Chapter II: Part I: Of Architecture that is common to us with the Ancients (1)

CHAP. I.

_Of Architecture in General._

ARTICLE I.

_Of the Original of Architecture._

[Sidenote: _Lib. 2. Chap. 1._]

It's related by Historians, That Men, who in former times inhabited Woods and Caverns like wild Beasts, first assembled themselves to make Houses and Cities, which was occasioned by a Forest that was set on fire, which drew all the Inhabitants together by its novelty and surprizing effects; so that many Men meeting together in the same place, they found out means, by helping one another, to harbour themselves more conveniently, than in Caves and under Trees; so that it is pretended, that Architecture was the Beginning and Original of all other Arts. For Men seeing that they had success in Building, which necessity made them invent, they had the Thoughts and Courage of seeking out other Arts, and applying themselves to them.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 4. Chap. 2._]

Now even as they took Trees, Rocks and other Things that Nature her self furnished Beasts to harbour themselves under, which were made use of as Models for the first Houses, which at first were only made of green Turf and broken Branches of Trees, they made use of them afterwards, in the same manner, to arrive at something more perfect. For passing from the Imitation of the Natural to that of Artificial, they invented all the Ornaments of Edifices that were most curiously wrought, in giving them the Form and Shape of those things that are simply necessary to the most natural Buildings: And the Pieces of Timber of which the Roofs and Floors of Houses are made, were the Original of _Pillars_, _Architraves_, _Frises_, _Triglyphs_, _Mutils_, _Brackets_, _Corniches_, _Frontons_ or _Piediments_, which are made of Stone or Marble.

The Pillars which are to be smaller at top than at bottom, were made in Imitation of the Boles or Trunks of Trees, and their use was taken from the Carpenters' Posts that are made to support the Building. The _Architraves_ which are laid across many _Pillars_, represent _Summers_ that join many _Posts_ together. The _Frises_ imitate the _Muring_ that is raised upon the _Summers_ betwixt the ends of the Beams that are laid directly upon the _Pillars_. The _Triglyphs_ represent the Ceiling or Joyner's work which was made upon the ends of the Beams to conserve them. The _Corniches_ are as it were the extream parts of the _Joists_. The _Modillions_ represent the ends of the Sheers, and the _Dentels_ represent the ends of the principal _Rafter_. The _Frontons_ are made in imitation of the _Firms_ or _Girders_, upon which is laid the Roof of the House.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 4. Chap. 2._]

There is likewise another Original of Architecture, which is taken from the Inventers of the several Orders, and those that added the Ornaments to embellish them. For it's the common Opinion, that the first Fabrick that was made, according to any of the Orders, was the Temple that King _Dorus_ built in Honour of _Juno_ in the City _Argos_. And it obtained the name of the _Dorick_ Order, when _Ion_ the Conducter of a Colony, which he established in _Asia_, made many Temples be built according to the Model of the Temple built by _Dorus_ in _Greece_.

But the _Ionians_ having changed some of the Proportions and Ornaments of the _Dorick_ Order, were the Authors of another Order, which was called the _Ionick_, according to which, they built a Temple in Honour of _Diana_. The reason of this change was, that this Temple being dedicated to a Divinity, which they represented under the Shape of a Young Lady, they thought it was proper to make their Pillars more tapering, the better to represent the airy Stature of this Goddess, and for this reason they adorned it more delicately, adding Bases which represent the Buskin'd Ornaments of the Legs and Feet, according to the Mode of that time; and Made the _Channellings_ deeper to represent the Foldings and Plaits of a fine light Garment. They put likewise _Volutes_ or _Scrowls_ upon the _Capital_, pretending that they imitated the Head-Dress of a Young Lady, whose Hair Beautifully descending from the top of her Head, was folded up under each Ear.

Afterwards _Calimachus_ an _Athenian_, embellished the Capitals of the Pillars, adding to them more Beautiful _Volutes_ or _Scrowls_, and more in number, enriching them with the Leaves of _Brank Ursine_ and Roses. It's said, That this Capital, which, according to _Vitruvius_, makes all the Distinction betwixt the _Corinthian_ and _Ionick_ Order, was invented by this ingenious Artisan upon this occasion. Having seen the Leaves of the above-mentioned Plant grow round about a Basket which was set upon the Tomb of a Young _Corinthian_ Lady, and which, as it happened, was set upon the middle of the Plant. He represented the Basket by the _Tambour_ or _Vase_ of the Capital, to which he made an _Abacus_ to imitate the Tile with which the Basket was covered, and that he represented the Stalks of the Herb by the _Volutes_ or _Scrowls_, which were ever after placed upon the _Corinthian_ Capital. See Table the IXth.

This great Artist likewise invented other Ornaments, as those we call _Eggs_, because of the _Ovals_ in the _Relief_ which are in the Mouldings of the _Corniches_ and are like _Eggs_. The Ancients called this Ornament _Echinus_, which signifies the sharp prickly shell of Chestnuts, because they found these Ovals represented a Chestnut half open, as it is when it's ripe.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 3. Chap. 2._]

He likewise makes mention of another Famous Author, who found out the proportion of all the Parts of a Fabrick, which was _Hermogenes_; to whom he attributes the Invention of the _Eustyle_, _Pseudodiptere_, and of all that is beautiful and excellent in Architecture.

ART. II.

_What Architecture is._

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 1._]

Architecture is a Science which ought to be accompanied with the Knowledge of a great many other Arts and Sciences, by which means it forms a correct Judgment of all the Works of other Arts that appertain to it. This Science is acquired by _Theory_ and _Practice_. The _Theory_ of _Architecture_ is that Knowledge of this Art which is acquired by study, travelling and discourse. The Practick is that knowledge that is acquired by the Actual Building of great Fabricks. These Two Parts are so necessary, that never any came to any great Perfection without them both. The one being lame and imperfect without the other, so they must walk hand in hand.

Besides, the Knowledge of things that particularly belong to Architecture, there are infinite other things that are necessary to be known by an Architect.

For, First, it's necessary that he be able to couch in writing his intended Building, and to design the Plan, and make an excellent Model of it.

Geometry likewise is very necessary for him in many occasions.

He must also know Arithmetick to make a true Calculation.

He must be knowing in History, and be able to give a reason for the greatest part of the Ornaments of Architecture which are founded upon History. For Example, if instead of Pillars he support the Floors of the House with the figures of Women, which are called _Cariatides_, he ought to know that the _Greeks_ invented these Figures to let Posterity know the Victories they obtained over the _Cariens_, whose Wives they made Captives, and put their Images in their Buildings.

It's necessary likewise, that he be instructed in the Precepts of Moral Philosophy; for he ought to have a great Soul, and be bold without Arrogance, just, faithful, and totally exempt from Avarice.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 11._]

The Architect also ought to have a great Docility which may hinder him from neglecting the advice that is given him, not only by the meanest Artist, but also by those that understand nothing of Architecture; for not only Architects, but all the World must judge of his Works.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 2._]

Natural Philosophy is likewise necessary for him for to discover what are the Causes of many things which he must put a remedy to.

He ought also to know something of _Physick_, to know the qualities of the Air, which makes Places Healthful and Habitable, or the quite contrary.

He should not be ignorant of the Laws and the Customs of Places for the Building of Partition Walls, for prospect and for the conveying of Waters and Sewers.

He ought to know _Astronomy_, that he may be able to make all sorts of Dials.

It was necessary among the Ancients, that an Architect should have skill in _Musick_ to make and order _Catapults_ and other Machines of War, which were strung with strings made of Guts, whose sound they were to observe, that they might judge of the strength and stiffness of the Beams which were bended with those Strings. _Musick_ was also necessary in those days for the placing musically Vessels of Brass in the Theatres, as we have said before.

ART. III.

_What are the Parts of Architecture._

There are Three Things which ought to meet in every Fabrick, _viz._ _Solidity_, _Convenience_ and _Beauty_, which Architecture gives them; by the due ordering and disposition of all the Parts that compose the Edifice, and which she rules by a just Proportion, having regard to a true _Decorum_, and well regulated _Oeconomy_; from whence it follows, that Architecture has Eight Parts, _viz._ _Solidity_, _Convenience_, _Beauty_, _Order_, _Disposition_, _Decorum_, _Oeconomy_.

_Solidity_ depends upon the goodness of the Foundation, choice of Materials, and the right use of them; which ought to be with a due order, disposition and convenient Proportion of all Parts together, and of one in respect of another.

_Convenience_ likewise consists in the ordering and disposition, which is so good that nothing hinders the use of any part of the Edifice.

_Beauty_ consists in the excellent and agreeable form, and the just proportion of all its parts.

_Order_ is that which makes, that all the parts of an Edifice have a convenient bigness, whether we consider them apart or with Relation to the whole.

_Disposition_ is the orderly Ranging and agreeable Union of all the parts that compose the Work; so that as Order respects the Greatness, Disposition respects Form and Situation, which are Two Things compriz'd under the word _Quality_, which _Vitruvius_ attributes to Disposition, and opposes to Quantity, which appertains to Order. There are three ways by which the Architect may take a view beforehand of the Fabrick he is to build, _viz._ First, _Ichnography_, which is the _Geometrical_ Plan; _Orthography_, which is the _Geometrical Elevation_, and _Scenography_, which is _Perspective Elevation_.

_Proportion_, which is also call'd _Eurythmy_, is that which makes the Union of all parts of the Work, and which renders the Prospect agreeable, when the Height answers the Breadth, and the Breadth the Length; every one having its just measure. It is defin'd, the Relation that all the Work has with its Parts, and which every one of them has separately to the Idea of the whole, according to the measure of any Part. For as in Humane Bodies there is a Relation between the Foot, Hand, Finger and other Parts; so amongst Works that are Perfect, from any particular Part, we may make a certain Judgment of the Greatness of the whole Work: For Example, the Diameter of a Pillar, or the Length of a _Triglyph_, creates in us a right Judgment of the Greatness of the whole Temple.

And here we must remark, that to express the Relation that many things have one to another, as to their Greatness or different Number of Parts, _Vitruvius_ indifferently makes use of three words, which are _Proportion_, _Eurythmy_ and _Symmetry_. But we have thought it proper only to make use of the word Proportion, because _Eurythmy_ is a Greek word, which signifies nothing else but Proportion; and Symmetry, although a word commonly used, does not signifie in the Vulgar Languages what _Vitruvius_ understands by Proportion; for he understands by Proportion, a Relation according to Reason; and Symmetry, in the vulgar Languages, signifies only, a Relation of Parity and Equality. For the word _Simmetria_ signifies in Latin and Greek _Relation_ only. As for Example, as the Relation that Windows of Eight Foot high, have with other Windows of Six Foot, when the one are Four Foot broad, and the other Three: and Symmetry, in the Vulgar Languages, signifies the Relation, for Example, That Windows have one to another, when they are all of an equal height and equal breadth; and that their Number and Distances are equal to the Right and the Left; so that if the distances be unequal of one side, the like inequality is to be found in the other.

Decorum or Decency, is that which makes the Aspect of the Fabrick so correct, that there is nothing that is not approv'd of, and founded upon some Authority. It teaches us to have regard to three things, which are, _Design_, _Custom_ and _Nature_.

The Regard to Design makes us chuse for Example, other Dispositions and Propertions for a Palace than for a Church.

The Respect we have to Custom, is the Reason, for Example, That the Porches and Entries of Houses are adorned, when the Inner Parts are Rich and Magnificent.

The Regard we have to the Nature of Places, makes us chuse different Prospects for different Parts of the Fabrick, to make them the wholsomer and the more convenient: For Example, the Bed-Chambers and the Libraries are exposed to the Morning Sun; the Winter Apartments, to the West; the Closets or Pictures and other Curiosities, which should always have equal Light, to the North.

Oeconomy teaches the Architect to have regard to the Expences that are to be made, and to the Quality of the Materials, near the Places where he Builds, and to take his Measures rightly for the Order and Disposition; _viz._ to give the Fabrick a convenient Form and Magnitude.

These Eight Parts, as we have said, have a Relation to the Three first, _viz._ _Solidity_, _Convenience_, _Beauty_, which suppose, _Order, Disposition_, _Proportion_, _Decorum_ and _Oeconomy_. This is the reason that we divide this first Part only into Three Chapters; the first is of the Solidity; the second of the Convenience; the third of the Beauty of the Fabrick.

CHAP. II.

_Of the Solidity of Buildings._

ARTICLE I.

_Of the Choice of Materials._

The Materials of which _Vitruvius_ speaks are, Stone, Brick, Wood, Lime, and Sand.

All the Stones are not of one sort, for some are soft, some harder, and some extreamly hard.

Those that are not hard are easily cut, and are good for the Inner Parts of the Buildings, where they are cover'd from Rain and Frost which brings them to Powder, and if they be made use of in Buildings near the Sea, the Salt Particles of the Air and Heat destroys them.

Those that are indifferently hard, are fit to bear Weight; but there are some sorts of them, that easily crack with the heat of the Fire.

There is likewise another sort of Stone, which is a kind of Free-Stone; some are Red, some Black, and some White, which are as easily cut with a Saw as Wood.

The best Bricks are those which are only dry'd and not baked in the Fire; but there are many Years required to dry them well: and for this Reason, at _Utica_, a City of _Africa_, they made a Law, That none should make use of Bricks which had not been made five Years: For these sort of Bricks, so dry'd, had their Pores so close in their Superficies, that they would swim upon Water like a Pumice-Stone; and they had a particular Lightness, which made them very fit for all sorts of Buildings.

The Earth of which these Bricks were usually made was very Fat, and a sort of White Chalky Clay without Gravel or Sand, which made them Lighter and more Durable; they mixed Straw with them to make them better bound and firmer.

The Woods which were made use of in all Buildings, are Oak, Poplar, Beech, Elm, Cypress, Firr; but some of them are not so proper for Building as others.

The Firr, because it has great plenty of Air, and Fire, and but little Earth and Water, is light, and does not easily bend; but is very subject to Worms and Fire.

The Oak which is more Earthy lasts for ever under Ground; but above Ground is apt to cleave.

The Beech which has little of Earthiness, Humidity and Fire, but great plenty of Air, is not very solid and easily breaks.

The Poplar and the Linden Trees are only good for light Work, they are easily cut and so finest for Carving.

The Alder is good to make Piles of in Marshy Places.

The Elm and the Ash have this property, that they do not easily cleave, and that they are pliable.

The Yoke-Elm is likewise pliable, and yet very strong; this is the Reason that they made Yokes for their Oxen of them in Old Time.

The Pine and the Cypress have this defect, that they easily bend under any Weight, because of their great Humidity; but they have this Advantage, that their Humidity does not engender Worms, because of their Bitterness which kills them.

The Juniper and the Cedar have the same Vertue of hindering Corruption: the Juniper by its Gum, which is call'd _Sandarax_, and the Cedar by its Oil call'd _Cedrium_.

The Larch-Tree has likewise the same Vertue, but its particular property is, that it will not burn. There is a remarkable Story of this Wood, which is, That when _Julius Caesar_ besieg'd a Castle at the Foot of the _Alpes_, there was a Tower built of this Wood, which prov'd the Principal Defence of the Place. He thought to take it easily by making a great Fire at the Foot of the Tower, but for all this great Fire, the Tower did not suffer the least Damage.

The Olive-Tree is likewise very serviceable, if it be put in the Foundations, and Walls of Cities; for after it has been singed a little, and interlaced among the Stones, it lasts for ever, and is out of all danger of Corruption.

Lime is made of White Stones or Flinty Pebbles, the harder the Stones are which 'tis made of, the better it is for Building. That which is made of soft Spongy Stones, is proper for Plastring.

There are five sorts of Sand; _viz._ Sand that is dug out of the Ground, River Sand, Gravel, Sea-Sand, and Pozzolana, which is a Sand peculiar to some Parts of _Italy_.

The best Sand is that which being rubb'd between the Hands makes a little Noise, which that Sand does not, which is Earthy, because it is not rough. Another Mark of good Sand is, that when 'tis put upon any Thing that is White and shak'd off, it leaves no Mark behind.

The Sand which is dug out of the Earth has all these Qualities, and is esteem'd the best. _Vitruvius_ makes four sorts of it; _viz._ White, Black, Red, and Bright like a Carbuncle.

If it happen that there be no good Place to dig Sand in, we may make use of Sea-Sand, or River-Sand, which is likewise better for Plastering than the Sand which is digged, which is excellent for Building, because it drys quickly. Gravel likewise is very good, provided the grosser Parts be taken away. Sea-Sand is worst of all, because 'tis long adrying; and for this Reason, where 'tis made use of in Building, they are forc'd to desist sometimes till it dry.

The Sand which is found near _Naples_ call'd _Pozzolana_ is so proper to make good Mortar, if it be mixed with Lime, that not only in the ordinary Fabricks, but even in the very bottom of the Sea it grows into a wonderful hard Body. In Old Times they made use of it for Moles or Ports of the Sea, for after having made with Piles and Boards a Partition, they fill'd up the whole Compass of the Partition with this Mortar, which dry'd of it self in the middle of the Water and became a solid Body.

ART. II.

_Of the Use of the Materials._

The first thing we should have a Care of before we begin to build, is, to have the Stones dug out of the Quarry before they be used, and to expose them in some open Place, to the end that those which are endamaged by the Air, during this Time, may be put in the Foundation, and those that prove Durable and Good may be kept for the Walls above Ground.

We must likewise have a great care of the Wood which we make use of; That it be cut in a seasonable Time, which is in Autumn and Winter; for then it is not full of that superfluous Humidity which weakened it in dilating its Fibers, but it is firm and well closed by the Cold. This is so true, that the Wood of Trees which grow and become very great in a little Time, by reason of their great Humidity, is tender and apt to break, and very unfit for Building. Which Experience shows us particularly in those Firrs call'd _Supernates_, which grow in _Italy_, on that side the _Apennine_, towards the _Adriatick_-Sea, for they are great and beautiful, but their Wood is not good for Building; whereas those on the other side of the Mountain, which are exposed to Heat and Dryness, call'd _Infernates_, are very good for Building.

This superfluous Humidity endamages Trees so much, that we are sometimes constrain'd to make a hole at the foot of the Tree and let it run out, which is the occasion of the Practice which is observ'd in cutting of Wood for Building, to Tap that Tree at the Foot, cutting not only the Bark, but even some part of the Wood it self, and so leave it for some time before it be Fell'd.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 5._]

It is likewise easie to judge of what great Importance the draining of this superfluous Humidity is for strengthning the Timber, and hindring Corruption, from this, That those Piles which are interlaced among the Stones in the Walls and Fortifications of Towns endure for ever without Corrupting, when they have been burnt a little on the outside.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 11._]

[Sidenote: _Lib. 2. Chap. 8._]

Bricks ought not to be made use of but in very thick Walls; for this reason they did not build with Brick in _Rome_, for to save Ground; they were not permitted to make the Walls of their Houses above a Foot and a Half thick, which Makes about 16 Inches and a half of our Foot.

They likewise never made the top of their Walls with Brick; for the Brick of the Ancients not being baked, this part of the Wall would have been easily endamaged; for this reason they built it with Tiles, a foot and a half high, comprizing the Cornish or Entablature which was made likewise of Tiles to cast off the Water and defend the rest of the Wall. They likewise chose for these Cornishes the best Tiles, _viz._ those that had been long on the top of the Houses, and given sufficient Proof that they were well baked and made of good Matter.

The Walling with Brick was so much esteem'd among the Ancients, that all their Fabricks, as well publick as private, and their most beautiful Palaces were built with them. But that which principally made this sort of Building be esteem'd, was its great Duration; for when expert Architects were called to make an Estimate of Buildings, they always deducted an 80th. part of what they judged the Building cost for every Year that the Wall had been standing, for they supposed that the Walls could not ordinarily endure more than Fourscore Years; but when they valued Buildings of Brick, they always valued them at what they cost at first, supposing them to be of an Eternal Duration.

To make the right use of Lime and Sand, and to make good Mortar of them, it is necessary that the Lime be first well Quench'd, and that it be kept a long time, to the end that if there be any Piece of it that is not well burnt in the Kiln, it may, being extinguished at leasure, soften as well as the rest. This is of Great Importance particularly in Plastering and Works of _Stuck_, which is a Composition of Marble finely beaten with Lime. For if any little Pieces remain that are not well baked, when they come to be made use of, they crack and break the Work.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 7. Chap. 3._]

The way to know whether the Lime be well Quench'd, is thus: You may thrust a Chip of Wood into it or a Knife, and if the Chip of Wood meet with any Stones, or that the Knife comes out clean without any sticking to it, it signifies the Lime was not will burnt; for when 'tis well Quench'd, it is Fat and will stick to the Knife; but the quite contrary happens to Mortar, for it is neither well prepar'd, nor well mix'd, if it stick to the Trowel.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 2. Chap. 4._]

For to make the right use of Sand, you must first consider what it is to be employ'd in; for if it be Mortar for Plastring, you must not make use of Sand that was lately dug out, for it drys the Mortar too fast, which cracks the Plastring; but quite contrary if it be to be employ'd in Masonry, it must not have been a long time expos'd to the Air, for the Sun and the Moon do so alter it, that the Rain dissolves it, and turns it almost all into Earth.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 2. Chap. 5._]

The Proportion that Sand and Lime ought to have to make good Mortar, should be three parts of Sand that is dug, or two parts of River-Sand or Sea-Sand against one of Lime, and 'twill be yet much better, if you add to the Sand of the Sea and the River a third part of Tiles well beaten.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 7. Chap. 3._]

One of the Principal Things that is to be observ'd in making Mortar, is, to mix it well. The Grecian Workmen were so careful of this, that they Tewed it a great while, putting Ten Men to every Vessel wherein they wrought it, which gave so great a hardness to the Mortar, that when any big pieces of Plaster fell off the Old Walls, they made Tables of it.

ART. III.

_Of the Foundation._

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 11._]

The Foundation is the most important part of the Fabrick; for the Faults committed in it cannot be so easily remedied as in other parts.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 5._]

To lay the Foundation well, you must dig till you come to solid Ground, and even into the solid as much as is necessary to support the Weight of the Walls; it must be larger below than above the Superficies of the Earth.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 3. Chap. 3._]

When you have found firm Earth to make it more solid, you must beat it with a Rammer; but if you cannot arrive at solid Earth, but find it still soft and spungy, you must dig as far as you can, and drive in Piles of Alder, Olive, or Oak, a little singed, near together, and fill up the void Places between the Piles with Coal.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 5._]

In short, you must make all Masonry with the most solid Stone that can be found for this use.

To make the Binding of the Stones the stronger in the Foundation of great Fabricks, you must put Piles of Olive a little singed and placed very thick from one Parement or Course to another, which serves, as it were, for Keys and Braces; for this Wood so prepar'd, is not subject to Worms, and will endure for ever, either in the Earth or in the Water, without the least Damage.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 11._]

When you would make Cellars, the Foundations must be much larger; for the Wall that is to support the Earth requires a greater thickness to resist the strong Efforts that the Earth makes against it in Winter, at which time it swells and becomes more heavy by reason of the Water it has drunk up.

ART. IV.

_Of the Walls._

[Sidenote: _Lib. 4. Chap. 2._]

The right ordering of Stones joined with Mortar, which is call'd Masonry, is sevenfold; there are three of them which are of hewed Stone; _viz._ that which is in Form of a _Net_, that which is in _Binding_, that which is call'd the _Greek Masonry_. There are likewise three sorts of Masonry of unhewed Stones; _viz._ that which is of an _equal Course_; and that which is of an unequal, and that which is fill'd up in the middle; the seventh is compounded of all the rest.

The _Net-Masonry_ is that which is made of Stones perfectly squar'd in their Courses, and are laid so, that the Joints go obliquely, and the Diagonals are the one Perpendicular, and the other Level. This is the most pleasing Masonry to the Sight, but it is apt to crack. See the Figure A. Table I.

The Masonry call'd the _Bound-Masonry_, is that, as _Vitruvius_ explains it, in which the Stones are plac'd one upon another like Tiles; that is to say, where the Joints of the Beds are Level, and the Mounters are Perpendicular; so that the Joint that mounts and separates two Stones falls directly upon the middle of the Stone which is below.

Some Authors call this sort of Masonry _Incertain_, but they are mistaken; for they read _Incerta_ instead of_Inserta_; it is not so Beautiful as the Net-work, but it is more solid and durable. See the Figure BB. Table I.

The Masonry which _Vitruvius_ says is particular to the _Greeks_, is that, where after we have laid two Stones, each of which make a Parement or _Course_, another is laid at the end, which makes two Parements or _Courses_, and all the Building through observe this Order. This may be call'd _Double-Binding_; for the Binding is not only of Stones of the same _Course_ one with another, but likewise of one _Course_ with another _Course_. See Figure CC. Table I.

The manner of Walling by unequal Courses call'd _Isodomum_ by the Ancients, differs in nothing from the Masonry call'd _Bound-Masonry_, but only in this, that the Stones are not hewed. See Figure D. Table I.

The other manner by unequal Courses call'd _Pseudisodomum_ is also made of unhewed Stone, and laid in _Bound-Work_, but they are not of the same thickness, and there is no equality observ'd, but only in the several Courses, the Courses themselves being unequal one to another. See Figure A. Table I.

The Masonry which is fill'd up in the middle, call'd by the Ancients _Emplecton_, is likewise made of unhewed Stone and by Courses, but the Stones are only set in order as to the _Parements_ or _Courses_, but the middle is fill'd up with Stones thrown in carelesly among the Mortar. See Fig. FF, GG, H. Table I.

Among all these sorts of Masonry, that will always be best which is made of Stones of an indifferent size, rather lesser than greater; to the end that the Mortar penetrating them in more parts may bind them faster, and the strength of the Mortar does not so soon decay. For we see that the Mortar which is laid in the Joints or Seams of the greater Stones with time decays and turns to Dust, which never happens to the most Ancient Fabricks which have been built of little Stones. From thence we may conclude, that it is ill Husbandry to be sparing of Mortar.

For this reason _Vitruvius_ proposes another sort of Masonry, which may be call'd the _Compound Masonry_, for it is all the former together, of Stones hewed and unhewed, and fastned together with Cramp-Irons. The Structure is as follows: The _Courses_ being made of hew'd Stone, the middle place which was left void is fill'd up with Mortar and Pebbles thrown in together; after this they bind the Stones of one _Parement_ or _Course_ to those of another with Cramp-Irons fasten'd with melted Lead. This is done to the end, that the abundance of Mortar which is in the middle may furnish and communicate a sufficient Humidity to the Joints of the great Stones which make the _Parements_. See the Figure K. Table I.

There are many Precautions to be given to make the Masonry more firm and durable, and these Precautions are common to all the different sorts of Masonry.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 5._]

When you would have the Walls very thick, for great and heavy Buildings, you must strengthen the inner part of the Wall with long Piles of singed Olive, which serves for Keys and Braces, for this Wood being so prepar'd never corrupts.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 11._]

[Sidenote: _Vide Index._]

It is likewise of great Importance for the strength of Walls, that all be directly Perpendicular, and that the _Chains_, the _Pillars_ and _Pieds-droits_ or _Piers_ be so situated, that _solid_ always answer'd to the _solid_; for if there be any part of the Wall or any Pillar that carrys false, it is impossible the Work should continue long.

There are also two ways of strengthning the Walls, which are either to ease them of their own weight, or of that of the Earth which they are to support.

The first way of easing is in those Places where there are void spaces, as above Doors or Windows. These easements may be made two different ways; the first is to put over the Lintel which supports the Wall, which is over the void space of the Gates and Windows, two Beams, which lying or resting below directly upon _Pieds-droits_ or _Piers_ meet together above.

The other way is, to make directly over the void spaces Vaulted Arches with Stones cut corner-ways and tending to one Center. For the Walls be so strengthned by the means of these easements, that part of the Wall which is below will not sink at all being easied of the load of the part that is above, and if some defect should happen by tract of time, it may be mended without propping that which is above.

The second way of easing, is, for Walls that are made to support the Earth; for, besides the extraordinary thickness which they ought to have, they should have likewise Buttresses on that side next the Earth, so far distant one from another as is the breadth of the Wall; they ought likewise to have an _Emparement_ or large Foundation which must be equal to the height of the Wall, so that they go diminishing by degrees from the bottom to the top, where they come to equal the height of the Wall.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 5._]

The effect of these _Buttresses_ is not only to support the Earth by their Resistance, but likewise to lessen its Efforts when it swells, in dividing it into many parts.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 11._]

And if it be judg'd that these _Buttresses_ be not sufficient, the Wall also which supports the Earth must be strengthned with other _Buttresses_ within.

ART. V.

_Of Flooring and Ceiling._

There are four sorts of Flooring, some are upon the _Superficies_ of the Ground, others between two Stories, others make the Roof of the House in Plat-form, and the last is _Plat-Fond_.

To make those Floors that are upon the Ground, you must first make the Earth smooth and plain, if it be firm and solid, if not, it must be beaten with a Rammer with which they ram down their Piles; and after having cover'd the Earth with the first _Lay_ or _Bed_, call'd _Statumen_ by the Ancients, which was of Flinty Stones about the bigness of ones Fist, among which was mixed Mortar made of Lime and Sand. Then they laid the second _Bed_, which they call'd _Rudus_, which was made of lesser Stones, of which there were three Parts for one of Stone if they were new, for if they were taken out of old Buildings, five parts of Stones or Pibbles would be required for two of Lime.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 7. Cap. 4._]

The _Greeks_ had a way of making their Floors in those low places where cold and humidity ordinarily reign, which freed them from these Inconveniences. They digged the Earth two Foot deep, and after having beaten it well, they laid a Bed of Mortar or Cement a little sloping from either side to the Channel, which convey'd the Water under Ground; they laid a Bed of Coal upon the first Mortar, and having beaten them well, they cover'd them with another Cement or Mortar made of Lime, Sand and Ashes, which they made smooth when it was dry with a Polishing-Stone. These Floors presently drank up the Water that fell upon them, that one might walk barefoot without being incommoded by the Cold.

For the Floors which are between two Stories, there must be a particular care taken, that if there be any Partition below it, that it may not touch the Flooring for fear lest if the Flooring came to sink a little, it might be broke upon the Partition which remains firm.

[Sidenote: _Vide Index._]

To make these Floorings, the Boards must be nailed at each end upon every Joist, to the end they may not warp; these Boards or Planks being cover'd with Straw, to hinder the Lime from wasting the Timber, the first Bed must be laid, made of a mixture of Mortar and little Stones a hand breadth, which must be beaten a long time with Iron-Levers, and so it must make a solid Crust which must be nine Inches thick; upon it shall be laid the _Noyau_ or _Ame_, which must be at least six inches thick: It must be made of Cement, with which must be mix'd one part Lime for two parts of Cement. Upon the _Ame_ or _Noyau_ is placed the _Parement_ made with the Rule, afterwards it must be scrap'd and all the Eminences and Inequality taken away: After that must be laid a Composition of Lime, Sand and beaten Marble, to fill equally all the Seams or Joints.

If a Flooring be to be made in the open Air, as upon _Terrasses_, that may endure Rain or Frost without any Damage; you must nail upon the Joists two Ranks of Boards across, one above the other; and having laid the first Bed, as is said before, it must be Paved with great Square Bricks two Foot Square, which must be hollow'd in the Ends in the Form of a half-Channel, the breadth of an Inch, which must be fill'd with Lime mixed with Oil. These Square Bricks must be higher in the middle, sloping two Inches for every six Foot; that is to say, a Forty-eighth Part. Upon these Square Bricks must be laid the _Ame_; upon which, after it has been well beaten, as well as the rest, must be put great Square Stones; and to hinder the Moisture from hurting the Boards, it is good to pour as much of the Lees of Oil as they will soak up.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 5. Chap. 10._]

The under part of the Flooring, and the _Plat-Fonds_, must be made also with great Care. To make the _Plat-Fonds_ or _Flat-roofs_, in the Form of a Vault, you must nail to the Joists of the Boards, or to the Rafters of the Roof, from two Foot to two Foot pieces of crooked Timber, and Choice must be made of Timber that is not apt to rot; such as, _viz._ _Cypress_, _Box_, _Juniper_, and _Olive_; no _Oke_ must be made use of, because it will warp and crack the Work. The Joists being fastened to the _Summers_, you must fix to them _Spanish-Broom_ with _Greek-Reeds_ well beaten. These Reeds are in stead of Laths, which at present are made use of to make the Eaves of Houses; over these Reeds must be laid a Plaster of Mortar, made of Sand, to hinder the Drops of Water which may fall from above from endamaging these _Plat-Fonds_. After which, the under part must be Plaster'd pretty thick, making all Places equal with Mortar made of Lime and Sand, that it may be afterwards Polished with Mortar made with Lime and Marble.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 5. Chap. 10._]

The Ancients sometimes made double Vaults, when they were afraid that the Humidity which is engender'd, by the Vapours which mount up might rot the Wood which is upon the Vaults. This Method they principally made use of in their Baths.

The _Corniches_ which are made use of under the _Plat-Fonds_, ought to be little, lest their great Jetting out, or Projecture should make them heavy, and apt to fall. For this Reason they ought to be made of pure Stuck of Marble, without any Plaster, that all the Work drying at the same time, may be less apt to break.

ART. VI.

_Of Plastering_.

To make Plaster that it may continue a long time, and not crack; you must take Care to lay it on Walls that are very Dry; for if the Walls be Moist, the Plastering being expos'd to the Air, and drying faster than the Walls, will crack.

To do this Methodically, it must be laid, Bed after Bed, or Lay after Lay, having a great Care not to lay one Bed till the other be almost dry. The Ancients put six Lays, three of Mortar made of Lime and Sand, and three of Stuck. The first Lays or Beds were always thicker than the last, and they were very careful to make use of no Mortar made either of Sand or Stuck in their Plastring, that had not been a long time beaten and mix'd together; especially the Stuck, which must be beaten and mix'd till it will not stick to the Trowel.

They took likewise a great deal of Pains to run several times over and beat the Plaster, which gave it a Hardness, a Whiteness, and Polish'd it so well, that it shin'd like a Mirror.

These Plasterings so made, serve to Paint in _Fresco_ upon; for the Colours being laid upon the Mortar before it was dry, pierced it, and Embodied with it; so that the Painting could not be defaced though it were wash'd; which would easily be wash'd off if the Mortar were dry.

They likewise laid these Plasterings upon Partitions of Wood filled with fat Earth, nailing Reeds to them, as we do Laths, and daubing it over with Clay, and then putting on another row of Reeds across upon the former, and another Bed of fat Earth or Clay, upon which they laid Beds of Mortar and Stuck, as we have said before.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 7. Chap. 4._]

For the Plastering of low and moist places, they had a great many other Precautions, especially within the House; for as what belonged to the Out-part of the House, they contented themselves to Plaster from the Bottom of the Wall to the height of three Feet, with Cement.

But as to the Inward-parts of the House, when the Ground without was higher than the lowermost Flooring; they run up a little narrow Wall against the great one, leaving betwixt the two Walls only the distance of a Channel or Sewer, which they made lower than the Flooring, to receive the Water which might be gather'd against the Walls, and let it run out; and to the End they might hinder the gathering of much Water, by the Vapours which might be enclosed between these two Walls, they made towards the top of the little Wall Vents to let it out, and this little Wall was Plastered on the Out-side with Mortar and Stuck, as we have said before.

When the Place was too narrow to permit those Counter-Walls to be made within, they put hollow Tiles one upon another against the Wall, and placed and plaster'd them over with Mortar and Stuck. These Tiles which were Pitch'd over within, and were Demi-Channels, let the Water fall down into the Sewer, which sweat from the great Wall, and so let all the Vapours, which were engendred by Humidity, go out at the Vents.

CHAP. III.

_Of the Convenience of Fabricks_.

ARTICLE I.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 2. Praes._]

One of the Principal Things the Architect ought to consider, is the Convenience of the place where he would Build the Fabrick. This is the reason that _Dinocrates_ was blamed by _Alexander_, for having propos'd him an Excellent Design for Building a City in a Barren place, and incapable of Nourishing those who were to Inhabit it.

We must then choose a place that is fertile, and hath abundance of every thing; and which hath likewise Rivers and Ports capable of furnishing it with all the Product and Commodities of the adjacent Countries.

The Third thing to be considered is, whether the Air be wholesome; and for this End, we must choose a high situated place, that it may be less Subject to Fogs and Mists; it must be likewise far from all Morasses, because the Corruption that may be caused by the infectious Breath of Venomous Beasts which commonly are ingendred there, makes the place very unwholsom, unless these Morasses be near the Sea, and situated high, that the Water may fall easily from them into the Sea, and that the Sea may likewise sometimes overflow them, and by its Saltness kill all the Venomous Beasts.

It is likewise to be remark'd, That a City situated upon the Sea, must needs have an unwholsom Air, if it be towards the South or the West; for generally the Heat weakens Bodies, and the Cold strengthens them; and so we see by Experience, that those who go out of a Cold Country into an Hot, have great difficulty to keep themselves in Health; whereas on the contrary, the Inhabitants of Hot Countries who go into Colder, have generally good Health.

The Ancients were accustomed to judge of the Quality of the Air, Water and Fruits, which might render a place wholsome by the Constitution of the Bodies of those Beasts which were nourished there, and to this End they consulted their Entrails; for if the Liver was Corrupted, they conjectured that the same thing must happen to Men that should Inhabit in that place.

ART. II.

_Of the Form and Situation of the Building._

[Sidenote: _Lib. 1. Chap. 6._]

After having chosen a wholsome place, the Streets must be laid out according to the most Advantageous Aspect of the Heavens, and the best way will be to lay the Streets out so, that the Wind may not come directly into them, especially where the Winds are great and cold.

The Prospect of Private Mens Houses is made more or less Commodious, by the Openings which are differently made, to receive the Air and the Light according to the Quality of the Parts that are in the Fabrick.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 9._]

For the Cellars, Granaries, and generally all places that we wou'd Lock up, or keep any thing in, should be exposed to the North, and receive very few Rays of the Sun.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 7._]

The different Use of the Parts which Compose the Buildings, do likewise require different Situations; for the Dining-Rooms in Winter, and the Baths among the Ancients, were always turned to the West, for that Situation made them warmer, because the Sun then shone upon them, about the time they were wont to make use of those Apartments.

The Libraries ought to be turned to the rising Sun, because they are generally made use of in the Morning; besides, the Books are not so much damnified in Libraries so situated, as in those which are turned to the South and West, which are subject to Worms and a certain Humidity which engenders Moldiness, and consequently destroys the Books.

The Dining-Rooms for the Spring and Autumn, should be turned towards the East, to the end, that being covered from the great force the Sun hath when it is near Setting, they may be cooler about the time they are to be made use of.

The Summer Apartments must be turned to the North, that they may be fresher and cooler.

This Situation is likewise very proper for Closets, which are adorn'd with Pictures for the Light which is always equal, represents the Colours always alike.

There must likewise great respect be had to the difference of Climates, for the Excess of Heat and Cold, require different Situations and Structures; for the Houses in the Northern parts of the World, ought to be Vaulted, and have few Openings, and turn'd to the South; On the contrary in Hot Countries there must be great Openings and turn to the North; to the End that Art and Industry may remedy the Defects of the place.

ART. III.

_Of the Disposition of Fabricks_.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 6._]

The Disposition or Distribution of Fabricks contributes much to their Convenience, when each thing is so plac'd, that it is in a Proper place for the Use for which the Fabrick is Design'd; and for this reason the Town-House and the Market-Place ought to be in the Middle of the City, unless it happen that there be a Port or a River; for the Market ought not to be far distant from those places where the Merchandize is.

The Houses of Private Men, ought to be differently disposed, according to the divers Conditions of those that Dwell in them: For in the Houses of Great Men, the Apartments of the Lord, must not be at the Entry, where ought to be nothing but _Portico's_, _Courts_, _Peristyles_, _Halls_, and _Gardens_ to receive the great Number of those who have Business with them, and make their Court to them.

The Houses of Merchants ought to have at the Entry their _Shops_ and _Magazines_, and all other places where Strangers are to come about their Business.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 6. Chap. 9._]

The Country Houses ought to have a different Order and Disposition from those of the City.

For the Kitchen ought to be near the Ox-house, so that from their Cratches they may see the Chimney and the rising Sun; for this makes the Oxen more Beautiful, and makes their Hair lie better.

The Baths ought likewise to be near the Kitchen, that the Water may be more conveniently heated.

The Press ought not to be far from the Kitchen, for that will much facilitate the Service that is necessary for the Preparation of Olives. If the Press be made of Wooden Beams, it ought to have at least for 16 Foot Breadth, 40 Foot of Length, if there be but one; or 24, if there be 2.

Not far from the Press, must the Cellar be plac'd, whose Windows must be turned to the North, because the heat spoils the Wine.

On the contrary, the Place where the Oil is kept, ought to be turned to the South; to the End, the gentle heat of the Sun may keep the Oil from freezing.

The Houses for Sheep and Goats ought to be so large, that each of them may at least have 4 Foot for his place.

The Stables must likewise be Built near the House in a warm place, but not turned towards the Chimney; for Horses that often see the Fire, are generally ill Coated.

The Barns and Granaries, as likewise the Mills, ought to be at a pretty distance from the House, because of the Danger of Fire.

In all sorts of Fabricks, a particular Care must be taken that they be well lighted; but the Light is principally necessary in the _Stair-Cases_, _Passages_, and _Dining-Rooms_.

ART. IV.

_Of the Convenient Form of Buildings._

When we are assur'd of the Convenience of the place where the City is to be Built, by the Knowledge we have of the goodness of the Air, of its Fertility, Rivers and Ports, care must be taken to make Fortifications, which do not only consist in the Solidity of the Walls and Ramparts, but principally in their Form.

The Figure or Form of a place ought neither to be Square, nor Composed of Angles too far advanc'd, but it must have a great number of Corners, to the end the Enemy may be seen from all Parts; for the Angles that are so far advanc'd, are ill to be defended, and more favourable to the Besiegers than the Besieged. The Approach to the Walls must be made as difficult as possible.

The most Convenient Form of Publick Places, is to have in their Breadth 2 Thirds of their Length; The _Greeks_ made about their Publick places _Double Portico's_, with Pillars near together, which Supported the Galleries above.

But the _Romans_ finding this great number of Pillars to be inconvenient, placed them at a greater distance one from another, that they might have Shops well lighted.

[Sidenote: _Lib. 5. Chap. 3._]

The Stair-Cases of all Publick Buildings, ought to be large and streight, and to have many Entrances, to the End the People may come in and out conveniently; but we shall speak of this more largely in another place.