease-traps placed inside a house--for instance, beneath the kitchen sink--are of very doubtful expediency, and if they cannot be placed outside, they had better not be used at all.

In an unsewered city one of the first things to be considered in a sanitary inspection is the manner in which the sewage of the premises is disposed of. The question is, however, by no means superfluous in many sewered cities, for cesspools and vaults are to be found in most of them, and not only in yards, but beneath houses, and houses of the better class. A privy-vault or cesspool beneath a dwelling or near its cellar walls is always to be considered as very dangerous, for it is practically impossible to prevent the passage of gases from it into the interior of the house. A cesspit is a dangerous thing anywhere, even in the country; but in a city it is so dangerous that its existence should not be permitted.

If the water-supply of a house is derived from a well, and there is reason to suspect that this may have been contaminated from a neighboring privy-vault, the first test to be applied to the water is that for the detection of chlorides. If none are present, the water is not polluted. If they are present, the quantity is to be noted, and a peck or two of common salt is then to be thrown into the suspected vault. If repeated {193} examinations of the water show a marked increase in the amount of chlorides present, it may be inferred that the contents of the privy pass to the well. The fact that the water of infected wells and springs is usually much liked and sought for is to a considerable extent due to the presence of these chlorides. Wanklyn recommends the addition of 50 grains of common salt per gallon to drinking water to render it palatable. Popularity of a certain well is therefore a reason for suspecting its purity.

This subject may be dismissed with one caution. Taking the dwelling-houses of a city or town as they come, it will be found on examination that over half of them would be described by a competent inspector as being in a condition which might produce disease. It is therefore more than an even chance that in any case of disease some sanitary defect will be found about the premises quite irrespective of any direct causal connection with the case. Let the physician therefore be cautious in deciding as to such causal connection, and not conclude that because a case of diphtheria or typhoid fever and a leaky soil-pipe occur in the same house, therefore one is the cause of the other. Such cases occur in houses whose sewerage is perfect and in houses which have no sewerage, and it is folly to attribute them exclusively or mainly to sewer gases.

The same caution applies to investigations into the causes of a sudden outbreak of disease in a community where a number of cases occur almost simultaneously or in rapid succession. Such an outbreak may be due to direct contagion, although sometimes very difficult to trace; as, for example, an explosion of small-pox in a community largely unprotected by vaccination, and where, owing to circumstances connected with the first few cases, a large number of persons have been exposed to the cause about the same time. The same applies to an apparently sudden development of yellow fever throughout a city.

Another cause of such outbreaks is a polluted water-supply, as in some epidemics of diarrhoeal disease or of typhoid fever. If the outbreaks of these diseases are pretty sharply localized, and depend upon the fouling of a well or wells, it will usually not be very difficult to trace this cause. If, however, the town has water-supply by means of pipes from a single source, while the outbreak of disease is limited to a part of the town or to a single large building, it will probably be almost impossible to establish any connection between the disease and the drinking water. The possibility of the contamination of a part only of a system of general water-supply by means of the drawing of foul air into the temporarily empty pipes connected directly with a water-closet flush should never be forgotten, for such a case has actually occurred, and the account of its discovery is one of the best pieces of sanitary detective work with which I am acquainted. If the outbreak of typhoid fever cannot be traced directly to the water-supply, the next point to be investigated is the milk, and after that other possible modes of the conveyance of the contagium.

In cases of obscure disease characterized by fever of no definite type, disorder of the digestive organs, headache, malaise, etc., and which seem to be connected with residence in a particular house or in one room in a house, the possibilities of arsenical poisoning from wall-paper or hangings should be remembered, for much useless medication and some real danger will be avoided if this cause be promptly recognized. The effects {194} produced by arsenical dust are very various, and simulate sometimes some of the specific fevers, indigestions, or neuroses in a way that is very puzzling if the true nature of the case is not suspected. The popular notion is that arsenic is found only in greens (more especially in bright greens in wall-papers), whereas in fact it is found not only in dull greens, but in some browns, grays, and dull reds. The test for its presence in quantity sufficient to be a cause of disease is an easy one, and is fully given in any manual of chemistry or toxicology.

VI. OCCUPATION.--While the effects of occupation upon health are no doubt great, they are in many cases so blended with those of condition in life, including habitation, food, and intemperance, that it is very difficult to distinguish them. In attempting to investigate these effects by means of statistics, it is necessary to beware of a fallacy which not unfrequently vitiates the conclusions drawn from otherwise carefully prepared tables intended to show for different occupations either the relative mortality or the average age at death. This fallacy lies in the fact that the number of persons engaged in each business is unknown; that, in this country at least, men often change their occupations; and that certain trades or professions are chiefly carried on by persons of certain ages. This last is perhaps best illustrated by the remark of Dr. Farr, that the fact that the average age at death of second lieutenants is much less than that of major-generals proves nothing with regard to the comparative healthfulness of the two grades. Statistics showing merely the number of a particular class or grade dying in a given time are absolutely worthless, unless the number of the same class or trade living at the same time is also given.

It is also necessary to bear in mind the power of habit and the effects of natural selection, especially when the effects of an unhealthy occupation are immediate and marked upon those unfitted for them. For example, young men, when first employed as scavengers or in sewage-pumping works, usually suffer from disorders of the digestive organs. A certain number find it necessary for their health and comfort to soon leave the business; some acquire protection by passing through an attack of fever; and by this process of selection a class of men are obtained who seem to thrive in the midst of filth and remain unaffected by effluvia which will promptly cause illness in those unaccustomed to them. When men find that, to use a common phrase, they "cannot stand" a particular kind of work, they are apt to give it up and try something else, especially if the effects are prompt and well marked.

Much attention has been given of late years in England, France, and Germany to the means of protecting both the workmen and the neighborhood from the ill effects of dangerous and offensive trades, and the reports of the medical officer of the Privy Council and of the Local Government Board are a mine of information on this subject. It may be truthfully asserted that in those trades in which the special danger is caused by dust of various kinds, or by gases, or by metallic poisons--and these three include the greater number of the dangerous occupations--it is almost always possible to so arrange the work as to make it comparatively healthful and harmless. Overcrowded and unventilated workrooms are responsible for much disease, and when to these is added the risk of metallic poisoning, as is the case with printers, artificial-flower {195} makers, etc., bad results are almost sure to follow. It is curious that so comparatively little ill effect seems to be produced by exposure to great heat, as in stokers, foundry-men, glass-blowers, etc.; but further information is needed on this point as to the real facts in the case. In some occupations the chief evils arise from want of out-door exercise, a subject which will be considered presently. The want of useful or interesting occupation sometimes becomes indirectly the cause of disease among the wealthier classes, and the giving a man or woman something to do is in such cases the best prescription which can be made. This danger is especially apt to occur in the case of an active, energetic man who retires from business, intending to spend the rest of his life in pleasure and in the enjoyment of the fruits of his industry: the preventive or remedy is obvious.

VII. FOOD.--The comfort, energy, usefulness, and moral character of a man depend largely upon his digestion, and this in turn depends largely on what it has to act upon--viz. food. There are, it is true, many men who boast that they can digest anything, and who are really comparatively indifferent as to the kind, or mode of preparation, of the food set before them, so that the quantity be sufficient; but were it not that habit and heredity--which is the family habit--combine with natural selection to adapt men to their food, it is probable that the frying-pan, the pie, and soda-bread would depopulate large portions of this country. As it is, there can be no doubt that fried food swimming in grease, leathery, sodden pie-crust, and heavy bread tend to make life short and the reverse of merry; and when the effect of these is combined, as it often is, with those of malaria, damp soil, and a free use of whiskey, the result is plenty of work for the doctor and very little to pay him with. This state of things is being gradually improved, but in all classes of society and in almost all parts of the country the rule is, that while the raw materials of food are abundant and of excellent quality, the cooking is bad. This is due, in part, to an idea that it is to a certain extent discreditable to a person that he should give much attention to his food, at least so far as its appearance and taste are concerned, and that a man who can plan a good dinner must be more or less of a sensualist and a glutton.

Another popular error is, that a large amount of disease is due to overeating, and that abstemiousness in diet is either certain to secure health, or is, at all events, indispensable for this purpose. Upon this point the reader should consult a capital paper by Dr. Austin Flint on "Food in its relations to personal and public health," which will be found in vol. iii. _Reports American Public Health Association_, N.Y., 1877. After remarking that many of the popular errors about food and diet are relics of old and abandoned medical theories, one of which is embodied in the not uncommon advice that one should always stop eating before the appetite is fully satisfied, and that food should only be taken at regular fixed periods, no matter how hungry one may be, he says: "Physiology, experience, and common sense are alike opposed to these popular notions relating to food. Conditions for perfect health are, first, a sufficient appetite; second, the gratification of normal appetite before the want of food reaches the abnormal degree expressed by hunger; third, the satisfaction of appetite by an adequate quantity of food. These conditions of health are fulfilled by compliance with instructive provisions for {196} alimentation. But, it will be asked, is appetite infallible as a guide in dietetics? Following it as a guide, is food never taken beyond the requirements of health? I answer, It is a reliable guide under normal circumstances. The inevitable circumstances of life are often not altogether normal, although producing no distinct morbid affection. Experience teaches, for example, that in a state of fatigue or exhaustion (which is not a normal state) inconvenience may arise from the full gratification of appetite; that if unusual exertions, mental or physical, are to follow, a hearty meal may occasion disturbance; and other examples might be added. Irrespective of abnormal or disturbing influences, if appetite be not infallible, it is, at all events, more reliable than a rule based on theoretical ideas, popular notions, or on purely physiological data. Moreover, it was evidently not intended that the quantity of food should be accurately adjusted to the needs of the economy. To do this is impossible, and therefore it is necessary to elect between the risk of taking either more or less food than is actually required. Which is to be preferred? Undoubtedly, it is vastly better to incur the risk of taking too much than that of taking too little. Nature provides for a redundancy, but there is no provision against a persistent deficiency. Ex nihilo nihil fit. An ample supply of alimentary principles is indispensable to nutrition; and inasmuch as the supply cannot be made to contain precisely the needed amount of the different alimentary principles, we may say that a superabundance of food is a requirement for health.

"As in appetite we have a guide in respect of the times of taking food and the quantity to be taken, so taste is a guide in respect of the kinds of food required. The discrimination of food with reference to the wants of the system is the evident purpose of the sense of taste, and the enjoyment connected with this sense was designed to afford a security, in addition to appetite, for adequate alimentation.

"Among professional men and those who live sedentary lives the mistake is not uncommon of paying too much attention to the sensations after a meal, and deciding therefrom whether certain articles of food are unhealthy or not. If the man who does this is not already dyspeptic, he will pretty surely become so. The remedies in this case are exercise and attracting the attention to something else."

A physician ought to understand something of cooking, and a short course of practical instruction in what might be dignified as the culinary laboratory would be of more real value to him than some of the branches which are now considered indispensable in the medical curriculum. He should know why oysters are the best thing with which to begin a dinner, and why a cocktail is one of the worst; how to make a salad, or a cup of good coffee, or a perfect consommé; and a number of other things pertaining to gastronomy of which most people are woefully ignorant.

It is not within the scope of this paper to give details with regard to the diet of either the sick or the well, but it seems proper to remark with regard to the feeding of infants, more especially in our large cities in the summer months, that all the various patent preparations for infants' food are more or less pernicious, and should be discountenanced by all medical men. The proper food of an infant is milk--human milk if it can be had, cow's milk if it cannot. If it be remembered that an infant suffers {197} from thirst as well as hunger, and care be taken to give it enough pure cool water to quench this thirst, it will be found that in most cases it will thrive on pure cow's milk.

With regard to adulterations of food, the only form of such adulteration found in this country, which has any special interest from the sanitary point of view, pertains to milk. This adulteration is in most cases the dilution of the milk by water, and this is very common in large cities. The danger from the use of such milk is by no means confined to infants, and it is probable that a larger proportion of the typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, cholera infantum, and diarrhoeal diseases in our cities is due either directly or indirectly to the milk-supply than is now even suspected. The possibility of this mode of origin should always be borne in mind in investigating the causation of such affections.

A very large amount of food is now furnished preserved in tin cans, and it is almost invariably of excellent quality. There is a possibility of the contamination of such food by the salts of lead or tin, but such contamination to an extent which is injurious to health must be so extremely rare as to be hardly worth considering. The danger from the entrance of parasites, such as trichinæ, etc., in the food is also extremely small--in fact, is nothing where the food is properly cooked.

Milk has so often been the cause of disease, and is so universally used, that it seems worth while to refer to it again. The special aptitude of milk for absorption of odors has long been known, and of late years it has been clearly proven in a number of instances that milk has been the means of conveying the cause of typhoid fever and of scarlatina. Diphtheria, yellow fever, and intermittent fever have also been supposed to be conveyed by milk. The variety of nutritive principles contained in milk, which makes it so valuable as a food, also gives it the power of sustaining many different sorts of minute organisms, and it perhaps comes as near being a universal culture-fluid as anything yet devised for that purpose. The possibilities of the contamination of milk are so numerous, and especially in the case of that furnished from small establishments, that, in the case of outbreaks of typhoid or diarrhoeal diseases in a town, investigations into causation should always include the milk- as well as the water-supply. Milk from diseased animals is no doubt often used without producing bad results, but its effects in conveying to man the disease known as milk-sickness are well established, and it has also been known to produce symptoms of the contagious aphthæ, or foot-and-mouth disease, in man, when derived from an animal affected with that disease. The only danger in the use of the milk of animals fed upon sewage-grown grass appears to be in the possible contamination of the milk, after it is drawn, by particles of dust in the stable, derived from the food or litter of the animal or from uncleanliness of the exterior of the udder, etc.

VIII. INTEMPERANCE.--Every one knows that alcoholic drinks are the cause of a vast amount of disease, crime, and misery in all civilized countries. No one knows how this is to be prevented, for no one knows how to make the great mass of the people wise and contented. The effects produced by excessive use of alcohol are well known to all physicians, and the remedy is self-evident. I see no use in adding to the heap of useless rubbish which exists in the shape of the great mass of existing {198} popular literature on this subject, and therefore leave the subject to the reader, who is quite sure to know all that is really important on this subject.

IX. CLOTHING.--The hygiene of clothing is also a subject which may be treated summarily in this paper. People wear what they can afford, made according to the prevailing style. Diseases due to insufficient, excessive, or badly-fitting clothing occur most frequently in women and children, and the use of such clothing is for the most part due to poverty or fashion, either of which is beyond the power of the physician to successfully cope with. Here and there, in individual and exceptional cases, he may be able to do a little good by advising against tight lacing, high-heeled shoes, insufficient covering for the chest or legs, etc., and he will find that a knowledge of the peculiarities of the various styles of modern under-clothing will sometimes be very useful. Men are, as a rule, comfortably and sensibly dressed to suit their business and surroundings, and require no advice on this subject.

X. EXERCISE.--The ease and completeness with which the functions of an organ or of an organism are performed depend to a great extent upon the frequency and regularity with which such functions are exercised. Hence comes the importance of bodily exercise for the preservation of health, and every physician meets cases of disease due largely to want of work.

The term "exercise," or "bodily exercise," is commonly used as if it referred only to the muscles, and the amount of exercise which a man should take in a day is stated as equal to a certain number of foot-pounds. The mere giving work to muscles is not, however, exercise in the sanitary sense. A better definition is that of Du Bois Reymond--viz. that "exercise is the frequent repetition of a more or less complicated action of the body with the co-operation of the mind, or of an action of the mind alone, for the purpose of being able to perform such actions better." From this point of view it will be seen that exercise relates quite as much to the nervous system as to the muscles. When, for example, a student takes a walk over ground with which he is familiar, and is at the same time so deeply engaged in thought as to be practically unconscious of what he is doing, only being recalled to himself, it may be, by arriving at his own door, the exercise which he has had is but partial and insufficient. Going to the extreme, we can, as Du Bois Reymond remarks, conceive of a man with muscles individually exercised until they were like those of the Farnese Hercules, and yet who would be unable to walk, much less execute more complicated movements; for the proper co-operation of the muscles, which is effected through the nervous system, is quite as necessary as the force of their contraction.

The amount of exercise which is necessary for health varies with the individual and with age, season, etc., so that it is difficult to state any general rule upon this subject; but if stated in terms of muscular force only, the estimate of Dr. Parkes seems a fair approximation--viz. that every healthy man ought to take daily an amount of exercise equivalent to 150 tons lifted 1 foot, or a walk of about nine miles. The majority of trades and bodily occupations demand at least this amount of work, but in some of them the greater part of the exertion is made only by certain groups of muscles, and they are carried on in crowded and {199} ill-ventilated shops. Such workmen, as well as all who are engaged in sedentary pursuits, require exercise in the open air--exercise which will bring into play the unused muscles and will break the train of thought of the professional man.

One of the most important questions with regard to physical exercise is the extent to, and manner in, which it should be provided for in a proper system of education. One of the latest and most instructive articles on this subject is that by Du Bois Reymond in the "Physiology of Exercise," a translation of which is given in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for July and August, 1882. He divides the physical training which is more and more becoming a part of modern systematic education into three classes: The first, the turning, or gymnastics of the Germans; the second, the Swedish system, in which the exercises are limited to very simple though varied movements; and the English system, or rather want of system, consisting largely of athletic games and contests of various kinds. His objection to the Swedish system is that, while it strengthens the muscles, it does not increase the power over composite movements; in other words, it does not exercise the nervous system. Naturally, he prefers the German system to any other, although admitting that the English meets better the demands arising from our structure. "Were the end masterhood in running, jumping, climbing, in dancing, fencing, riding, in swimming, rowing, or skating, then nothing could be more advisable than to practise equally the necessary concatenations in the actions of the ganglion cells, without pausing at the not practically applicable preliminary and intermediate steps of the German turning."

From a sanitary point of view, the gymnasium, as usually located and managed, is by no means equivalent to out-of-door sports and contests, although it is often the best substitute for them. The form of exercise most used by men whose occupation does not involve bodily labor is walking, and next to this riding. Whatever mode be selected, it is very desirable that it should be taken for some other object than that of the mere making muscular exertion, or otherwise it will soon come to be looked upon as an unpleasant task, the time spent upon which is given grudgingly; and it will be partially or wholly abandoned as soon as the immediate discomfort which induced its use has ceased.