Chapter II: Conclusion: Identity of Linguistic and æsthetic

Summary of the study--Identity of Linguistic with Æsthetic--Æsthetic formulation of linguistic problems--Nature of language--Origin of language and its development--Relation between Grammar and Logic--Grammatical kinds or parts of speech--The individuality of speech and the classification of languages--Impossibility of a normative Grammar--Didactic organisms--Elementary linguistic facts, or roots--Æsthetic judgement and the model language--Conclusion

II

HISTORY OF ÆSTHETIC

I

ÆSTHETIC IDEAS IN GRÆCO-ROMAN ANTIQUITY

Point of view of this History of Æsthetic--Mistaken tendencies, and attempts towards an Æsthetic, in Græco-Roman antiquity--Origin of the æsthetic problem in Greece--Plato's rigoristic negation--Æsthetic hedonism and moralism--Mystical æsthetic in antiquity--Investigations as to the Beautiful--Distinction between the theory of Art and the theory of the Beautiful--Fusion of the two by Plotinus--The scientific tendency: Aristotle--The concepts of imitation and of imagination after Aristotle: Philostratus--Speculations on language

II

ÆSTHETIC IDEAS IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND RENAISSANCE

Middle Ages. Mysticism: Ideas on the Beautiful--The pedagogic theory of art in the Middle Ages--Hints of an Æsthetic in scholastic philosophy--Renaissance: Philography and philosophical and empirical inquiries concerning the Beautiful--The pedagogic theory of art and the Poetics of Aristotle--The "Poetics of the Renaissance"--Dispute concerning the universal and the probable in art--G. Fracastoro--L. Castelvetro--Piccolomini and Pinciano--Fr. Patrizzi (Patricius)

III

FERMENTS OF THOUGHT IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

New words and new observations in the seventeenth century--Wit--Taste--Various meanings of the word taste--Fancy or imagination--Feeling--Tendency to unite these terms--Difficulties and contradictions in their definition--Wit and intellect--Taste and intellectual judgement--The "_je ne sais quoi_"--Imagination and sensationalism: the corrective of imagination--Feeling and sensationalism

IV

ÆSTHETIC IDEAS OF THE CARTESIAN AND LEIBNITIAN SCHOOLS, AND THE "ÆSTHETIC" OF BAUMGARTEN

Cartesianism and imagination--Crousaz and André--The English: Locke, Shaftesbury, Hutcheson and the Scottish School--Leibniz: "_petites perceptions_" and confused knowledge--Intellectualism of Leibniz--Speculations on language--J. C. Wolff--Demand for an organon of inferior knowledge--Alexander Baumgarten: his "Æsthetic"--Æsthetic as science of sensory consciousness--Criticism of judgements passed on Baumgarten--Intellectualism of Baumgarten--New names and old meanings

V

GIAMBATTISTA VICO

Vico as inventor of æsthetic science--Poetry and philosophy: imagination and intellect--Poetry and history--Poetry and language--Inductive and formalistic logic--Vico opposed to all former theories of poetry--Vico's judgements of the grammarians and linguists who preceded him--Influence of seventeenth-century writers on Vico--Æsthetic in the _Scienza Nuova_--Vico's mistakes--Progress still to be achieved

VI

MINOR ÆSTHETIC DOCTRINES OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

The influence of Vico--Italian writers: A. Conti--Quadrio and Zanotti--M. Cesarotti--Bettinelli and Pagano--German disciples of Baumgarten: G. F. Meier--Confusions of Meier--M. Mendelssohn and other followers of Baumgarten--Vogue of Æsthetic--Eberhard and Eschenburg--J. G. Sulzer--K. H. Heydenreich--J. G. Herder--Philosophy of language

VII

OTHER ÆSTHETIC DOCTRINES OF THE SAME PERIOD

Other writers of the eighteenth century: Batteux--The English: W. Hogarth--E. Burke--H. Home--Eclecticism and sensationalism: E. Platner--Fr. Hemsterhuis--Neo-Platonism and mysticism: Winckelmann--Beauty and lack of significance--Winckelmann's contradictions and compromises--A. R. Mengs--G. E. Lessing--Theorists of ideal Beauty--G. Spalletti and the characteristic--Beauty and the characteristic: Hirt, Meyer, Goethe

VIII

IMMANUEL KANT

I. Kant--Kant and Vico--Identity of the concept of Art in Kant and Baumgarten--Kant's "Lectures"--Art in the _Critique of Judgment_--Imagination in Kant's system--The forms of intuition and the Transcendental Æsthetic--Theory of Beauty distinguished by Kant from that of Art--Mystical features in Kant's theory of Beauty

IX

THE ÆSTHETIC OF IDEALISM: SCHILLER, SCHELLING, SOLGER, HEGEL

The _Critique of Judgment_ and metaphysical idealism--F. Schiller--Relations between Schiller and Kant--The æsthetic sphere as the sphere of Play--Æsthetic education--Vagueness and lack of precision in Schiller's Æsthetic--Schiller's caution and the rashness of the Romanticists--Ideas on Art: J. P. Richter--Romantic Æsthetic and idealistic Æsthetic--J. G. Fichte--Irony: Schlegel, Tieck, Novalis--F. Schelling--Beauty and character--Art and Philosophy--Ideas and the gods: Art and mythology--K. W. Solger--Fancy and imagination--Art, practice and religion--G. W. F. Hegel--Art in the sphere of absolute spirit--Beauty as sensible appearance of the Idea--Æsthetic in metaphysical idealism and Baumgartenism--Mortality and decay of art in Hegel's system

X

SCHOPENHAUER AND HERBART

Æsthetic mysticism in the opponents of idealism--A. Schopenhauer--Ideas as the object of art--Æsthetic catharsis--Signs of a better theory in Schopenhauer--J. F. Herbart--Pure Beauty and relations of form--Art as sum of content and form--Herbart and Kantian thought

XI

FRIEDRICH SCHLEIERMACHER

Æsthetic of content and Æsthetic of form: meaning of the contrast--Friedrich Schleiermacher--Wrong judgements concerning him--Schleiermacher contrasted with his predecessors--Place assigned to Æsthetic in his Ethics--Æsthetic activity as immanent and individual--Artistic truth and intellectual truth--Difference of artistic consciousness from feeling and religion--Dreams and art: inspiration and deliberation--Art and the typical--Independence of art--Art and language--Schleiermacher's defects--Schleiermacher's services to Æsthetic

XII

THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE: HUMBOLDT AND STEINTHAL

Progress of Linguistic--Linguistic speculation at the beginning of the nineteenth century--Wilhelm von Humboldt: relics of intellectualism--Language as activity: internal form--Language and art in Humboldt--II. Steinthal: the linguistic function independent of the logical--Identity of the problems of the origin and the nature of language--Steinthal's mistaken ideas on art: his failure to unite Linguistic and Æsthetic

XIII

MINOR GERMAN ÆSTHETICIANS

Minor æstheticians in the metaphysical school--Krause, Trahndorff, Weisse and others--Fried. Theodor Vischer--Other tendencies--Theory of the Beautiful in nature, and that of the Modifications of Beauty--Development of the first theory: Herder--Schelling, Solger, Hegel--Schleiermacher--Alexander von Humboldt--Vischer's "Æsthetic Physics"--The theory of the Modifications of Beauty: from antiquity to the eighteenth century--Kant and the post-Kantians--Culmination of the development--Double form of the theory: the overcoming of the ugly: Solger, Weisse and others--Passage from abstract to concrete: Vischer--The "legend of Sir Purebeauty"

XIV

ÆSTHETIC IN FRANCE, ENGLAND AND ITALY DURING THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Æsthetic movement in France: Cousin, Jouffroy--English Æsthetic-- Italian Æsthetic--Rosmini and Gioberti--Italian Romantics. Dependence of art

XV

FRANCESCO DE SANCTIS

F. de Sanctis: development of his thought--Influence of Hegelism--Unconscious criticism of Hegelism--Criticisms of German Æsthetic--Final rebellion against metaphysical Æsthetic--De Sanctis' own theory--The concept of form--De Sanctis as art-critic--De Sanctis as philosopher

XVI

ÆSTHETIC OF THE EPIGONI

Revival of Herbartian Æsthetic--Robert Zimmermann--Vischer _versus_ Zimmermann--Hermann Lotze--Efforts to reconcile Æsthetic of form and Æsthetic of content--K. Köstlin--Æsthetic of content. M. Schasler--Eduard von Hartmann--Hartmann and the theory of modifications--Metaphysical Æsthetic in France: C. Levêque--In England: J. Ruskin--Æsthetic in Italy--Antonio Tari and his lectures--Æsthesigraphy

XVII

ÆSTHETIC POSITIVISM AND NATURALISM

Positivism and evolutionism--Æsthetic of H. Spencer--Physiologists of Æsthetic: Grant Allen, Helmholtz and others--Method of the natural sciences in Æsthetic--H. Taine's Æsthetic--Taine's metaphysic and moralism--G. T. Fechner: inductive Æsthetic--Experiments--Trivial nature of his ideas on Beauty and Art--Ernst Grosse: speculative Æsthetic and the Science of Art--Sociological Æsthetic--Proudhon--J. M. Guyau--M. Nordau--Naturalism: C. Lombroso--Decline of linguistic--Signs of revival: H. Paul--The linguistic of Wundt

XVIII

ÆSTHETIC PSYCHOLOGISM AND OTHER RECENT TENDENCIES

Neo-criticism and empiricism--Kirchmann--Metaphysic translated into Psychology: Vischer--Siebeck--M. Diez--Psychological tendency. Teodor Lipps--K. Groos--The modifications of the Beautiful in Groos and Lipps--E. Véron and the double form of Æsthetic--L. Tolstoy--F. Nietzsche --An æsthetician of Music: E. Hanslick--Hanslick's concept of form --Æstheticians of the figurative arts: C. Fiedler--Intuition and expression--Narrow limits of these theories--H. Bergson--Attempts to return to Baumgarten: C. Hermann--Eclecticism: B. Bosanquet --Æsthetic of expression: present state

XIX

HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF SOME PARTICULAR DOCTRINES

Result of the history of Æsthetic--History of science and history of the scientific criticism of particular errors