Chapter III: Propagation.--Section I (2)

In renewing an old orchard by grafting its head, it will not be a good plan to attempt the whole tree at once; the pruning would be too severe, and would be followed by a profusion of succulent shoots breaking out from the large branches, such as are called water-sprouts. Those who have practiced most, prefer at first, to remove about one-third of the limbs for grafting, and those should be selected at the top of the tree. The new growth thus has an open field for its development, and the lower limbs will be invigorated, while they tend also to preserve the equilibrium of the tree in a double sense, physically and physiologically. The next year another third of the limbs may be grafted, and the remainder the year following, as practiced by Mr. Geo. Olmstead, of Connecticut, who, on the sixth year from the first grafting, harvested 28-½ bushels of choice apples from a single tree that was 75 years old, and which before only produced inferior fruit. J.J. Thomas recommends, "to give a well-shaped head to such newly formed trees, and to prevent the branches from shooting upward in a close body near the centre of the tree; that the old horizontal boughs should be allowed to extend to a distance in each direction, while the upright ones should be lopped;" see fig. 16. The same writer also advises, "instead of cutting off large branches and grafting them at once, it is better to prune the top in part, which will cause an emission of vigorous shoots. These are then budded, or grafted. * * * And as the grafts gradually extend by growth, the remainder of the top may, by successive excisions, be entirely removed."

GRAFTING IN THE NURSERY is either done at or near the collar of the stock, or it is performed in-doors upon the roots or sections of roots of young stocks. The latter may be first described, as it constitutes the most extensive means of multiplying fruit trees. It is a sort of machinery, with division of labor, and appliances, that enable the operators to turn out immense numbers. Machinery has indeed been applied to the business; we have grafting apparatus to facilitate the work. The Minkler machine consists of a frame or gauge which regulates the angle of the slope, which is cut with a broad chisel that reduces the roots and scions to a condition for putting them together; by its use an immense number of grafts can be cut, and another hand binds them together with the waxed thread, without any tie. Mr. Robey's machine consists of a complicated shears to cut the slope and tongue at one operation, preparing the pieces for whip grafting. Mr. S.S. Jackson, of Cincinnati, has also invented an apparatus for this purpose, which proves to be very useful.

ROOT GRAFTING.--The methods of performing the operation vary somewhat, but all agree in the object to be attained: the co-aptation of the scion with a piece of root. Some grafters use only the upper portion of the root, thinking the original collar of the seedling stock the only point at which the most perfect and successful union between the aërial and terrestrial portions of trees should or can be effected--theoretically this may be very well, but the practice constantly pursued, in myriads of cases, abundantly proves that the grafting need not be restricted to this part, and that a perfect union may be effected at any point of the root, and that this may even be inverted. The very common practice has been to take two or more cuts from the root, when it is of sufficient size and length; and though some of our best propagators restrict themselves to two cuts from each, others, who have experimented carefully, insist that the third section will average as well as the others. A lot of trees, worked especially for a test in this matter, gave the following results.

In 1859 an average lot of roots and scions, about fifty in each lot, were treated as follows, White Pippin and Willow-leaf being used as scions:--

White Pippin--No. 1, being on the first cut of the root, had made a fair growth.

No. 2, being on the second cut, were quite as good or better.

No. 3, being on the third cut, were not quite so good as the others, the ground being partially shaded by a large tree.

Another, of Willow-leaf--No. 1, on the 3d cut of root, very good growth.

No. 2, on very slender roots, nearly as good.

No. 3, only 1 inch of root to 1 inch of scion; not so good growth nor so good a strike, but shaded by a tree.

No. 4, on 2d cut of root, not so good as the third.

No. 5, on average lot, not waxed, as good as any.

No. 6, roots worked upside-down, mostly failed.

D.O. Reeder exhibited some 2-year old apple trees, worked on the root inverted, they were of very good growth.

For root grafting, thrifty stocks are wanted of one or two years' growth, the smoother and straighter the roots, the better. These should be taken up from the seed-bed in the fall, selected, tied in bundles, and stored in the cellar or cave, or buried in the soil where they shall be accessible at any time, and where they will be kept fresh and plump. The roots and scions having been prepared and under shelter, the work of grafting may proceed at any time during the winter. The stocks, if not clean, should be washed, and one hand trims off the side rootlets. The grafter cuts a hundred scions of the appropriate length, which he puts into a shallow box on the table; he takes up a stock, cuts the slope near the collar, and a dextrous hand will at the same time make the sloping cut to receive the first graft and also the tongue, if that style of grafting is to be done, as is usually practised. He then picks up a scion, from a lot which himself or another hand has already prepared with a slope and tongue, and adapts it to the root, the tongue keeping the two together; a portion of the root is then cut off with the graft, and the process is repeated upon the next section. Two or three or more grafts, are thus made from one seedling root; the length of the sections vary from two to four inches, according to the fancy of the operator, or of his employer. Some persons recommend a long scion with a short root, and others prefer to reverse those terms. The whole root graft should not be more than six or seven inches long.

When any given number of scions are fitted to the roots, a boy completes the process of grafting, by applying melted wax with a brush, in which case they are dropped into water to harden the wax, or they are wrapped with waxed strips of muslin or paper, or, better still, they are tied with waxed thread. No. 3 cotton yarn is drawn through a pan of melted wax, and wound upon a reel placed at the other side of the room, so that the wax may harden. This waxed thread is a very convenient tie; the graft being held in the left hand, the thread is wound about it two or three turns; as the wax causes the bandage to adhere to itself where it crosses, no knot is needed, and the thread is broken off with a quick jerk.

In splice grafting, whether performed with any of the machines, or if the slopes of root and scion be cut with the thin grafting knife, the tying must be done by the same hand that selects and places the scion upon the root. This does not admit of the same division of labor, and the fingers, becoming sticky from the wax, cannot be so nimble, and are unfit for cutting. When the lot is tied, they are set into the box, which should be inclined at an angle, and interspersed with earth or saw-dust; for transportation. Saw-dust, just as it comes from the mill, neither wet nor dry, is preferred by some as a packing material, and it has been found very efficacious, excluding and admitting the air just in the right proportions to prevent desiccation, and to promote the union, which very soon takes place between the graft and the root, if the boxes be stored in the cellar. In an ice-house root grafts have been kept in saw-dust more than a year, and then planted and grown successfully. The boxes should be deep enough to receive the whole graft--say from 10 to 12 inches--and then they can be packed upon one another without injuring the scions; these should be distinctly marked with the name and number, so as to be ready for planting out in the spring.

Much discussion has been had upon the merits and demerits, or disadvantages of root grafting, and much theoretical argument has been brought against the practice; but beautiful trees are thus made in immense numbers in the extensive nurseries of our country, and until better arguments can be produced against the practice, nurserymen will continue to graft on sections of root, such varieties, as are suitable for this procedure--especially apples, in a large proportion of the varieties cultivated, some pears, some peaches, grapes, and other fruits.

Root grafting is now of almost universal application with the apple. It has many advantages, which may be summed up as follows: Two or more plants may be produced from the root of one stock; these may be made with great rapidity; the work may all be performed in-doors and during the whole winter season, when nothing can be done outside; they are of small bulk, and great numbers may be stowed away in little space, they may be transported to any distance in this condition, and are ready for planting with the opening of spring, when they may be set in the nursery rows at once; or, they may be bedded out in a small space and mulched, to protect them from drouth, and the weeds can easily be kept under. Another advantage of bedding out the root-grafts is, that they may be assorted according to their size the next season, when transplanted into the nursery rows. This very transplanting too is a great advantage, for the roots will be much improved by the process.

The theoretical objections to root grafts have yielded to sound philosophy, based on and supported by practical observation. The very many advantages of this more economical and convenient and agreeable process, will necessarily sustain root-grafting in this fast age, when so many millions of trees are needed for the rapidly extending wants of this nation of tree planters. We may, however, consider some of the practical objections which have been brought forward against this plan of multiplying the apple. In our very changeable climate, and particularly in the North-west, upon the prairies, the cold of winter often supervenes with great suddenness, after the young trees have made a prolonged and vigorous growth in the fertile soil, and produces terrible devastation among those that are there exposed, without protection of any kind, to the rude blasts of the storm-king: in a less degree, injury is very frequent with many such late-growing kinds, at the first access of a severe frost; this is manifested in the bursting of the bark near the base of the stem. The same thing is not so often seen in the same varieties, when they have been budded or stock grafted a foot or more from the ground upon hardy seedling stocks, hence judicious propagators have selected the "tender" varieties for this kind of working, and confine their root-grafting to those less liable to the injury. There are other varieties which do not readily and promptly form a strong upright growth, so as to be profitable trees to the nurseryman if root grafted; these are selected for stock working, either on strong seedlings, or upon hardy upright sorts that have been root grafted for the purpose of being thus double-worked. This plan has been pursued to a limited extent only, but its advantages in the production of good trees of the slender growing varieties, begin to be appreciated, and as the demand increases, our intelligent nurserymen will very soon furnish the requisite supply.

_Planting._--When the weather is fine, and the soil in good condition, the root-grafts are to be set out with a dibble, by the line; they should be planted rather deeply, one bud projecting above the surface of the ground. The culture must be thorough, the plants should be kept perfectly clean, but it is questionable whether the growth should be pushed, late in the season; indeed, it is preferable to check the vegetation at mid-summer. For this purpose it has been recommended to cease cultivating the soil, or even to sow the ground with a heavy seeding of oats, so as to check the growth before winter. In good soils, with good culture, the average hight in the rows will be two feet, but there is a great difference in the kinds; some will considerably exceed this hight. Intelligent nurserymen no longer endeavor to have an excessive growth in the first year, and many prefer the bedding plan above alluded to.

_Trimming, Pinching, or Heading._--The growth during the first year is generally a single shoot, sometimes two. If there be a second, it should be subordinated by pinching off its extremity, never by trimming it off; indeed, laterals should always be encouraged, and this will be more and more the case, since the demand for low-headed trees is increasing, as the laws of physiology are better understood. A young tree, well furnished with laterals, is always more stocky, and every way better, though not so tall as that which has been drawn up to a single stem. To encourage this condition, some advise the pinching out the terminal bud in the midst of the growing season, which will cause the swelling and subsequent breaking of the lower buds, so as to furnish plenty of laterals. If done later in the season, especially with strong-growing varieties, a branching head may be formed higher up, during the first season, making very pretty trees. This is, however, seldom attempted with root-grafts the first season, though it is very common for collar-grafted trees, and for buds on strong stocks to make a fine branching growth the first year. The second season the trees should all be headed-in, and the laterals spurred-in early in the spring, or in mild weather during the winter, if the scions are wanted. This method of making stocky plants cannot be too highly commended, nor can the opposite plan, of trimming off all the side branches, and even of stripping the leaves from the lower part of the shoots, during the first summer, be too severely condemned.

STOCK GRAFTING has many advocates, and for some varieties this plan is preferable. The union may be effected at any point from the collar upward. Formerly, the place was selected to suit the convenience of the grafter, and many old orchards show very plainly where they were worked, the stock or the scion having overgrown, and it is very curious that some varieties may be indicated as good feeders of the stock below them, and the contrary. At present, tree planters are more fastidious, and object to these irregularities in the stems of their trees. They will purchase nothing that shows the point of union above ground, hence the more common use of collar grafting, as it has been called, or the insertion of the scion at or near the surface of the ground. Stocks that have been cultivated one or two years in the nursery row, are selected for this purpose; the earth is removed from them, they are cut off and grafted as they stand, and with their fine strong roots undisturbed, the result of one summer's growth is very satisfactory, making beautiful trees fit for the orchard. Older trees, especially those with straight clean stems, are often grafted standard high, so as to produce a fine salable tree at once, or in one season. This is a very good plan with some of the slender and straggling varieties, such as are called poor growers, and which are unprofitable to the nurseryman when propagated in the usual manner. Grafting or budding upon such stocks is also resorted to very often, when it is desirable at once to furnish large, or salable trees of new varieties.

In grafting upon a large stock, or upon the tops of an old tree, the process called cleft grafting is generally used. Here, as in all forms of this process, the object to be attained, is the co-aptation of the inner bark of both stock and scion. The latter is held in its place by the clasping of the former, and is also covered by some material that is pliant, and which will exclude the air and moisture.

The advantages of stock-grafting are the changing of an old tree from bad to good fruit, which is produced in a few years; it is also applicable to large stocks, and produces an immediate result, making salable trees in one year. It is also desirable for some poor-growing varieties, which are slow in making a tree from the ground; but it has its disadvantages also. The nurseryman must wait until his stocks have been grown one or more years in the nursery, his trees will sometimes be larger than he desires, they will be apt to have the mark of the grafting as a blemish upon the stalk sometimes during the life of the tree; and worse than all, he is restricted to a brief period in the spring, when he is obliged to perform the operation out of doors, and often in very unpleasant weather.

As a result of all the discussions upon this subject, it is found that stock-grafting, whether at the collar or at some distance above the ground, is still practiced, and has many warm advocates, as a better means of making the best trees. The only objections are the greater expense of culture of the stocks, and greater labor in grafting; the limited period at which the work can be performed, and the exposure of the workman during its performance, which is often at a stormy season, and always during a busy portion of the year. The trees too, in the orchard, are often somewhat deformed by an irregularity of growth, and have an enlargement either above or below the union, which is unsightly.

The kind of grafting will depend upon the size of the stocks; splice and whip-grafting on the smaller, and cleft-grafting on the larger ones, must be practiced. The waxing may be done by any of the methods indicated, according to the fancy; but it must always be more thoroughly done in aerial, than in underground grafting, whether this be in the collar or upon sections of the root; in the former the whole of the cut surfaces must be covered, to prevent desiccation by the winds, or the inroads of insects, or of wet from rains.

WAX.--Various combinations of the materials used in the preparation of grafting-wax, have been recommended by different operators. The desideratum being to have a material that shall be sufficiently pliant, and at the same time firm enough to withstand the elevated temperatures to which it may be exposed. A mean is preferred, neither too hard nor too soft, and the proportions of the ingredients are varied according as it is proposed to use it out of doors, or in the house, in cold weather or warm.

A favorite recipe, with a practical nurseryman of great experience, is:

Rosin, six parts, }
Bees-wax, one part, } melted together.
Tallow, one part, }

This is to be used warm, when grafting in the house.

For out-door work he used the following:

Rosin, four or five parts.
Bees-wax, one and one-half to two parts.
Linseed oil, one to one and one-half.

This is made into a mass to be applied by hand. A very pleasant and neat mode of using the wax is to pour it when melted, upon thin muslin or strong paper, and spread it thin with a spatula. The tissue is then cut into strips of convenient size. The application to cotton yarn for root-grafting, has already been mentioned.

The French use the preparation given below, sufficiently warm to be liquid, but not so hot as to injure the tissues of the tree, and apply it with a brush:

Black pitch 28 parts.
Burgundy pitch 28 parts.
Bees-wax 16 parts.
Grease 14 parts.
Yellow ochre 14 parts.
------------
Making 100 parts.[14]

Mr. Du Breuil also refers to Leport's liquid mastic in terms of commendation, but speaks of it as a secret composition.

Downing recommends melting together:

Bees-wax 3 parts.
Rosin 3 parts.
Tallow 2 parts.

He says, the common wax of the French is

Pitch one-half pound.
Bees-wax one-half pound.
Cow-dung one pound.

To be boiled together, and laid on with a brush, and for using cold or on strips of muslin, equal parts of tallow, bees-wax, and rosin, some preferring a little more tallow.

J.J. Thomas, whose practical knowledge is proverbial, recommends for its cheapness

Linseed oil one pint.
Rosin six pounds.
Bees-wax one pound.

Melted together, to be applied warm with a brush, or to be put on paper or muslin, or worked with wet hands into a mass and drawn out into ribbons.

The season for grafting is quite a prolonged one, if we include the period during which it may be done in the house, and the ability we have of retarding the scions by cold, using ice. It should be done while the grafts are dormant, which is at any time from the fall of the leaf until the swelling of the buds. As the grafts would be likely to suffer from prolonged exposure, out-door grafting is done just before vegetation commences in the spring, but may be prolonged until the stocks are in full leaf, by keeping back the scions, in which case, however, there is more danger to the stock unless a portion of its foliage is allowed to remain to keep up the circulation; under these circumstances, too, side-grafting is sometimes used with the same view.

The stone fruits are worked first; cherries, plums, and peaches, then pears and apples. With regard to grafting grapes, there is a diversity of opinion. Some operators prefer very early in the season, as in February, and others wait until the leaves have appeared upon the vine to be grafted.

SCIONS OR GRAFTS are to be selected from healthy plants of the variety we wish to propagate. They should be the growth of the previous year, of average size, well developed, and with good buds, those having flower buds are rejected. If the shoots be too strong, they are often furnished with poor buds, and are more pithy, and therefore they are more difficult to work and are less likely to grow. Grafts, cut from young bearing orchards, are the best, and being cut from fruiting trees, this enables us to be certain as to correctness of the varieties to be propagated; but they are generally and most rapidly collected from young nursery trees, and as an orchardist or nurseryman should be able to judge of all the varieties he cultivates by the appearance of their growth, foliage, bark, dots, etc., there is little danger in taking the scions from such untested trees.

_Time for cutting Scions._--The scions may be cut at any time after the cessation of growth in the autumn, even before the leaves have fallen, until the buds burst in the spring, always avoiding severely cold or frosty weather, because of the injury to the tree that results from cutting at such a time, though the frost may not have injured the scion. The best nurserymen prefer to cut them in the autumn, before they can have been injured by cold. They should be carefully packed in fine earth, sand, or sawdust, and placed in the cellar or cave. The leaves stripped from them, make a very good packing material; moss is often used, where it can be obtained, but the best material is saw-dust. This latter is clean, whereas the sand and soil will dull the knife. If the scions should have become dry and shriveled, they may still be revived by placing them in soil that is moderately moist, not wet--they should not, by any means, be placed in water, but should be so situated that they may slowly imbibe moisture. When they have been plumped, they should be examined by cutting into their tissues; if these be brown, they are useless, but if alive, the fresh cut will look clear and white, and the knife will pass as freely through them as when cutting a fresh twig.

The after-treatment of the grafts consists in removing the sprouts that appear upon the stock below the scion, often in great numbers. These are called robbers, as they take the sap which should go into the scion. It is sometimes well to leave a portion of these as an outlet for excess. When the graft is tardy in its vegetation, and in late grafting, it is always safest to leave some of these shoots to direct the circulation to the part, and thus insure a supply to the newly introduced scion; all should eventually be removed, so as to leave the graft supreme.

It may sometimes be necessary to tie up the young shoot which pushes with vigor, and may fall and break with its own weight before the supporting woody fibre has been deposited; but a much better policy is to pinch in the tip when but a few inches long, and thus encourage the swelling and breaking of the lateral buds, and produce a more sturdy result. This is particularly the case in stock-grafts and in renewing an orchard by top-grafting.

PROPAGATION.--SECTION III.--BUDDING.

ADVANTAGES OF. LONG PERIOD FOR. CLAIMS OF GREATER HARDINESS
EXAMINED. LATE GROWERS APT TO BURST THE BARK. BUD TENDER SORTS.
STOCKS NOT ALWAYS HARDY. PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDING, LIKE GRAFTING,
DEPENDS UPON CELL-GROWTH. THE CAMBIUM, OR "PULP". THE BUD, ITS
INDIVIDUALITY. THOMSON QUOTED. UNION DEPENDS UPON THE BUD.
SEASON FOR BUDDING. CONDITIONS REQUISITE. SPRING BUDDING.
CONDITION OF THE BUDS. BUD STICKS. SELECTION OF. THEIR
TREATMENT. RESTORATION WHEN DRY. THE WEATHER. RAINS TO BE
AVOIDED. USUAL PERIOD OF GROWTH BY EXTENSION. SUCCESSION OF
VARIETIES. CHERRY, PLUM, PEAR, APPLE, QUINCE, PEACH. HOW TO DO
IT. DIFFERENT METHODS. AGE OF STOCKS. PREPARATION OF. THE
KNIFE. CUTTING THE BUDS. REMOVAL OF THE WOOD. THE AMERICAN
METHOD. DIVISION OF LABOR TYING. RING BUDDING. PREPARATION OF
SCIONS FOR EARLY BUDDING. IMPROVEMENTS IN TYING. BAST,
PREPARATION OF. SUBSTITUTES. NOVEL TIE. WHEN TO LOOSEN THE
BANDAGE. HOW DONE. INSPECTION OF BUDS. SIGN OF THEIR HAVING
UNITED. KNIGHT'S TWO BANDAGES. WHY LEAVE THE UPPER ONE LONGER.
HEADING BACK THE STOCKS. RESUME.

BUDDING, or inoculating, is the insertion of eyes or buds. This is a favorite method of propagation, which is practiced in the multiplication of a great variety of fruits. The advantages of budding consist in the rapidity and facility with which it is performed, and the certainty of success which attends it. Budding may be done during a long period of the growing season, upon the different kinds of trees we have to propagate. Using but a single eye, it is also economical of the scions, which is a matter of some importance, when we desire to multiply a new and scarce variety.

It has been claimed on behalf of the process of budding, that trees, which have been worked in this method, are more hardy and better able to resist the severity of winter than others of the same varieties, which have been grafted in the root or collar, and also that budded trees come sooner into bearing. Their general hardiness will probably not be at all affected by their manner of propagation; except perhaps, where there may happen to be a marked difference in the habit of the stock, such for instance as maturity early in the season, which would have a tendency to check the late growth of the scion placed upon it--the supplies of sap being diminished, instead of continuing to flow into the graft, as it would do from the roots of the cutting or root-graft of a variety which was inclined to make a late autumnal growth. Practically, however, this does not have much weight, nor can we know, in a lot of seedling stocks, which will be the late feeders, and which will go into an early summer rest.

Certain varieties of our cultivated fruits are found to have a remarkable tendency to make an extended and very thrifty growth, which, continuing late into the autumn, would appear to expose the young trees to a very severe trial upon the access of the first cold weather, and we often find them very seriously injured under such circumstances; the bark is frequently split and ruptured for several inches near the ground. The twigs, still covered with abundant foliage, are so affected by the frost, that their whole outer surface is shriveled, and the inner bark and wood are browned; the latter often becomes permanently blackened, and remains as dead matter in the centre of the tree, for death does not necessarily ensue. Now intelligent nurserymen have endeavored to avoid losses from these causes, by budding such varieties upon strong well-established stocks, though they are aware that these are not more hardy than some of the cultivated varieties: a given number of seedling stocks has been found to suffer as much from the severity of winter, as do a similar amount of the grafted varieties taken at random.[15] That the serious difficulty of bark-bursting occurs near the surface of the ground, does seem to be an argument of some weight in favor of budding or stock-grafting at a higher point. The earlier fruiting of budded trees than those which have been root-grafted, does not appear to be a well established fact, and therefore need not detain us; except to observe that the stocks, upon which the buds were inserted, might have been older by some years than the slip of root upon which the graft was set, so that the fruiting of the former tree should count two or three or more years further back than from the period of the budding. There are so many causes which might have contributed toward this result of earlier bearing, that we should not be too hasty in drawing conclusions in this matter.

The philosophy of budding is very similar to that of grafting. The latter process is performed when the plant-life is almost dormant, and the co-apted parts are ready to take the initiative steps of vegetation, and to effect their union by means of new adventitious cells, before the free flow of sap in the growing season. Budding, on the contrary, is done in the hight of that season and toward its close, when the plants are full of well matured and highly organized sap, when the cell circulation is most active, and the union between the parts is much more immediate than in the graft; were it not so, indeed, the little shield, with its actively evaporating surface of young bark, must certainly perish from exposure to a hot dry atmosphere. The _cambium_, or gelatinous matter, which is discovered between the bark and the wood when they are separated, is a mass of organizable cells. Mr. Paxton, using the gardener's expression, calls it the "pulp." Budding is most successfully performed when this matter is abundant, for then the vitality of the tree is in greatest degree of exaltation.

The individuality of the bud was sufficiently argued in the first section of this chapter, it need not now be again introduced, except as appropriately to remind us of the fact where the propagation depends upon this circumstance--the future tree must spring from the single bud which is inserted. Mr. A.T. Thomson, in his Lectures on the Elements of Botany, page 396, says:--"The individuality of buds must have been suspected as early as the discovery of the art of budding, and it is fully proved by the dissection of plants. * * Budding is founded on the fact, that the bud, which is a branch in embryo, is a distinct individual. It is essential that both the bud and the tree into which it is inserted should not only be analogous in their character, as in grafting with the scion, but both must be in a state of growth at the time the operation is performed. The union, however, depends much more upon the bud than upon the stock--the bud may be considered a centre of vitality--vegetative action commences in the bud, and extends to the stock, connecting them together."--"The vital energy, however, which commences the process of organization in the bud, is not necessarily confined to the germ, nor distinct from that which maintains the growth of the entire plant; but it is so connected with organization, that when this has proceeded a certain length, the bud may be removed from the parent and attached to another, where it will become a branch the same as if it had not been removed."

The season for budding has already been indicated in general terms, it is usually done in mid-summer and the early part of autumn, reference being had to the condition of the plants to be worked; these should be in a thrifty growing state, the woody fibre should be pretty well advanced, but growth by extension must still be active, or the needful conditions will not be found. The "pulp" must be present between the bark and the wood of the stock, so that the former can be easily separated from the latter; in the language of the art, the bark must "run;" this state of things will soon cease in most stocks, after the formation of terminal buds on the shoots. The success of spring budding, however, would appear to indicate that the cambium layer is formed earlier in the season than is usually supposed; for whenever the young leaves begin to be developed on the stock, "the bark will run," and the buds may be inserted with a good prospect of success. In this case we are obliged to use dormant buds that were formed the previous year, and we have to exercise care in the preservation of the scions, to keep them back by the application of cold, until the time of their insertion.

The condition of the bud is also important to the success of the operation. The tree from which we cut the scions should be in a growing state, though this is not so essential as in the case of the stock, as has been seen in spring budding--still, a degree of activity is desirable. The young shoot should have perfected its growth to such an extent as to have deposited its woody fibre, it should not be too succulent; but the essential condition is, that it should have its buds well developed. These, as every one knows, are formed in the axils of the leaves, and, to insure success, they should be plump and well grown. In those fruits which blossom on wood shoots of the previous year's growth, as the peach and apricot, the blossom buds should be avoided; they are easily recognized by their greater size and plumpness. In cutting scions, or bud-sticks, the most vigorous shoots should be avoided, they are too soft and pithy; the close jointed firm shoots, of medium size, are much to be preferred, as they have well developed buds, which appear to have more vitality. Such scions are found at the ends of the lateral branches. These need immediate attention, or they will be lost. The evaporation of their juices through the leaves would soon cause them to wither and wilt, and become useless. These appendages are therefore immediately removed by cutting the petioles from a quarter to half an inch from the scion; a portion of the stem is thus left as a convenient handle when inserting the shield, and this also serves afterward as an index to the condition of the bud. So soon as trimmed of their leaves, the scions are tied up, and enveloped loosely in a damp cloth, or in moss, or fresh grass, to exclude them from the air. If they should become wilted, they must not be put into water, as this injures them; it is better to sprinkle the cloth and tie them up tightly, or they may be restored by burying them in moderately moist earth.

The early gardeners were very particular as to the kind of weather upon which to do their budding. They recommended a cloudy or a showery day, or the evening, in order to avoid the effects of the hot sunshine. This might do in a small garden, where the operator could select his opportunity to bud a few dozen stocks; but even there, wet weather should be avoided, rather than courted. But in the large commercial nurseries, where tens of thousands of buds are to be inserted, there can be no choice of weather; indeed, many nurserymen prefer bright sunshine and the hottest weather, as they find no inconvenience arising to the trees from this source. Some even aver that their success is better under such circumstances, and argue that the "pulp is richer."

Most trees in their mature state make all their growth by extension or elongation very early in the season, by one push, as it were; with the first unfolding of the leaves, comes also the elongation of the twig that bears them. In most adult trees in a state of nature, there is no further growth in this way, but the internal changes of the sap continue to be effected among the cells during the whole period of their remaining in leaf, during which there is a continual flow of crude sap absorbed by the roots, and taken up into the organism of the tree to aid in the perfection of all the various parts, and in the preparation of the proper juice and the several products peculiar to the tree, as well as its wood and fruits. When all this is transpiring within its economy, the tree is said to be in its full flow of sap; at this stage the young tree is in the best condition for budding, but it continues also, if well cultivated, to grow by extension for a greater or shorter portion of the season, and this is essential to the success of the operation as already stated. After the perfecting of the crop of fruit, the main work of the tree seems to have been done for the year, and we often observe, particularly with the summer fruits, that the trees appear to go to rest after this period, and begin to cast their foliage. Now, to a certain extent, this is true of the young trees. The varieties that ripen their fruit early, make their growth in the nursery in the earlier portion of the summer, they stop growing, and their terminal bud is formed and is conspicuous at the top of the shoots. Very soon the supply of sap appears to be diminished, there is no longer so much activity in the circulation, the bark cleaves to the wood, it will no longer run, and the season of budding for those stocks has reached its terminus; hence the nurseryman must be upon the look-out for the condition of his trees. Fortunately, those species which have the shortest season, are also the first to be ready, the first to mature their buds, and they must be budded first. We may commence with the cherry, though the Mahaleb stock, when it is used, continues in condition longer than other varieties, and may be worked late. The plum and pear stocks also complete their growth at an early period in the season; the apple continues longer in good condition, and may be worked quite late. Grapes, if worked in this way, should be attended to about mid-season, while they are still growing; but quinces and peaches may be kept in a growing state much later than most other stocks, and can be budded last of all.

HOW TO DO IT.--The stocks being in a suitable condition as above described, they should be trimmed of their lateral shoots for a few inches from the ground. This may be done immediately in advance of the budder, or it may have been done a few days before the budding. The stock may be one year old, or two years; after this period they do not work so well. The usual method is to make a =T= incision through the bark of the stock, as low down as possible, but in a smooth piece of the stem; some prefer to insert the shield just below the natural site of a bud. The knife should be thin and sharp, and if the stock be in good condition, it will pass through the bark with very little resistance; but if the stock be too dry, the experienced budder will detect it by the different feeling communicated through his knife, by the increased resistance to be overcome in making the cut. The custom has been to raise the bark by inserting the haft of the budding knife gently, so as to start the corners of the incision, preparatory to inserting the bud; but our best budders depend upon the shield separating the bark as it is introduced. The bud is cut from the scion by the same knife, which is entered half an inch above the bud, and drawn downward about one-third the diameter of the scion, and brought out an equal distance below the bud; this makes the shield, or bud. The authorities direct that the wood should be removed from the shield before it is inserted; this is a nice operation, requiring some dexterity to avoid injuring the base of the bud, which constitutes its connection with the medulla or pith within the stick. The base of the bud is represented by _b_, figure 17. Various appliances have been invented to aid in this separation, some use a piece of quill, others a kind of gouge; but if the bark run freely on the scion, there will be little difficulty in separating the wood from the shield with the fingers alone. All this may be avoided by adopting what is called the American method of budding, which consists in leaving the wood in the shield, (fig. 18, _b_) that should be cut thinner, and is then inserted beneath the bark without any difficulty, and may be made to fit closely enough for all practical purposes. Like everything else American, this is a time-saving and labor-saving plan, and therefore readily adopted by the practical nurseryman, who will insert two thousand in a day.

A division of labor is had generally, so far as the tying is concerned; for this is done by a boy who follows immediately after the budder, and some of these require two smart boys. S.S. Jackson has carried this principle of division of labor still further, and, as appears, with advantage; one hand cuts the shields for another who inserts them. He never uses the haft of his knife to raise the bark, but, after having made the longitudinal cut through the bark, he places the knife in position to make the transverse incision, and as he cuts the bark, the edge of the blade being inclined downward, the shield is placed on the stock close above the knife, which is then still further inclined toward the stock, resting upon the shield as a fulcrum; thus started, the bark will readily yield to the shield, which is then pressed down home into its place.

J.W. Tenbrook, of Indiana, has invented a little instrument with which he makes the longitudinal and transverse incisions, and raises the bark, all at one operation, and inserts the bud with the other hand. On these plans, two persons may work together, one cutting, the other inserting the buds; these may change work occasionally for rest. In all cases it is best to have other hands to tie-in the buds, two or three boys will generally find full occupation behind a smart budder. It will be apparent that the above processes can only be performed when the stock is in the most perfect condition of growth, so that the bark can be pressed away before the bud; a good workman will not desire to bud under any other circumstances.

In budding, it is found that the upper end of the shield is the last to adhere to the stock; it needs to be closely applied and pressed by the bandage, and if too long, so as to project above the transverse incision, it should be cut off.

Another expedient for facilitating the operation of budding is made use of by some of the nurserymen who grow peach trees extensively. It consists in, preparing the stick of buds, as shown in the engraving, figure 20. A cut is made, with a sharp knife, through the bark, around each bud, as in the figure. The budder then removes the buds as they are wanted, with a slight sidewise pull, and has the shield in the right condition to insert, without the trouble of removing the wood. When working in this manner, the stick of buds must not be allowed to dry, and the work must be done at a time when the bark parts with the greatest ease.

Among the modifications of the process of budding, that, called ring-budding, fig. 21, may be mentioned, rather as a curiosity however, though preferred by some, especially for the grape, which is said to be very easily budded, though we seldom see the operation practiced.

Those who are anxious to commence budding early in the season, prepare the scions they expect to use, by pinching the ends and cutting off a portion of the leaves; the effect of this check to the wood growth is to hasten the ripening or development of the buds, which rapidly swell, preparatory to breaking, in their attempt to reproduce the foliage that had been removed.

TYING should be done as soon as convenient after the buds have been inserted; though under very favorable circumstances the bud may adhere and do well without any bandaging, no one thinks of leaving the work without carefully tying in the buds, and most budders lay a great deal of stress upon the necessity for covering the whole shield and cut with a continuous bandaging, that shall exclude the light, and air, and moisture. The material most used is bass matting, brought from Russia, as a covering to the packages of sheet iron for which that country is famous. This is the inner bark of the _Tilia Europea_, but our own Bass-wood, _T. Americana_, furnishes an excellent bass, and is procured by our nurserymen directly from the trees, by stripping the bark in June, and after it has lain a few days in water, the inner portion separates easily, is dried, and put away for future use. Those who have not provided the bass, are content to apply woolen yarn to tie in the buds; its elasticity adapts it well to the purpose. The ingenious budder, without bass, often finds a substitute for it, and a very good tie, in the soft husks of corn ears, the inner husks are torn into strips and used a little damp, when they are pliant and easily tied, answering a very good purpose. Many nurserymen, who have tried the corn-husk, prefer it to all other material, because it saves them the trouble of removing the bandages, as it decays rapidly, and yielding to the growth of the stock, it falls off before it cuts the bark, which a firmer bandage is apt to do.

S.S. Jackson, whose improvements in budding have already been mentioned, also adopts another in tying. He holds that it is not at all necessary to hide the bud with the tie, the only requisite being to retain the parts in contact. He uses No. 3 cotton yarn, cut in lengths of a few inches, more or less, according to the size of the stocks; a couple of strands are pulled out from the cut bundles; the first turn around the stock secures the end of the string by its own pressure, one turn more is taken below the bud and one or two above it, when the free end is passed into a cleft made through the bark above the point where the bud is inserted. This is found to secure the string sufficiently, and is easily loosened when necessary to relieve the tension caused by the continued growth, (fig. 22).

All ties should be loosened in the course of a couple of weeks, if the stocks be growing freely; otherwise they will injure the tree by strangulation. Sometimes it will be necessary to replace the bandage to prevent the effects of desiccation upon the bud, this is particularly the case with the cherry, and other fruits, that are budded early; but the tie is often left on the stock all winter, as a sort of protection to the bud. When loosening the ties, the buds are inspected and their condition ascertained; if they have failed, they may be replaced, if the stocks continue in a suitable condition. It is very easy to tell the success of the budding; the portion of the petiole left upon the shield is a very good index; if the bud has withered, this will also be brown and will adhere firmly to the shield; but, on the contrary, the bud and its shield having formed a union with the stock, the leaf-stalk remains plump, but changes color. Like a leaf-stem in the autumn, it assumes the tint of ripeness, and it will separate with a touch, and soon falls off.

The common method of removing the ties is to cut them with a single stroke of a sharp knife, when the bandage is left to fall off. Mr. Knight recommended two distinct ligatures, and left the one above the bud for a longer time uncut. When the buds have not been very fully developed, and when the stocks are very thrifty, it sometimes happens that the excessive growth about the incisions made for the insertion of the bud, completely cover up this little germ of a future tree, which is then said to be "drowned." Judicious pinching and shortening of the stock will prevent this effect, but care is needed not to pursue such treatment too far.

The stocks are generally headed back to within an inch or more of the bud, just as vegetation starts the next spring; but early set buds may be headed back so soon as they have taken, and will often make a nice growth the same season. This, however, is not generally preferred, and a late start in the growing weather of our autumns is particularly to be avoided, as the young shoot will not become matured before winter, and may be lost.

The advantages of propagating by budding may be summed up in the following remarks, which are presented even at the risk of some repetition.