Chapter XI: Part II: Containing (2)

The sitting room looks seldom towards the streets: it is a kind of shop, where the several patterns of merchandize are placed in recesses, fitted up with shelves, and secured with paper doors for the purpose of keeping out the dust. The windows are generally ornamented with little paintings, and the walls are hung with Chinese paper. Half the floor is of hard beaten clay; the other half is covered with boards, and rises about two feet in height. Here the family sit in the day-time and sleep at night. By the side of this raised part, and nearly upon the same level, there is a square brick stove, with a streight perpendicular cylindrical excavation, which is heated with small pieces of wood. From the bottom of this stove a tube descends, and is carried zigzag under the boarded floor above-mentioned, and from thence to a chimney which opens into the street. By this contrivance, although the stove is always open and the flame visible, yet the room is never troubled in the least degree with smoke. There is scarcely any furniture in the room, excepting one large dining table in the lower part, and two small lackered ones upon the raised floor: one of these tables is always provided with a chaffing dish, which serves to light their pipes when the stove is not heated.

In this room there are several small niches covered with silken curtains, before which are placed lamps that are lighted upon festivals; these niches contain painted paper idols, a stone or metal vessel, wherein the ashes of incense are collected, several small ornaments and artificial flowers: the Chinese readily allow strangers to draw aside the curtains, and look at the idols.

The Bucharian[93] merchants inhabit the South West quarter of Maimatschin. Their houses are not so large nor commodious as those of the Chinese, although the greatest part of them carry on a very considerable commerce.

[Footnote 93: "The chief merchandizes which the Bucharians
bring to Russia, are cotton, stuffs, and half-silks, spun and
raw cotton, lamb-skins, precious stones, gold-dust,
unprepared nitre, sal-ammoniac, &c." See Russia, or a
complete Historical Account of all the nations that compose
that empire. V. II. p. 141, a very curious and interesting
work lately published.]

[Sidenote: The Governor of Maimatschin.] The Surgutschèi, or governor of Maimatschin, has the care of the police, as well as the direction of all affairs relating to commerce: he is generally a person of rank, oftentimes a Mandarin, who has misbehaved himself in another station, and is sent here as a kind of punishment. He is distinguished from the rest by the crystal button of his cap, and by a peacock's[94] feather hanging behind. The Chinese give him the title of Amban, which signifies commander in chief; and no one appears before him without bending the knee, in which posture the person who brings a petition must remain until he receives the governor's answer. His salary is not large; but the presents which he receives from the merchants amount annually to a considerable sum.

[Footnote 94: In China the princes of the blood wear three
peacock's feathers, nobles of the highest distinction two,
and the lower class of the nobility one. It is also a mark of
high rank to drive a carriage with four wheels. The governor
of Maimatschin rode in one with only two wheels. All the
Chinese wear buttons of different colours in their caps,
which also denote the rank. Pallas Reise, P. III. p. 126.]

The most remarkable public buildings in Maimatschin, are the governor's house, the theatre, and two pagodas.

[Sidenote: House of the Governor.] The governor's house is larger than the others, and better furnished; it is distinguished by a chamber where the court of justice is held, and by two high poles before the entrance ornamented with flags.

[Sidenote: Theatre.] The theatre is situated close to the wall of the town near the great pagoda: it is a kind of small shed, neatly painted, open in front, and merely spacious enough to contain the stage; the audience stand in the street. Near it are two high poles, upon which large flags with Chinese inscriptions are hoisted on festivals. On such occasions the servants belonging to the merchants play short burlesque farces in honour of their idols.

[Sidenote: The small Pagoda.] The smallest of the two Pagodas is a wooden building, standing upon pillars, in the centre of the town at the place where the two principal streets cross. It is a Chinese tower of two stories, adorned on the outside with small columns, paintings, and little iron bells, &c. The first story is square, the second octangular. [Sidenote: The Idol Tien.] In the lower story is a picture representing the God Tien, which signifies, according to the explanation of the most intelligent Chinese, the most high God, who rules over the thirty-two heavens. The Manshurs, it is said, call this idol Abcho; and the Mongols, Tingheru heaven, or the God of heaven. He is represented sitting with his head uncovered, and encircled with a ray[95] of glory similar to that which surrounds the head of our Saviour in the Roman catholic paintings; his hair is long and flowing; he holds in his right hand a drawn sword, and his left is extended as in the act of giving a benediction. On one side of this figure two youths, on the other a maiden and a grey-headed old man, are delineated.

[Footnote 95: When Mr. Pallas obtained permission of the
governor to see this temple, the latter assured him that the
Jesuits of Pekin and their converts adored this idol. From
whence he ingeniously conjectures, either that the
resemblance between this idol, and the representations of our
Saviour by the Roman Catholicks, was the occasion of this
assertion; or that the Jesuits, in order to excite the
devotion of the converts, have, out of policy, given to the
picture of our Saviour a resemblance to the Tien of the
Chinese. Pallas Reise, P. III. p. 119.]

The upper story contains the picture of another idol in a black and white checquered cap, with the same figures of three young persons and a little old man. There are no altars in this temple, and no other ornaments excepting these pictures and their frames. It is opened only on festivals, and strangers cannot see it without permission.

[Sidenote: The great Pagoda and its Idols.] The great Pagoda[96], situated before the governor's house, and near the principal gate looking to the south, is larger and more magnificent than the former. Strangers are allowed to see it at all times, without the least difficulty, provided they are accompanied by one of the priests, who are always to be found in the area of the temple. This area is surrounded with chevaux de frize: the entrance is from the south through two gates with a small building between them. In the inside of this building are two recesses with rails before them, behind which the images of two horses as big as life are coarsly moulded out of clay; they are saddled and bridled, and attended by two human figures dressed like grooms: the horse to the right is of a chesnut colour, the other is dun with a black mane and tail, the former is in the attitude of springing, the latter of walking. Near each horse a banner of yellow silk, painted with silver dragons, is displayed.

[Footnote 96: The great Pagoda is omitted in the engraving of
Maimatschin prefixed to this chapter; this omission was owing
to the artist's being obliged to leave Kiachta before he had
time to finish the drawing. In every other respect, the view,
as I was informed by a gentleman who has been on the spot, is
complete, and represented with the greatest exactness.]

In the middle of this area are two wooden turrets surrounded with galleries; a large bell of cart iron which is struck occasionally with a large wooden mallet, hangs in the Eastern turret; the other contains two kettle drums of an enormous size, similar to those made use of in the religious ceremonies of the Calmucs. On each side of this area are ranges of buildings inhabited by the priest of the temple.

This area communicates by means of an handsome gateway with the inner court, which is bordered on each side by small compartments open in front, with rails before them; in the inside of these compartments the legendary stories of the idols are exhibited in a series of historical paintings. At the farther extremity of this court stands a large building, constructed in the same style of architecture as the temple. The inside is sixty feet long and thirty broad: it is stored with antient weapons, and instruments of war of a prodigious size; such as spears, scythes, and long pikes, with broad blades, shields, coats of arms, and military ensigns representing hands[97], dragons heads, and other carved figures. All these warlike instruments are richly gilded, and ranged in order upon scaffolds along the wall. Opposite the entrance a large yellow standard, embroidered with foliage and silver dragons, is erected; under it, upon a kind of altar, there is a series of little oblong tables, bearing Chinese inscriptions.

[Footnote 97: These hands resemble the manipulary standards
of the Romans.]

An open gallery, adorned on both sides with flower-pots, leads from the back door of the armoury to the colonade of the temple. In this colonade two slate tablets are placed, in wooden frames, about six feet high and two broad, with long inscriptions relating to the building of the temple. Before one of these plates a small idol of an hideous form stands upon the ground, enclosed in a wooden case.

The temple itself is an elegant Chinese building, richly decorated on the outside with columns lackered, and gilded carved-work, small bells, and other ornaments peculiar to the Chinese architecture. Within there is a rich profusion of gilding, which corresponds with the gaudiness of the exterior. The walls are covered thick with paintings, exhibiting the most celebrated exploits of the principal idol.

This temple contains five idols of a colossal stature, sitting cross-legged upon pedestals in three recesses, which fill the whole Northern side.

[Sidenote: Ghessur Chan, the principal idol.] The principal idol is seated alone, in the middle recess, between two columns, entwined with gilded dragons. Large streamers of silk, hanging from the roof of the temple, veil in some measure the upper part of the image. His name is Ghedsur, or Ghessur Chan[98]; the Chinese call him Loo-ye, or the first and most antient; and the Manshurs, Guanlöe, or the superior god. He is of a gigantic size, surpassing more than fourfold the human stature, with a face glistening like burnished gold, black hair and beard. He wears a crown upon his head, and is richly dressed in the Chinese fashion: his garments are not moulded out of clay, as those of the other idols; but are made of the finest silk. He holds in his hands a kind of tablet, which he seems to read with deep attention. Two small female figures, resembling girls of about fourteen years of age, stand on each side of the idol, upon the same pedestal; one of which grasps a roll of paper. At the right-hand of the idol lie seven golden arrows, and at his left a bow.

[Footnote 98: The Mongols and Calmucs call him by this name
of Ghessur Chan; and although they do not reckon him among
their divinities; yet they consider him as a great hero, the
Bacchus and Hercules of Eastern Tartary, who was born at the
source of the Choango, and who vanquished many monsters. They
have in their language a very long history of his heroical
deeds. His title, in the Mongol tongue, is as follows: Arban
Zeeghi Essin Ghessur Bogdo Chan: the king of the ten points
of the compass, or the monarch Ghessur Chan.

I possess a copy of this manuscript, containing the History
of Ghessur Chan; it is in the original Mongol language, and
was a present from Mr. Pallas: I should be very happy to
communicate it to any person versed in the Eastern
languages.]

Before the idol is a spacious enclosure, surrounded with rails, within which stands an altar with four colossal figures, intended probably to represent the principal mandarins of the deified Ghessur. Two of these figures are dressed like judges, and hold before them small tablets, similar to that in the hands of the principal idol. The two other figures are accoutred in complete armour: one wears a turban; and carries, upon the left shoulder, a large sword sheathed, with the hilt upwards. The other has an hideous copper-coloured face, a large belly, and grasps in his right hand a lance with a broad blade.

Although all the remaining idols in the temple are of an enormous size, yet they are greatly surpassed in magnitude by Ghessur Chan.

[Sidenote: Maooang.] The first idol in the recess to the right is called Maooang, or the Otschibanni of the Mongols. He has three ghastly copper-coloured faces, and six arms; two of his arms brandish two sabres cross ways over the head; a third bears a looking glass, and a fourth a kind of square, which resembles a piece of ivory. The two remaining arms are employed in drawing a bow, with an arrow laid upon it, ready to be discharged. This idol has a mirror upon his breast, and an eye in his navel: near it are placed two small figures; one holds an arrow, and the other a little animal.

[Sidenote: Tsaudsing.] The next idol in the same recess is called by the Chinese Tsaudsing, or the gold and silver god; and by the Mongols Tsagan-Dsambala. He wears a black cap, and is dressed, after the Chinese fashion, in sumptuous robes of state; he bears in his hand a small jewel casket. Near him also stand two little figures, one of which holds a truncated branch.

[Sidenote: Chusho.] In the recess to the left is the god Chusho, called by the Manshurs Chua-schan, and by the Mongols Galdi, or the Fire God. He is represented with a frightful fiery reddish face; clad in complete armour he wields a sword half drawn out of the scabbard, and seems on the point of starting up from his seat. He is attended by two little harlbadeers, one of whom is crying; and the other bears a fowl upon his hand, which resembles a sea-pheasant.

[Sidenote: Niu-o.] The other idol in the same recess is the god of oxen, Niu-o. He appears to be sitting in a composed posture; he is habited like a Mandarin, and is distinguished by a crown upon his head. He has, in common with the other idols, a mirror upon his breast. The Chinese imagine him to be the same with the Yamandaga of the Mongols; and it is said his Manshurish name is Chain Killova; his Mongol name, which relates to the history of Ghessur, is Bars-Batir, the Hero of Tygers.

Before these several idols there are tables, or altars, on which cakes, pastry, dried fruit, and flesh, are placed, on festivals and prayer days: on particular occasions even whole carcases of sheep are offered up. Tapers and lamps are kept burning day and night before the idols. Among the utensils of the temple, the most remarkable is a vessel shaped like a quiver, and filled with flat pieces of cleft reed, on which short Chinese devices are inscribed. These devices are taken out by the Chinese on new-years day, and are considered as oracles, which foretel the good or ill luck of the person, by whom they are drawn, during the following year. There lies also upon a table an hollow wooden black lackered helmet, which all persons of devotion strike with a wooden hammer, whenever they enter the temple. This helmet is regarded with such peculiar awe, that no strangers are permitted to handle it, although they are allowed to touch even the idols themselves.

The first day of the new and full moon is appointed for the celebration of worship. Upon each of those days no Chinese ever fails to make his appearance once in the temple; he enters without taking off his cap[99], joins his hands before his face, bows five times to each idol, touches with his forehead the pedestal on which the idol sits, and then retires. Their principal festivals are held in the first month of their year, which answers to February. It is called by them, as well as by the Mongols, the white month; and is considered as a lucky time for the transaction of business; at that time they hoist flags before the temples; and place meat upon the tables of the idols, which the priests take away in the evening, and eat in the small apartments of the interior court. On these solemnities plays are performed in the theatre, in honour of the idols: the pieces are generally satyrical, and mostly written against unjust magistrates and judges.

[Footnote 99: They do not take off their caps out of respect;
for among the Chinese, as well as other Eastern nations, it
is reckoned a mark of disrespect to uncover the head before a
superior.]

[Sidenote: Superstion of the Chinese.] But although the Chinese have such few ceremonies in their system of religious worship, yet they are remarkably infected with superstition. Mr. Pallas gives the following description of their behaviour at Maimatschin during an eclipse of the moon. At the close of the evening in which the eclipse appeared, all the inhabitants were indefatigable in raising an incessant uproar, some by hideous shrieks, others by knocking wood, and beating cauldrons; the din was heightened by striking the bell and beating the kettle drums of the great Pagoda. The Chinese suppose, that during an eclipse the wicked spirit of the air, called by the Mongols Arachulla, is attacking the moon; and that he is frightened away by these hideous shrieks and noises. Another instance of superstition fell under the observation, of Mr. Pallas, while he was at Maimatschin. A fire broke out in that town with such violence that several houses were in flames. None of the inhabitants, however, attempted to extinguish it; they stood indeed in idle consternation round the fire; and some of them sprinkled occasionally water among the flames, in order to sooth the fire god, who, as they imagined, had chosen their houses for a sacrifice. Indeed if the Russians had not exerted themselves in quenching the fire, the whole place would probably have been reduced to ashes[100].

[Footnote 100: This account of Kiachta and Maimatschin is
taken from Mr. Pallas's description of Kiachta, in the
journal of his travels through Siberia, p. iii. p. 109-126.
Every circumstance relating to the religious worship of the
Eastern nations is, in itself so interesting that I thought
it would not be unacceptable to my readers to give a
translation of the above passages respecting the Chinese
Pagodas and Idols: although in a work treating of the new
discoveries, and the commerce which is connected with them.
In the abovementioned journal the ingenious author continues
to describe from his own observations the manners, customs,
dress, diet, and several other particulars relative to the
Chinese; which, although exceedingly curious and interesting,
are foreign to my present purpose, and would have been
incompatible with the size of the present work. No writer
has placed the religion and history of the Tartar-nations in
a more explicit point of view than Mr. Pallas; every page in
his interesting journal affords striking proofs of this
assertion. He has lately thrown new lights upon this obscure
subject, in a recent publication concerning the Tartars, who
inhabit parts of Siberia, and the territory which lies
between that country and the Chinese-wall. Of this excellent
work the first volume appeared in 1776, and contains the
genealogy, history, laws, manners, and customs, of this
extraordinary people, as they are divided into Calmucs,
Mongols, and Burats. The second volume is expected with
impatience, and will ascertain, with minuteness and accuracy,
the tenets and religious ceremonies which distinguish the
votaries of Shamanism from the followers of Dalai-Lama, the
two great sects into which these tribes are distinguished.
Pallas Samlung historischer Nachrichten ueber die
Mongolischen Volkerschafter.]

CHAP. IV.

Commerce between the _Chinese_ and _Russians_--list of the principal exports and imports--duties--average amount of the _Russian_ trade.

[Sidenote: Merchants of Maimatschin.] The merchants of Maimatschin come from the Northern provinces of China, chiefly from Pekin, Nankin, Sandchue, and other principal towns. They are not settled at this place with their wives and families: for it is a remarkable circumstance, that there is not one woman in Maimatschin. This restriction arises from the policy of the Chinese government, which, totally prohibits the women from having the slightest intercourse with foreigners. No Chinese merchant engages in the trade to Siberia who has not a partner. These persons mutually relieve each other. One remains for a stated time, usually a year, at Kiachta; and when, his partner arrives with a fresh cargo of Chinese merchandize, he then returns home with the Russian commodities[101].

[Footnote 101: Pallas Reise, P. III. p. 125.]

Most of the Chinese merchants understand the Mongol tongue, in which language commercial affairs are generally transacted. Some few indeed speak broken Russian, but their pronunciation is so soft and delicate, that it is difficult to comprehend them. They are not able to pronounce the R, but instead of it make use of an L; and when two consonants come together, which frequently occurs in the Russian tongue, they divide them by the interposition of a vowel[102]. This failure in articulating the Russian language seems peculiar to the Chinese, and is not observable in the Calmucs, Mongols, and other neighbouring nations[103].

[Footnote 102: Bayer, in his Museum Sinicum, gives several
curious instances of the Chinese mode of articulating those
sounds, which they have not in their own language. For
instance they change B D R X Z into P T L S S.

Thus for Maria they say Ma-li-ya;
for crux, cu-lu-su;
for baptizo, pa-pe-ti-so;
for cardinalis, kia-ul-fi-na-li-su;
for spiritus, su-pi-li-tu-su;
for Adam, va-tam;
for Eva, nge-va;
for Christus, ki-li-su-tu-su;
Hoc, est, corpus, meum--ho-ke, nge-su-tu, co-ul-pu-su, me-vum.
Bayer, Mus. Sin. Tom. I. p. 15.]

[Footnote 103: Pallas Reise, P. III. p. 134.]

The commerce between the Russians and Chinese is entirely a trade of barter, that is, an exchange of one merchandize for another. The Russians are prohibited to export their own coin, nor indeed could the Chinese receive it, even should that prohibition be taken off; for no specie is current amongst them except bullion[104]. And the Russians find it more advantageous to take merchandize in exchange, than to receive bullion at the Chinese standard. The common method of transacting business is as follows. The Chinese merchant comes first to Kiachta, and examines the merchandize he has occasion for in the warehouse of the Russian trader; he then goes to the house of the latter, and adjusts the price over a dish of tea. Both parties next return to the magazine, and the goods in question are there carefully sealed in the presence of the Chinese merchant. When this ceremony is over, they both repair to Maimatschin; the Russian chooses the commodities he wants, not forgetting to guard against fraud by a strict inspection. He then takes the precaution to leave behind a person of confidence, who remains in the warehouse until the Russian goods are delivered, when he returns to Kiachta with the Chinese merchandize[105].

[Footnote 104: The Chinese have no gold or silver coin. These
metals are always paid in bullion; and for the purpose of
ascertaining the weight, every Chinese merchant is constantly
provided with a pair of scales. As gold is very scarce in
China, silver is the great vehicle of commerce. When several
authors affirm that the Russians draw large quantities of
silver from China, they mistake an accidental occurrence for
a general and standing fact. During the war between the
Chinese and Calmucs, the former had occasion to purchase at
Kiachta provision, horses, and camels, for which they paid
silver. This traffic brought such a profusion of that metal
into Siberia, that its price was greatly reduced below its
real value. A pound of silver was at that period occasionally
sold at the frontiers for 8 or 9 roubles, which at present
fetches 15 or 16. But since the conclusion of these wars by
the total reduction of the Calmucs under the Chinese yoke,
Russia receives a very small quantity of silver from the
Chinese. S.R.G. III. p. 593 & seq.

The silver imported to Kiachta is chiefly brought by the
Bucharian merchants, who sell cattle to the Chinese in
exchange for that metal, which they afterwards dispose of to
the Russians for European manufactures. Gold-dust is also
occasionally obtained from the same merchants; the quantity
however of those metals procured at Kiachta is so
inconsiderable, as scarcely to deserve mention. The whole sum
imported to Kiachta, in 1777, amounted to only 18,215
roubles.]

[Footnote 105: Pallas Reise, P. III. p. 135.]

[Sidenote: Russian Exports.] The principal commodities which Russia exports to China are as follow:

FURS and PELTRY.

It would be uninteresting to enumerate all the furs and skins[106] brought for sale to Kiachta, which form the most important article of exportation on the side of the Russians. The most valuable of these furs are the skins of sea-otters, beavers, foxes, wolves, bears, Bucharian lambs, Astracan sheep, martens, sables, ermines, grey-squirrels.

[Footnote 106: The list of all the furs and skins brought to
Kiachta, with their several prices, is to be found in Pallas
Reise, Part III. p. 136 to p. 142. See hereafter, p. 242.]

The greatest part of these furs and skins are drawn from Siberia and the New Discovered Islands: this supply however is not alone fully adequate to the demand of the market at Kiachta. Foreign furs are therefore imported to St. Petersburg, and from thence sent to the frontiers. England alone furnishes a large quantity of beaver and other skins, which she draws from Hudson's Bay and Canada.[107]

[Footnote 107: List of furs sent from England to Petersburg
in the following years:

Beaver-skins. Otter-skins.
1775, | 46460 | 7143
1776, | 27700 | 12086
1777, | 27316 | 10703

The finest Hudson's beavers have been sold
upon an average at Petersburg from 70 to 90 roubles per
10 skins.
Inferior ditto and best Canada beavers from 50 -- 75
Young or cub-beavers from 20 -- 35
Best otter-skins from 90 -- 100
Inferior ones from 60 -- 80

The qualities of these skins being very different occasion
great variations in the prices.

At Kiachta, the best Hudson's Bay beaver
fetches from 7 to 20 roubles per skin.
Otters' ditto 6 -- 35

Black foxes skins from Canada are also sometimes sent from
England to Petersburg.

At Kiachta they fetch from 1 to 100 roubles per skin.]

CLOTH.

Cloth forms the second article of exportation which Russia exports to China.

The coarse sort is manufactured in Russia; the finer sort is foreign, chiefly English, Prussian, and French.

An arshire of foreign cloth fetches, according to its
fineness, from 2 to 4 roubles.
Camlets.
Calimancoes.
Druggets.
White flannels, both Russian and foreign.

The remaining articles are,

Rich stuffs.
Velvets.
Coarse linen, chiefly manufactured in Russia.
Russia leather.
Tanned hides.
Glass ware and looking glasses.
Hardware, namely, knives, scissars, locks, &c.
Tin.
Russian talk.
Cattle, chiefly camels, horses, and horned cattle.

The Chinese also pay very dear for hounds, greyhounds, barbets, and dogs for hunting wild boars.

Provisions[108].

[Footnote 108: In the year 1772, the Chinese purchased meat
at Kiachta, at the following prices:

A pound of beef 3-2/3 copecs.
lamb 2-1/2
Horse flesh for the Tartars 1/2.
Pallas Reise, P. III. p.]

Meal.--The Chinese no longer import such large quantities of meal as formerly, since they have employed the Mongols to cultivate the lands lying near the river Orchon[109], &c. &c.

[Footnote 109: S. R. G. III. p. 495-571. Pallas Reise, P.
III. p. 136-144.]

[Sidenote: Imports.] List of the most valuable commodities procured from China.

RAW AND MANUFACTURED SILK.

The exportation of raw silk is prohibited in China under pain of death: large quantities however are smuggled every year into Kiachta, but not sufficient to answer the demands of the Russian merchants.

A pood of the best sort is estimated at 150 roubles;
of the worst sort at 75

The manufactured silks are of various sorts, fashions, and prices, viz. sattins, taffaties, damasks, and gauzes, scanes of silk died of all colours, ribbands, &c. &c.

RAW AND MANUFACTURED COTTON.

Raw cotton is imported in very large quantities; a great part of this commodity is employed in packing up the china ware, and by these means is conveyed into the inland part of Russia without any additional expence of carriage.

A pood sells for--from 4 roubles, 80 cop. to 12.

Of the manufactured cotton, that which the Russians call Kitaika, and the English Nankeen, has the most rapid sale. It is the most durable, and, in proportion to its goodness, the cheapest of all the Chinese stuffs; it is stained red, brown, green, and black.

TEAS.

The teas which are brought into Russia are much superior in flavour and quality to those which are sent to Europe from Canton. The original goodness of the teas is probably the same in both cases; but it is conjectured, that the transport by sea considerably impairs the aromatic flavour of the plant. This commodity, now become so favourite an object of European luxury, is esteemed by the Russian merchants the most profitable article of importation.

At Kiachta a pound of the best tea[110] is estimated at 2 roubles.
Common ditto at 1
Inferior at 40 copecs.

[Footnote 110: At Petersburg a pound of the best green tea
fetches 3 roubles.]

PORCELAIN OF ALL SORTS.

For some years past the Chinese have brought to Kiachta parcels of porcelain, painted with European figures, with copies of several favourite prints and images of the Grecian and Roman deities.

Furniture, particularly Japan cabinets and cases, lackered and varnished tables and chairs, boxes inlaid with mother-of-pearl, &c. &c.

Fans, toys, and other small wares.
Artificial flowers.
Tiger and Panther skins.
Rubies[111], but neither in large quantities nor of great value.
White lead, vermilion, and other colours.
Canes.
Tobacco.
Rice.
Sugar Candy.
Preserved ginger, and other sweetmeats.
Rhubarb[112].
Musk.

[Footnote 111: Rubies are generally procured by smuggling;
and by the same means pearls are occasionally disposed of to
the Chinese, at a very dear rate. Pearls are much sought for
by the Chinese; and might be made a very profitable article.]

[Footnote 112: See Appendix II.]

It is very difficult to procure the genuine Thibet musk, because the Chinese purchase a bad sort, which comes from Siberia, with which they adulterate that which is brought from Thibet[113].

[Footnote 113: S. R. G. III. p. 572-592. Pallas Reise, p.
III. p. 144-153.]

[Sidenote: Advantages of this Trade to Russia.] Russia draws great advantages from the Chinese trade. By this traffic, its natural productions, and particularly its furs and skins, are disposed of in a very profitable manner. Many of these furs procured from the most Easterly parts of Siberia, are of such little value that they would not answer the expence of carriage into Russia; while the richer furs, which are sold to the Chinese at a very high price, would, on account of their dearness, seldom meet with purchasers in the Russian dominions. In exchange for these commodities the Russians receive from China several valuable articles of commerce, which they would otherwise be obliged to buy at a much dearer rate from the European powers, to the great disadvantage of the balance of their trade.

I have before observed, that formerly the exportation and importation of the most valuable goods were prohibited to individuals; at present only the following articles are prohibited. Among the exports, fire-arms and artillery; gunpowder and ball; gold and silver, coined and uncoined, stallions and mares; skins of deer, reindeer, elks, and horses; beaver's hair, potash, rosin, thread, and [114]tinsel-lace: among the imports, salt, brandy, poisons, copper-money, and rhubarb.

[Footnote 114: Tinsel lace is smuggled to the Chinese, with
considerable profit; for they pay nearly as much for it as if
it was solid silver.
S. R. G. III. p. 588.]

The duties paid by the Russian-merchants are very
considerable; great part of the merchandise is taxed at 25 per cent.
Furs, cattle, and provisions, pay a duty of 23.
Russian manufactures 18.

One per cent. is also deducted from the price of all goods for the expence of deepening the river Selenga; and 7 per cent for the support of the custom-house.

Some articles, both of export and import, pay no duty. The exported are, writing, royal, and post paper, Russia cloth of all sorts and colours, excepting peasants cloth. The imported are, satins, raw and stained cottons, porcelain, earthen-ware, glass corals, beads, fans, all musical instruments, furniture, lackered and enamelled ornaments, needles, white-lead, rice, preserved ginger, and other sweet-meats[115].

[Footnote 115: Pallas Reise, P. III. p. 154.]

The importance of this trade will appear from the following table.

[Sidenote: Table of exportation and importation.] Table of exportation and importation at Kiachta, in the year 1777.

Rbles. Cop.
Custom-house duties, 481,460. 59-1/2.
Importation of Chinese goods, to the value of 1,466,497. 3-3/4.
Of gold and silver 11,215.
-----------------------
Total of Importation 1,484,712. 3-3/4.
-----------------------
Exportation of Russian commodities 1,313,621. 35.

From this table it appears, that the total
sum of export and import amounts to 2,868,333.

In this calculation however the contraband trade is not included, which is very large; and as the year 1777 was not so favourable to this traffic as the preceding ones[116], we may venture to estimate the gross amount of the average trade to China at near 4,000,000 Roubles.

[Footnote 116: In the year 1770, 1771, 1772, the custom-house
duties at Kiachta (according to Mr. Pallas, P. III. p. 154.)
produced 550,000 roubles. By taking therefore the medium
between that sum and 481,460, the amount of the duties in
1777, the average sum of the duties will be 515,730; and, as
the duties in 1777 make nearly a sixth of the whole sum of
exportation and importation, by multiplying 515,730 by 6, we
have the gross amount of the average exports and imports at
3,094,380. But as several goods pay no duty, and as the
contraband trade according to the lowest valuation is
estimated at the fifth part of the exports and imports; the
gross amount of the average trade to China may be fairly
computed at near 4,000,000, the sum stated above.]

CHAP. V.

Description of Zuruchaitu--and its trade--Transport of the merchandise through Siberia.

The general account of the Russian commerce to China has been given in the preceding chapter, because almost the whole traffic is confined to Kiachta. The description of Zuruchaitu, which was also fixed by the treaty of Kiachta for the purpose of carrying on the same trade, will be comprised of course in a narrow compass.

[Sidenote: Description of Zuruchaitu.] Zuruchaitu is situated in 137° longitude, and 49°. 20´ N. latitude, upon the Western branch of the river Argoon, at a small distance from its source. It is provided with a small garrison, and a few wretched barracks surrounded with chevaux de frise. No merchants are settled at this place; they come every summer from Nershinsk, and other Russian towns in order to meet two parties of Mongol troops: these troops are sent from the Chinese towns Naun and Merghen, and arrive at the frontiers about July. They encamp near Zuruchaitu upon the other side of the river Argoon, and barter with the Siberian merchants a few Chinese commodities, which they bring with them.

[Sidenote: Commerce.] Formerly the commerce carried on at Zuruchaitu was more considerable; but at present it is so trifling, that it hardly deserves to be mentioned. These Mongols furnish the district of Nershinsk with bad tea and tobacco, bad silks, and some tolerable cottons. They receive in return ordinary furs, cloth, cattle, and Russian leather. This trade lasts about a month or six weeks, and the annual duties of the customs amount upon an average to no more than 500 roubles. About the middle of August the Mongols retire; part proceed immediately to China, and the others descend the stream of the Amoor as far as its mouth, in order to observe if there has been no usurpation upon the limits. At the same time the Russian merchants return to Nershinsk, and, were it not for the small garrison, Zuruchaitu would remain uninhabited[117].

[Footnote 117: S. R. G. III. p. 465. Pallas Reise, P. III. p.
428.]

[Sidenote: Transport of the Russian and Chinese Commodities through Siberia.] The Russian commodities are transported by land from Petersburg and Moscow to Tobolsk. From thence the merchants may embark upon the Irtish down to its junction with the Oby; then they either tow up their boats, or sail up the last mentioned river as far as Marym, where they enter the Ket, which they ascend to Makoffskoi Ostrog. At that place the merchandize is carried about ninety versts by land to the Yenisei. The merchants then ascend that river, the Tunguska, and Angara, to Irkutsk, cross the lake Baikal, and go up the river Selenga almost to Kiachta.

It is a work of such difficulty to ascend the streams of so many rapid rivers, that this navigation Eastwards can hardly be finished in one summer[118]; for which reason the merchants commonly prefer the way by land. Their general rendezvous is the fair of Irbit near Tobolsk; from thence they go in sledges during winter to Kiachta where they arrive about February, the season in which the chief commerce is carried on with the Chinese. They buy in their route all the furs they find in the small towns, where they are brought from the adjacent countries. When the merchants return in spring with the Chinese goods, which are of greater bulk and weight than the Russian commodities, they proceed by water; they then descend the streams of most of the rivers, namely, the Selenga, Angara, Tunguska, Ket, and Oby to its junction with the Irtish; they ascend that river to Tobolsk, and continue by land to Moscow and Petersburg.

[Footnote 118: Some of these rivers are only navigable in
spring when the snow water is melting; in winter the rivers
are in general frozen.]

[Sidenote: Transport of the Furs from Kamtchatka to Kiachta.] Before the passage from Ochotsk to Bolcheresk was discovered in 1716, the only communication between Kamtchatka and Siberia was by land; the road lay by Anadirsk to Yakutsk. The furs[119] of Kamtchatka and of the Eastern isles are now conveyed from that peninsula by water to Ochotsk; from thence to Yakutsk by land on horse-back, or by rein-deer: the roads are so very bad, lying either through a rugged mountainous country, or through marshy forests, that the journey lasts at least six weeks. Yakutsk is situated upon the Lena, and is the principal town, where the choicest furs are brought in their way to Kiachta, as well from Kamtchatka as from the Northern parts of Siberia, which lay upon the rivers Lena, Yana, and Endigirka. At Yakutsk the goods are embarked upon the Lena, towed up the stream of that river as far as Vercholensk, or still farther to Katsheg; from thence they are transported over a short tract of land to the rivulet Buguldeika, down that stream to the lake Baikal, across that lake to the mouth of the Selenga, and up that river to the neighbourhood of Kiachta.

[Footnote 119: The furs, which are generally landed upon the
Eastern coast of Kamtchatka, are either sent by sea to
Bolchoresk, or are transported across the Peninsula in
sledges drawn by dogs. The latter conveyance is only used in
winter: it is the usual mode of travelling in that country.
In summer there is no conveyance, as the Peninsula contains
neither oxen, horses, or rein-deer. S. R. G. III. p. 478.]

In order to give the reader some notion of that vast tract of country, over which the merchandize is frequently transported by land carriage, a list of the distances is here subjoined.

From Petersburg to Moscow 734 versts.
Moscow to Tobolsk 2385
Tobolsk to Irkutsk 2918
Irkutsk to Kiachta 471
6508

From Irbit to Tobolsk 420

From Irkutsk to Nershinsk 1129
Nershinsk to Zuruchaitu 370

From Ochotsk to Yakutsk 927
Yakutsk to Irkutsk 2433

From Selenginsk to Zuruchaitu 850
Zuruchaitu to Pekin 1588
Kiachta to Pekin 1532

The Chinese transport their goods to Kiachta chiefly upon camels. It is four or five days journey from Pekin to the wall of China, and forty-six from thence across the Mongol desert to Kiachta[120].

[Footnote 120: Pallas Reise, P. III. p. 134.]