Chapter I: Pyrotechny in General (2)

Besides the use of nitre in pyrotechnical compositions, as it forms an essential part in all of them, there is another salt we had occasion to notice, of which an account will be given hereafter, that affords a variety of amusing experiments. This salt is the hyperoxymuriate or chlorate of potassa. Although it has neither been used for fire-works on an extensive scale, nor does it enter into any of the compositions usually made for exhibition, yet its effect is not the less amusing. Some general idea may be had of its effect, by stating a few experiments. If a mixture of this salt and white sugar be made in a mortar, and the mixture laid on a slab or tile, and a string wetted with sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol), be brought in contact with it, or a drop or two of the acid be let fall upon it, a vivid combustion will take place. In this experiment, the acid decomposes the salt, and the oxygen unites with the carbon and hydrogen of the sugar, and forms carbonic acid and water. The same salt, rubbed in a mortar with sulphur, will produce a crackling noise resembling that of a whip; and if a mixture of the two be struck with a hammer, the percussion will cause a loud detonation. The same thing happens when phosphorus is used, but the detonation is more violent. Various other experiments may be made with it. It forms the principal part of the match, called the _pocket lights_. These are made, in the first place, by dipping the wood previously cut in splints in melted sulphur, and afterwards in a mixture of this salt with sugar, which is moistened with water. The match is then dried. When used, it is dipped in sulphuric acid. The red colour, usually given to the match, is formed by mixing with the composition some vermillion. Another application of the same principle, is the firing of cannon. For this purpose, after the tube is filled with powder, a covering of the same mixture is applied when mixed with water. It is then dried. When the tube is put in the vent, a drop of sulphuric acid will inflame it, and consequently discharge the gun. This salt also, when mixed with sulphur, may be used to fire fowling pieces, provided the lock be so constructed, as in a late invention, that it acts by percussion. (See Thenard's Priming powder.)

The Rev. Alexander Forsyth of Alexander Forsyth of Belhelvie, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, took out a patent for a new kind of gun-lock, to be used without a flint, and has contrived to inflame powder merely by percussion. The powder employed for priming, consists of chlorate of potassa and sulphur. The gun-lock is calculated for firing cannon as well as musquetry; it is contrived to hold forty primings of such powder; and the act of raising the cock primes the piece. Each charge of priming is supposed to contain one-eighth of a grain of the salt. There are other substances which also produce fire by percussion. The fulminating silver, mixed with any substance, or used by itself, will detonate by percussion. It should be used with great caution. A grain or two will explode with great violence. (See _Detonating Works_, _Waterloo crackers_, _&c._)

There are several other metallic preparations which detonate violently, such as the fulminating gold, fulminating mercury, &c. all of which must be used with extreme caution. (See the respective articles.)

_Sec. IV. Of Illuminations._

Although nothing of much importance can be said on the subject of illumination, yet at the same time, as it is connected with some remarks we will hereafter offer, it may be proper to observe, that the practice of illuminating, as well as the exhibition of fire-works in public rejoicings, has been in use for many years. The former indeed has been customary for many centuries. We have, however, appropriated an article to the manner of forming illuminations and transparencies, and also on imitative fire-works.

Illuminations, whether with lamps, candles, flambeaux, &c. may be rendered more impressive from the manner of their arrangement. In some instances different coloured flames have been used; and the effect in this case is more grand and beautiful.

The public lighting of cities on festivals, and particularly on joyful occasions, called illuminations, is of great antiquity. Indeed, illuminations are a general expression of the public feeling, and should, on important occasions, be encouraged. Victories gained over an enemy by the army or navy are subjects of rejoicing. While, in such cases, illuminations may be viewed as an _expression_ of the feelings of the people, they serve moreover to stimulate, in the spirit of the _amor patriæ_, the future actions of the patriot and the soldier; and while such rejoicings are demonstrative of victory, they are equally expressive of that virtuous feeling, of which every one must partake, on the return of an honourable peace.

What could have been more impressive than the brilliant spectacle exhibited in Paris in 1739, on the return of peace? Besides illuminations, the fire-works on that occasion were truly magnificent. The same may be said of those at Pont Neuf, and those at Versailles in the same year. We shall have occasion to speak of them, when we come to the arrangement or the order of fire-works for exhibition.

The Egyptians at an early period, made use of illuminations, and particularly at a festival, which is mentioned by the Greek authors. During the festival, as Herodotus says, lamps were placed before all the houses throughout the country, and kept burning the whole night.

During the festival of the Jews, called _festum encæniorum_, the feast of the Dedication of the Temple, the lamps were lighted before each of the houses, and the festival continued eight days. Illuminations were also used in Greece, according to a passage in Æschylus. When games were exhibited in the night-time at Rome, the forum was lighted. Caligula, on a similar occasion, caused the city to be illuminated. In honour of the great orator Cicero, as he was returning home at night, after the defeat of Cataline's conspiracy, lamps and torches were lighted in all the streets. Byzantium, afterwards Constantinople, was ordered to be illuminated with lamps and wax candles on an Easter eve, in the time of Constantine.

That this custom was prevalent among the christians in the first century, is evident from many authors. Professor Beckman, in his _History of Inventions_, vol. iii, p. 383, says, that "the fathers of the first century frequently inveigh against the christians, because, to please the heathens, they often illuminated their houses, on idolatrous festivals, in a more elegant manner than they. This they considered as a species of idolatry. That the houses of the ancients were illuminated on birth-days, by suspending lamps from chains, is too well known to require any proof."

At Damascus, the Turks always keep a lamp burning over the tomb, as it is called, of Ananias, which they much reverenced. It is said to be in the same house in which St. Paul lodged with Judas. (See _Maundrel's Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem_.)

Lamps, according to Dr. Pococke, are kept continually burning in the Jewish synagogue at Old Cairo, said to have been built about sixteen hundred years ago. (See _Pococke's Travels through Egypt_.)

In Persia, lamps are kept burning in consequence of some religious notion, and particularly at the sepulchre of Seid Ibraham. (See _Travels through Muscovy into Persia_.)

A lighted lamp is frequently put up in Persia as a mark to shoot at. To be a good shot, the marksman must extinguish it. At the celebration of the feast called Ashur or Ten, from its lasting ten days, which is kept in memory of Hossein, the youngest son of Hali, the Persians make use of rags dipped in suet and naphtha, and burn them in lamps; and their courts are lighted up with thousands of lamps, the light from which is increased by as many more lanterns made of paper, that are fastened to cords drawn across the court.

The Chinese, in celebrating their solemn feasts, especially on the 15th day of the first month, called the Feast of the lanterns, from the multitude and grandeur of the lamps they exhibit in the evening, are remarkable for the splendour of their exhibitions. We are informed, (_A Description of China, &c._), that many of the grandees, retrenching every year something from their tables, apparel, and equipage, to show the greater magnificence in the lanterns, used on this occasion, expend the sum of 2000 crowns. The largest are about twenty feet in diameter, and are lighted by an immense number of wax candles and lamps; but those that are most common, are of a middling size. These are generally composed of six faces, or panes, each of which has a frame of varnished wood, adorned with gildings four feet high, a foot and a half broad, covered on the inside with fine transparent silk, on which are painted flowers, trees, rocks, and sometimes human figures. The painting is very curious, the colours lively, and the wax candles give the painting a beautiful splendour. These six pannels joined together, compose a hexagon, surmounted at the extremities by six carved figures, that form its crown. Around it are hung broad strings of satin, of all colours, with other silken ornaments, that fall upon the angles without hiding the light of the pictures. The feast of the lanterns is also celebrated by bonfires and fire-works.

Candles are also used for the same purpose. Chandeliers, differently made, and holding a greater or smaller number of candles, add greatly to the effect.

The candles used by the natives of Otaheite are curiously made. According to Cooke, (_First Voyage, &c._), they have candles made of a kind of oily nut, which they stick one over another upon a skewer thrust through the middle of them. The upper one being lighted, burns down to the second, at the same time consuming that part of the skewer which goes through it; the second, taking fire, burns in the same manner down to the third, and so of the rest. These candles give a tolerable light, and some of them will burn a considerable time.

The lighting of streets, Beckman considers in some respects to be a modern invention, and after quoting various authorities concludes, that, of modern cities, Paris was the first that followed the example of the ancients by lighting its streets. It appears, therefore, that the practice of illuminating was reserved by the ancients for some great occasion, that lighting of the streets was more or less partial, and confined to particular places, and that it was not general without some particular occasion called for it. (See _Illuminations_.)

Kircher, the German philosopher, had a wick made of amianthus, which burnt for two years without injury, and was at last destroyed by accident.[8] The Greenland stone flax, which is the same as amianthus, the Rev. Mr. Edge says is used in Greenland for lamp wicks, and burn without being in the least wasted, whilst supplied with oil or fat. Ellis (_Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage_), found the mountain flax, (asbestus), among other minerals, on the Resolution Islands, inhabited by the Esquimaux, which is used for similar purposes. We may remark here, that the Esquimaux use stone for lamps, which they hollow out, and, according to circumstances, use also dried _goose dung_ for wick.

_Sec. V. Of some of the Feats or Performances by Fire._

We introduce this subject to show, that certain kinds of fire-works have been employed for the purpose of deceiving the ignorant, and amusing the better informed part of mankind. Many of the tricks of jugglers and slight-of-hand men, and the performances of certain rites, particularly by the ancient magi, and pagan priests, come under this head. Sundry substances, in connection with artificial fire, have been employed by persons of this description. It is true, our account of them is rather imperfect. Had the works of Celsius, which he wrote against the ancient magi, been preserved, we would, no doubt, have been better acquainted with the art of the ancient conjurors and jugglers.

Professor Beckman has endeavoured to trace the origin of the necromantic art; but although of opinion that it is very ancient, and founded in superstition and unnatural causes, he is of opinion, that the works of Celsius, which are lost, were full on the subject, and for that reason our account must be imperfect.

Plain common sense, but with enlightened reason, has alone convinced mankind of the follies of older generations, and of relying on superstitious ceremonies, or believing in miracles, exorcism, conjuration, necromancy, sorcery, or witchcraft.

The torch of reason, and experimental philosophy have dispelled the clouds of ignorance and superstition; and men, becoming more enlightened as they progress in the investigation of truth, are no longer under the influence of false doctrines, or led away by a bigoted priesthood. Philosophical experiments, the various optical illusions, the effects of electricity, magnetism, &c. are founded on immutable truths, which become the more familiar as we progress in science.

Truth, however, although elicited by the genius of great men, who have lived in every age, was suffered to be brought to the rack; because it either militated against the views of the priesthood, and enlightened the people, or curtailed the ecclesiastical power and authority of the church.

Because Anaxagoras taught that the sun and stars were not deities, but masses of corruptible matter, he was tried and condemned in Greece. Accusations of a similar nature contributed to the death of Socrates. Copernicus, in consequence of the threats of bigots and the fear of persecution, was prevented from publishing, during his life time, his discovery of the true system of the world; and it is well known, that the great Galileo was imprisoned a year, and then obliged to renounce the motion of the earth, because he asserted it. In 1742, a commentary on Newton's _Principia_, one of the first productions of human genius, was not allowed to be printed at Rome, in consequence of its promulgation of this doctrine; and, in the true spirit of _priest-craft_, the commentators were obliged to prefix to their work a declaration, _that on this point, they submitted to the decisions of the supreme pontiffs_! Such are the results of bigotry, ignorance, superstition, and especially of civil and ecclesiastical governments, that consider learning a curse, and ignorance a blessing! Happily for the people of the United States, their co-equal rights and enlightened reason, will ever guarantee them against tyranny on the one hand, and fanaticism on the other. Superstition has always been an engine of oppression, and wherever it prevails, the powerful are sure to make use of it to oppress and destroy the weak.

Another instance of the assumed prerogative of the holy fathers may be found in their conduct towards the house of Medici; for the pontiffs, it is known, induced the house of Medici, by granting it the cardinalship, to suppress the academy del Cimento. The reason of this step is obvious to all; for they were sensible, that, if the people became once enlightened, they would lose their weight, their influence, and authority. But as jugglers are conscious of their gross deceptions, working on the imagination and credulity of the multitude, they in this respect appear at least to know themselves. Like the juggler mentioned in Xenophon, who requested the gods to allow him to remain in places, where there was much money and abundance of simpletons, they acted as the prototype. We might enumerate, if it were not irrelevant to our subject, a number of facts concerning these impostors.[9]

The miracles wrought by Moses, as recorded in the books of Exodus, were, we have reason to believe, by the immediate command of a supreme power. When Moses had commissioned Aaron (_Exodus_, chap. vii, verse 9, 10, &c.) to be a prophet, Aaron took a rod and cast it before Pharaoh and his servants, and it became a serpent; but it seems, however, that Pharaoh called the wise men and the sorcerers, called the magicians of Egypt, who performed the same thing with their enchantments; "for they cast down every man his rod, and they became serpents: _but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods_." It appears that on another occasion, the waters were turned into blood by smiting them with the rod; "and the magicians of Egypt did so with their enchantments." When Aaron was commanded to stretch forth his hand with his rod over the streams, &c. frogs appeared upon the land, and the magicians did so likewise; but when vermin were brought forth, by smiting the land, the magicians were unsuccessful, and said unto Pharaoh, "_This is the finger of God_." In the continuation of the plague, Moses and Aaron were commanded to take the ashes of the furnace, before Pharaoh, and sprinkle them up towards Heaven; and it became a hail on man and beast, but the magicians were affected, and could not stand before Moses. When Moses stretched forth his rod towards heaven "hail, and fire mingled with hail," came down; and on another occasion, they brought forth locusts. When this plague ceased, Moses caused darkness to prevail.

We will merely observe, that, with regard to the magi of Egypt, who it is known possessed all the learning of the day, and were celebrated in after ages for superior wisdom, so much so that many of the Grecians resorted there to be initiated into their mysteries,--they were of a different description from those who really worked miracles, according to divine inspiration. Hence we find, that, although distinct in their character, the magicians of Egypt pretended to perform certain rites, and to work upon the feelings of the people. Their initiary process, which the Pythagoreans in many respects pursued, and traces of which are extant in the order of free-masonry, was merely intended to preserve their knowledge within the pale of, and veiled in, hieroglyphic mystery, which none but the initiated could understand. Priestley, in his _Institutes of Moses_, points out the difference between the magi, so called, and the rites and ceremonies of the ancient Hebrews. But the imposition practised on mankind, even in modern times, aided by engines of the most abominable kind, as instruments of torture, in the inquisitorial tribunals of Portugal and Spain, are sufficient of themselves to call down the vengeance of impartial justice.

That the magicians were conscious of their inability to work miracles, is evident from their own declaration; for, after vermin had been brought forth by Moses and Aaron, they endeavoured to do the same, and being unsuccessful declared, that _this was the finger of God_; and many other instances are recorded of their attempts being altogether abortive. It appears also, that at first they believed they were able to perform all that Moses had done; and Pharaoh himself, by calling them together for that purpose, seemed to be of the same opinion, until he and his servants were finally convinced that Moses and Aaron wrought such miracles by inspiration. There can be no relation whatever between Moses and the magicians; for although he was, if we may judge from biblical history, acquainted with all the knowledge of the magicians, his mission was altogether of a different character. Many of the modern Greek and Armenian priests, in their celebration of the holy fire, palm upon their credulous followers, a belief, that they possess the power of working miracles, as will appear from the account we shall give of them. We will not enlarge on this subject at present, but pass on to consider the more common performances, which have excited the wonder and admiration of mankind.

The deception of breathing out flames, which excites the astonishment of the ignorant, is very ancient. When the slaves of Sicily, about two centuries ago, made a formidable insurrection, and avenged themselves in a cruel manner for the severities which they had suffered, there was among them a Syrian named Eunus, a man of great craft and courage, who, having passed through many scenes of life, had become acquainted with a variety of arts. He pretended to have immediate communication with the gods; was the oracle and leader of his fellow slaves; and, as is usual on such occasions, confirmed his divine mission by miracles. When, heated by enthusiasm, he was desirous of inspiring his followers with courage, he breathed flames or sparks among them from his mouth while he was addressing them. We are told by historians, that, for this purpose, he pierced a nut shell at both ends, and, having filled it with some burning substance, put it into his mouth and breathed through it. Some affirm, that he used tow previously soaked in a solution of saltpetre. The deception at present is much better performed. The juggler rolls together some flax or hemp; sets it on fire; and suffers it to burn till it is nearly consumed; he then rolls round it, while burning, some more flax, and by these means the fire may be retained in it a long time. When he wishes to exhibit, he slips the ball into his mouth and breathes through it; which again revives the fire, so that a number of weak sparks proceed from it; and the performer sustains no hurt, provided he inspire the air not through the mouth but the nostrils.

By this art, the rabbi Bar-Cacheba, in the reign of the emperor Hadrian, made the credulous Jews believe, that he was the hoped for Messias, and two centuries after, the emperor Constantius was thrown into great terror, when Valentian informed him, that he had seen one of the body guards breathing out fire and flames in the evening.

It appears evident from the writings of Herodotus, that the ancients possessed a knowledge of attracting lightning, or the electric fluids with pointed instruments made of iron. He informs us, that the Thracians disarmed heaven of its thunder-bolts, by discharging arrows into the air; and the Hyperboreans by darting into the clouds, pikes headed with pieces of sharp pointed iron.

Pliny speaks of a process, by which Porsena caused fire from the heavens to fall upon a monster which ravaged his country. He mentions also, that Numa Pompilius, and Tullius Hostilius practised certain mysterious rites to call down the fire from heaven. What these mysterious rites were is of no moment; the fact is sufficient. Tullius, because he omitted some prescribed ceremony, is said to have been killed by the fire. A similar accident happened in France with the electrical kite.[10]

For deceptions with fire, the ancients employed a number of inflammable substances, which they dexterously used; among them, naphtha, a fine bituminous oil, which readily inflames, was principally used. (For the effect of _naphtha_, _see_ _Greek fire_.) Galen informs us, that a person excited great surprise by extinguishing a candle, and again lighting it without any other process than holding it against a wall or a stone. This, Galen observes, (_De Temperamentis_, iii. 2, p. 44.) was effected in consequence of the wall or stone being previously rubbed with sulphur, which, however, must have been something more. He also speaks of a mixture of sulphur and naphtha. If it had been phosphorus, or some of its preparations, it would appear more probable.

Plutarch relates the secret effects of naphtha, and observes, that Alexander was astonished and delighted, when it was exhibited to him in Ecbatana. Medea destroyed Creusa, the daughter of Creon, with this oil. This fact is stated by Plutarch, Pliny, Galen, and others, and believed by Beckman. She sent, it appears, to the unfortunate princess, a dress covered with it, which burst into flames as soon as she approached the fire of the altar. The dress of Hercules, which also took fire, was dipped in naphtha, though said to be in the blood of Nessus. On the subject of naphtha, Beckman remarks, "that this oil must have been employed when offerings caught fire in an imperceptible manner. _In all periods of the world, priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people._"

The most ludicrous account of the necromantic art, by which similar tricks were performed, is that given by Celini, (_Life of Benvenuto Celini_, a Florentine Artist, by T. Nugent, LL. D. &c.) of a Sicilian priest, who drew circles on the floor with various ceremonies, using fire and different perfumes. Having made an opening to the circle, and thrown perfumes into the fire at a proper time, he observes, that in the space of an hour and half, "there appeared several legions of devils, insomuch that the amphitheatre was quite filled with them." Benvenuto, it seems, at the instance of the priest, asked some favours of them, which, however, he never realized. At a second exhibition he held a _pentagorun_, while the priests questioned the leaders of the demons "by the virtue and power of the eternal uncreated God," using the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages. The Demons appeared more numerous than at first, and more formidable. He states that "quivering like an aspen leaf, he took good care of the _perfumes_," and was directed by the priest "to burn proper perfumes." This ceremony was continued until the "bell rang for morning prayers," and the priest "stripped off his gown and took up a wallet-full of books," declaring, "that as often as he had entered magic circles, nothing so extraordinary had ever happened to him!" How is it, in the language of professor Beckman, that "in all periods of the world, priests have acted as jugglers to simple and ignorant people?" * * * * *

This same Benvenuto Celini, however, was a man of intelligence. He wrote a work called the _History of Jewelry_; in which the first idea of phosphorescent mineral bodies is to be found. This work was written in the beginning of the 16th century. His life, although singularly marked, what with popes, priests, artists, and necromancers, presents a singular retrospect.

What was more absurd, and even profane, than the tricks of Joseph Balsamo, called Il Conte Cagliostro, who with Schœpfer, revived the study of the magical arts; and who with invocations, friction, fumigations, and optical deceptions astonished the ignorant of their day. Whether like Æneas, in his descent to hell, they made their way with their falchions through crowds of ghosts, or like Dioscorides, relied on the efficacy of herbs, or like Paracelsus, carried an evil spirit in their canes, or wore a _jewel_ like Shakspeare's toad, which possessed marvellous virtues, or employed the magic stone (_agate_) of the east, and invoked their _urim and thummim_,--it is certain they worked upon the imagination of the people. By the application of _conium maculatum_, (hemlock) consisted the ceremony of ordaining a Hierophant; by the hartshorn of Orpheus, they had a divine remedy for the passions of the body; and by a mixture of _new mustard and olive oil_, they could produce a symphony, which invoked the spirits, and, Pythonesis like, declare to the people, that they "_had devils in their bellies_!!"

Of the phial of Cagliostro, Cardan relates that he had this phial twice exhibited to him, and complains bitterly of having seen nothing, after the anthem _Sancte Michael_, but some bubbles that issued from the bottom, though it was believed that these bubbles were angels! He says, "_Nihil tamen omnino vidi poste hanc invocationem nisi bulas pauculas quasdam ex imo gutti fundo exæstuantes_." Aulus Gellius and Hero mention tricks of this kind practised by the Egyptians. Roger Bacon, the alchymist, was excommunicated by the pope, and imprisoned ten years, for supposed dealings with the devil.

Equally absurd to a man of reflection, are the observations of antiquated writers on spontaneous generation, by heat. Borello (_Physical History_) tells us, "that fresh water craw fish may be regenerated, by their own powder, calcined in a crucible, then boiled in water with a little sand, and left to cool, for a few days; when the animalcula will appear swimming merrily in the liquor, and must be then nourished with beef blood, till they attain the proper size to stock your ponds with."[11] The Sieur Pogeris and M. de Chamberlan, both agree with Signior Borello, but, in the chemistry of the matter, they add that the operation must be performed, _during the full of the moon!_ If this _lunar system_ be adopted, would not the _crab_ also, have been a more favourable _sign_ to have ruled the nativity of _craw fish_?

Swift, however, alludes to these agencies, fallacious as they are, in the following lines:

"So _chymists_ boast they have a power,
"From the dead ashes of a flower,
"Some faint resemblance to produce,
"But not the virtue, taste, or juice."

Rochos, equally absurd with Borello, says, in _The Art of Nature_, that the ashes of _toads_ will produce the very same effect, as the powder of _crabs' eyes_! Reasoning upon that ridiculous and unnatural principle of Cæsalpinus, in his comment on Aristotle, _Quæcumque ex semine fiunt, eadem fieri posse sine semine_, the procreation of eels from rye-meal, or mutton broth was predicated.

_Julius Camillus_, however, would out-do nature herself; for _Amatus Lusitanus_ affirms, that he has seen his phials full of _homunculi_ complete in all their parts! Paracelsus (_De Rerum Natura_,) had the same and many other absurd notions. What, we may truly say, has not been palmed upon the world, when we are told, that the following translation from a Hague Gazette, which appeared in the _British Evening Post_, No. 1645, contained facts, which were confidently believed by the ignorant:

"Mr. Tunestrick, by origin an Englishman, has just exhibited at Versailles, a very singular experiment. He opened the head of a sheep, and a horse from side to side, by driving a large iron wedge into the skull, by means of a mallet; drew the wedge out afterwards, with pincers, and recalled the animals to life, by injecting through their exterior aperture with a tin syringe, a spirituous liquor of his own composition, to which he attributes surprising effects! The taste of this liquor resembles that of _Commandus Balm_!!" The remarkable effects of galvanism, however, are well authenticated; but _resuscitation_, notwithstanding all apparent life, has in no instance, to our knowledge, been effected. (See Ure's _Chemical Dictionary_, article Galvanism.)

Among other tricks, we may mention those with serpents, especially in the East Indies, and neighbouring islands, where a certain class of people exhibit them for money.[12]

Persons who could walk over red-hot coals, or red-hot iron, or who could hold them in their hands and their teeth, are frequently mentioned. In the end of the 17th century, Richardson, an Englishman, was a great adept in this performance. We are assured he could chew burning coals, pour melted lead upon his tongue, swallow melted glass, &c; but the fact is incredible.

It is true, that the skin may be prepared in such a way as to become callous and insensible against the impression made on the feet and hands. It may be rendered as firm as shoes and gloves. Such callosity may be produced, if the skin is continually compressed, singed, pricked, or injured in any other manner. Beckman relates, that in 1765, he visited the copper-works at Awestad, when one of the workmen, for some money, took some of the melted copper in his hand, and after showing it, threw it against a wall. He performed a variety of other experiments with the melted metal.

The workmen at the Swedish melting-house have exhibited the same thing to some travellers in the 17th century. The skin is first rendered callous by frequently moistening it, as Beckman says, with sulphuric acid; and also, he remarks, by using the juice of certain plants. The skin must also be rubbed frequently, and for a long time, with oil. Haller, in his _Elementa Physiologica_, V. p. 16, speaks of this fact.

The manner of rendering the hands callous, or insensible, so that they may take up, and hold, ignited iron, charcoal, or other substances, may be seen in an English publication of 1667. The _Journal des Savants_, of 1677, contains the secret. "It consists in applying to the hands, various pastes, with spirits of sulphur, (sulphuric acid,) which destroys the epidermis, &c. and the nervous energy." This corroborates the account by Beckman. We read that Richardson had prepared his tongue in such a manner, that he could hold on the point of it a live coal, covering it first with pitch, rosin, and sulphur, and could hold a piece of ignited iron between his teeth. After showing the coal on his tongue, he would then extinguish it in his mouth. The _Mémoires de l'Académie_ state, that a person who is salivated can put a live coal in his mouth. The _Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_ observes, that the sulphur diminishes the heat of the coal, for the flame is less hot than a candle; and that the flame of a combination of pitch, rosin, and sulphur, is still less hot, and by no means so considerable as we would imagine. In the experiment, the rosin is not melted, and the flame of the sulphur is inconsiderable. M. Gallois observes, that he witnessed in the Swedish iron founderies, the men hold melted cast iron in their hands, doubtless having them previously prepared.

The traces of this art may be found in the works of the ancients. A festival was held annually, on Mount Soracta, in Etruria, at which the Hirpi, who lived not far from Rome, jumped through burning coals, and on this account had certain privileges granted them by the Roman Senate.

Women also, we are informed, were accustomed to walk over burning coals, at Cartabola, in Cappadocia, near the temple dedicated to Diana. Servius remarks, that the Hirpi did not trust to their sanctity so much as they did to the preparation of their feet for the operation!

With respect to the ordeal by fire, which it seems was performed in several ways, one was, that when persons were accused, they were obliged to prove their innocence by holding in their hands red-hot iron. This mode of exculpation, as it is called, was allowed only to weak persons, who were unfit to wield arms, and particularly to monks and ecclesiastics, to whom, for the sake of their security, the trial by single combat was forbidden. In Grupius' learned dissertation, in the German, p. 679, as quoted by Beckman, we read, that the trial itself took place in the church, under the inspection of the clergy; mass was celebrated at the same time; the defendant and the iron, were consecrated, by being sprinkled with holy water; the clergy made the iron hot themselves; and they used all these preparations, as jugglers do many motions, only to divert the attention of the spectators. It was necessary that the accused person should remain at least three days and three nights, under their immediate care, and continue as long after. They covered their hands both before and after the proof; sealed and unsealed the covering: the former, as they pretended, to prevent the hands from being prepared by art; and the latter to see if they were burnt.

Some artificial preparation was undoubtedly necessary, or why prescribe three days for the defendant, who, if they wished to make him appear innocent, had a certain preventive against the actual cautery? The three days allotted, after the trial, were requisite, in order to restore the hands to their natural state. The sacred sealing secured them from the examination of presumptuous unbelievers.

When the ordeal was abolished, it no longer was kept secret. In the 13th century, an account of it was published by a Dominican Monk, Albertus Magnus. In the work of this author, entitled, _De Mirabilibus Mundi_, he has given the receipt for the composition. It seems that it consisted in covering the hands with a kind of paste, and not by searing them. The sap of the althæa, or marsh mallow, the mucilaginous seeds of the fleabane, together with the white of an egg, were mixed, and by applying this mixture, the hands were as safe as if they had been secured by gloves. The use of this mixture, for the same purpose, may be traced back, it is said, to a pagan origin. In the Antigone of Sophocles, the guards, placed over the body of Polynicus, which had been carried away and buried, contrary to the orders of Creon, offered, in order to prove their innocence, to submit to any trial: "We will," said they, "take up red-hot iron in our hands, or walk through fire."

The ordeal, by heated ploughshares, was common in England. It seems, according to English History, that queen Emma had charges preferred against her, by Robert, archbishop of Canterbury, for consenting to the death of her son Alfred, and preparing poison for her son Edward, the Confessor. She claimed, by the law of the land, the ordeal, or trial, by burning ploughshares. She passed the nine ploughshares unhurt, which established her innocence, and caused the archbishop to fly the kingdom. The chief trials, by ordeal, appear to have been by fire, water, walking blindfold among heated ploughshares, and swallowing consecrated bread, which last was introduced about the time of pope Eugene. The custom was borrowed from the Mosaic law. An example of its practice occurs in the New Testament, in the story of Ananias and Sapphira; and the remembrance of it, as Blackstone remarks, still subsists among common people, as "_May this morsel be my last_;" "_May I be choked if it is so_," _and the like_; for it appears, that this ordeal was a piece of bread of about an ounce in weight, blessed by the priest, and given to the accused person, who was to try and swallow it, praying that it might choke him if he were guilty. The bible-ordeal, and the drowning-ordeal, are familiar to every one, degrading as they all must have been to human reason, and enlightened principles. Fox, in his _Book of Martyrs_, speaks of various ordeals, as well as the cruel deaths, and inhuman punishments inflicted, by the hand of bigotry, and fanaticism, under the cloak of religion, which were nothing more than a base and impious prostitution of its genuine principles.

Even among the modern Greeks, the same superstitious notions prevail. Almost every cavern about Athens has its particular virtues, and is celebrated for various things; and the offerings, made by Grecian women, to the _destinies_, in order to make them propitious to their conjugal speculations, are equally absurd. These offerings, by which they are to work a miracle, consist of a cup of honey and white almonds, a cake on a little napkin, and a _vase of aromatic herbs, burning and exhaling an agreeable perfume_. We are told, however, that those evil spirits, whose assistance is invoked, for vengeance and blood, are not regaled upon cakes and honey, but on a piece of a priest's cap, or a rag from his garment, which are considered as the most favourable ingredients for the perpetration of malice and revenge. When a person is _hated_, another absurd custom is used, which is supposed to be followed by dreadful results. It consists in placing before his door, a log of wood, burnt at one end, with some hairs twisted round it. "This curse," says Mr. Dodwell, in his _Classical Tour_, "was placed with due solemnity, at the door of the English agent, Speridion Logotheti, while I was at Athens; but he rendered it of no avail, by summoning a great number of priests, who easily destroyed the spell, by benediction, frankincense, and holy water!" This story is much in character with that of the exorcism of rats, caterpillars, flies, and other insects, an old ritual of the papal church, performed between the feasts of Easter and the Ascension. A priest who resided at Bononia, performed the ceremony. "I went," he says, "to exorcise the insects in that country, accompanied by a curate, who was a droll fellow, and laughed at the credulity of the people, while he pocketed their money." It appears, however, that in all superstitious ceremonies, _fire_, under some form, was a pre-requisite; but _ecclesiastical fire-works_ we leave within the pales of the priesthood.

The author of the _Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_, vol. iii, speaks of a trick, performed with a loaded musket and ball, which, although apparently inconsistent, is nevertheless true, if we consider the action of gunpowder equal. This _trick_ is stated to be the firing of a musket, loaded with ball, at a person, without wounding, or in any way injuring him.

By taking a ball of solid lead of a smaller size than the calibre of the musket, and placing it on the charge in a gun, and as much or nearly so of powder, _over the ball_, the effect we are assured is, that when the gun is fired, the ball will pass out without any very sensible force, and even drop a few yards from the gun, although the report will be as great as if the charge and ball had been used in the usual manner. This trick is often performed by jugglers, to the great astonishment of the spectators. The mode of _catching a cannon ball_ is also of the same character.

The proper charge of powder for the cannon, is divided into two unequal portions, the lesser of which is placed in the gun as a charge; the ball is placed on it in the usual way, and the rest of the powder (by much the greater portion,) placed over the ball, the lesser quantity being not more than a twelfth part of the whole. A cannon, so charged, will not project the ball more than 20 yards, where it might be caught with safety.

Any person who has been in the custom of shooting, must have frequently observed, that when the shot happens to be mixed with the powder, its range is impeded; and, under similar circumstances, they have even been found only a few yards from the muzzle of the piece. This fact I have witnessed, although I confess I never once reflected on it.

As to the explanation of this phenomenon, it appears, that it can only be accounted for by referring to the action of two opposite forces, mutually repelling each other, added to that of the charge under the ball; hence, the _reaction_ would be equal, if, under the same circumstances, both charges were alike situated: but the effect of the first charge is so much weakened by the counter effect of the second, that the projectile force of the ball becomes comparatively nothing.

There is another trick very often performed, which, however chemical, is not looked upon in that light, neither do performers attempt to explain it; we mean the exhibition of the _Glace Inflammable_ of the French.

The preparation is made in the following manner: melt some spermaceti over a fire, and add a sufficient quantity of spirit of turpentine, and blend them together. The mixture when cold, will become solid, having somewhat the appearance of ice. If made in hot weather, the vessel containing the melted substances must be immersed in cold water. It does not, we are told, remain in a solid state any length of time.

It floats more or less in the fluid, which of course is the spirit of turpentine. The trick, with this preparation, after having put some of the solid and fluid substance together on a plate, is to pour upon it concentrated nitric acid, or a mixture of eight or ten parts of nitric acid, and two of sulphuric acid; inflammation ensues. It is no other in fact than accension of the oil of turpentine; the addition of the spermaceti is altogether secondary, and its effect, if any, must retard instead of promoting the combustion of the turpentine. The art of making this preparation is in rendering the essential oil solid and transparent, without altering its inflammable properties.

There is another trick performed, by burning a thread, to which an ear-ring is tied, and which, notwithstanding the thread is reduced to a cinder, still holds the ring. This is what the French call the _Bague suspendue aux cendres d'un fil_. The string is first prepared by soaking it for 24 hours, in a solution of common salt, and drying it; then tying it to a ring, and setting it on fire, avoiding any vibration or oscillation of the string. It is obvious that the salt serves to render the cinder cohesive.

We have an account in Maundrel's _Travels from Aleppo to Jerusalem_, of the office of the _Holy Fire_. The ceremony is kept up by the Greeks and Armenians, from a persuasion that every Easter eve, a miraculous flame descends from heaven into the holy sepulchre, and lights all the lamps and candles, as the sacrifice was consumed at the prayers of Elijah.

"On our approaching the holy sepulchre," says Maundrel, "we found it crowded with a numerous and distracted mob, who made a hideous clamour; but with some difficulty pressing through the crowd, we got up in the gallery next to the Latin convent, where we could have a view of all that passed. The people began, by running with all their might, round the holy sepulchre, crying out 'huia,' which signifies, '_This is he_,' or, '_This is it_.' After this, they began to perform many antic tricks: sometimes they dragged one another along the floor round the sepulchre; sometimes marched round with a man upright upon another's shoulders; at others, took men with their heels upwards, and hurried them about with such indecency, as to expose their nudities; and sometimes they tumbled round the sepulchre like tumblers on a stage. In a word, nothing can be imagined more rude and extravagant than what was acted upon this occasion.

"This frantic humour continued from twelve till four, and then the Greeks first set out in a procession round the sepulchre, followed by the Armenians, and marched three times round it with their standards, streamers, crucifixes, and embroidered habits; and towards the end of the procession, a pidgeon came fluttering into the cupola over the sepulchre, at which the people redoubled their shouts and clamours, when the Latins told the English gentlemen, that this bird was let fly by the Greeks, to deceive the people with a belief that it was a visible descent of the Holy Ghost. The procession being over, the suffragan of the Greek patriarch, and the principal Armenian bishop, approached the door of the sepulchre, cut the string with which it was fastened, and breaking the seal, entered, shutting the door after them, all the candles and lamps within having been before extinguished in the presence of the Turks. As the accomplishment of the miracle drew near, the exclamations were redoubled, and the people pressed with such violence towards the door, that the Turks could not keep them off with the severest blows. This pressing forward was occasioned by the desire to light their candles at the holy flame as soon as it was brought out of the sepulchre. The two miracle-mongers had not been above a minute in the sepulchre, when the glimmering of the holy fire was seen through some chinks in the door, which made the mob as mad as any in bedlam; then presently came out the priests, with blazing torches in their hands, which they held up at the door of the sepulchre, while the people thronged with extraordinary zeal to obtain a part of the first and purest flame, though the Turks laid on with their clubs without mercy. Those who got the fire immediately applied it to their beards, faces, and bosoms, pretending that it would not burn like an earthly flame; but none of them would endure the experiment long enough to make good that pretension. However, so many tapers were presently lighted, that the whole church seemed in a blaze, and this illumination concluded the ceremony."

Maundrel afterwards observes, that the Latins take great pains to expose this ceremony as a shameful imposition, and a scandal to the Christian Religion: but the Greeks and Armenians, lay such stress upon it, that they make the pilgrimages chiefly on this account; and their priests have acted the cheat so long, that they are forced now to stand to it, for fear of endangering the apostacy of the people. They entertain many absurd ideas respecting the miraculous power of the holy fire. Even the melted wax of the candle, which had been lighted by it, is covered over with linen, and designed for winding-sheets; "for they imagine," says Maundrel, "that if they are buried in a shroud, smutted with this celestial fire, it will secure them from the flames of hell!"

Before concluding this article, we shall mention a subject highly interesting in optics, which, in some of its forms, was employed by the old magicians; we mean the phantasmagoria. The exhibitions of this kind, when first got up, drew the attention of Europeans, and particularly the French, who greatly improved the apparatus and machinery, and varied the forms and appearances. The principles of the phantasmagoria are described in every work on Natural Philosophy, which treats of optics. The _Dictionnaire de l'Industrie_, _Encyclopedie Méthodique_, Biot's _Traité de Physique_, in French and in English, the different treatises on philosophy and optics, particularly Dr. Smith's, the Cyclopedias, &c. contain either a description, or the principles of it. The third volume of Biot, especially, is full on the subject of optics. With regard, however, to the narrative and explanation of the appearance of the phantoms, and other figures, a subject which immediately concerns us, the account given by Mr. Nicholson, (_Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chymistry, and the Arts_, vol. i, p. 147.) is the most interesting. Connected with this optical illusion, is the imitation of lightning and thunder, which, from the account, appears also to have been performed.

The phantasmagoria may be considered nothing more than an application of the magic lantern, the invention of which is attributed to Roger Bacon, who was a contemporary with Vitellio, a native of Poland, who published a treatise on optics, in 1270. John Babtista Porta, of Naples, who discovered the camera obscura, having formed a society of ingenious persons at Naples, which he called the Academy of Secrets, wrote the _Magia Naturalis_, containing his account of this instrument, and, it is said, the first hint of the magic lantern. Kircher, it is known, received his first information of the magic lantern from this book, and afterwards improved it.

Adams (_Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy_, vol. ii, p. 232. Appendix by the English editor) very justly observes, that persons, unacquainted with the principles of optics, have been surprised at the great illusion of their sight, by an artificial construction of many optical instruments, exhibited by showmen and others: such, for instance, as the optical and dioptrical paradox; the endless gallery; the animated balls by simple reflection; phantoms; causing the appearance of a flower from its ashes; the optical perspective box, and the cylindrical mirror: to which we may add, the enchanted bottle; the enchanted palace; the magic lantern; the magician's mirror; the perspective mirror; the camera obscura; distorting and oracular mirror; the diagonal opera glass, &c. &c.; all which may be seen in Smith's _School of Arts_.

We may also remark, that optical exhibitions sometimes accompany those of fire, when performed on a small scale. In the phantasmagoria, for instance, whether before, or at the time the exhibition commences, as well as after, thunder and lightning, if well imitated, produces a good effect.

The mechanism of the phantasmagoria is concealed from the spectators, who have only before their eyes a screen of gauze or gummed muslin posited vertically, which serves as the ground of a picture, where the images are depicted by reason of the transparency. The apartment is deprived of all light, except that which proceeds from an apparatus hid behind the screen. At the moment when the operation commences, a spectre appears (as a skeleton, the head of a celebrated person, &c.), at first extremely small, but which afterwards increases rapidly, and thus seems to advance at a great rate towards the spectators. And when the scene passes before them in a room representing a cave hung with black, a solemn silence being occasionally interrupted by mournful sounds from an appropriate musical instrument, it is not easy for an observer to defend himself from the impression of terror, at the sight of an object, in itself formed to produce the illusion, and which finds in the imagination a place already prepared for the reception of phantoms.