Chapter VI: The Codices (2)

Deducting from this number all the Calendar Rounds possible, 67 (see Table XVI), it will be reduced to 884, and applying rules 1, 2, and 3 (pp. 139, 140, and 141, respectively) to this remainder, the terminal date reached will be 4 Kan 17 Yaxkin. This date is not recorded. There follows below, however, a Secondary-series number consisting of 6 uinals and 1 kin (6.1). The red circle around the lower term of this (the 1 kin) indicates that the whole number, 6.1, is to be counted _backward_ from some date, probably, as in the preceding case, from the terminal date of the Initial Series above it. Assuming that this is the case, and counting 6.1 backward from 8.16.14.15.4 4 Kan 17 Yaxkin, the terminal date reached will be 13 Akbal 16 Pop, again very close to the date recorded immediately above, 13 Akbal 15 Pop. Indeed, the date as recorded, 13 Akbal 15 Pop, represents an impossible condition from the Maya point of view, since the day name Akbal could occupy only the first, sixth, eleventh, and sixteenth positions of a month. See Table VII. Consequently, through lack of space or carelessness the ancient scribe who painted this book failed to add one dot to the three bars of the month sign's coefficient, thus making it 16 instead of the 15 actually recorded. We are obliged to make some correction in this coefficient, since, as explained above, it is obviously incorrect as it stands. Since the addition of a single dot brings the whole date into harmony with the date determined by calculation, we are probably justified {271} in making the correction here suggested. We have recorded here therefore:

8.16.14.15.4 (4 Kan 17 Yaxkin)
6.1 Backward
8.16.14. 9.3 13 Akbal 16[253] Pop

In these calculations the terminal date of the Initial Series, 4 Kan 17 Yaxkin, is suppressed and the only date given is 13 Akbal 16 Pop, the terminal date of the Secondary Series.

The above will suffice to show the use of Initial Series in the codices, but before leaving this subject it seems best to discuss briefly the dates recorded by these Initial Series in relation to the Initial Series on the monuments. According to Professor Förstemann[254] there are 27 of these altogether, distributed as follows:

Page 24: 9. 9.16. 0. 0[255]| Page 58: 9.12.11.11. 0
Page 24: 9. 9. 9.16. 0 | Page 62: 8.16.15.16. 1
Page 31: 8.16.14.15. 4 | Page 62: 8.16.14.15. 4
Page 31: 8.16. 3.13. 0 | Page 63: 8.11. 8. 7. 0
Page 31: 10.13.13. 3. 2[256]| Page 63: 8.16. 3.13. 0
Page 43: 9.19. 8.15. 0 | Page 63: 10.13. 3.16. 4[257]
Page 45: 8.17.11. 3. 0 | Page 63: 10.13.13. 3. 2
Page 51: 8.16. 4. 8. 0[258]| Page 70: 9.13.12.10. 0
Page 51: 10.19. 6. 1. 8[259]| Page 70: 9.19.11.13. 0
Page 52: 9.16. 4.11.18[260]| Page 70: 10.17.13.12.12
Page 52: 9.19. 5. 7. 8[261]| Page 70: 10.11. 3.18.14
Page 52: 9.16. 4.10. 8 | Page 70: 8. 6.16.12. 0
Page 52: 9.16. 4.11. 3 | Page 70: 8.16.19.10. 0
Page 58: 9.18. 2. 2. 0 |

There is a wide range of time covered by these Initial Series; indeed, from the earliest 8.6.16.12.0 (on p. 70) to the latest, 10.19.6.1.8 (on p. 51) there elapsed more than a thousand years. Where the difference between the earliest and the latest dates is so great, it is a matter of vital importance to determine the contemporaneous date of the manuscript. If the closing date 10.19.6.1.8 represents the time at which the manuscript was made, then the preceding dates reach back {272} for more than a thousand years. On the other hand, if 8.6.16.12.0 records the present time of the manuscript, then all the following dates are prophetic. It is a difficult question to answer, and the best authorities have seemed disposed to take a middle course, assigning as the contemporaneous date of the codex a date about the middle of Cycle 9. Says Professor Förstemann (_Bulletin 28_, p. 402) on the subject:

In my opinion my demonstration also definitely proves that these large
numbers [the Initial Series] do not proceed from the future to the
past, but from the past, through the present, to the future. Unless I
am quite mistaken, the highest numbers among them seem actually to
reach into the future, and thus to have a prophetic meaning. Here the
question arises, At what point in this series of numbers does the
present lie? or, Has the writer in different portions of his work
adopted different points of time as the present? If I may venture to
express my conjecture, it seems to me that the first large number in
the whole manuscript, the 1,366,560 in the second column of page 24
[9.9.16.0.0 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, the first Initial Series figured in plate
31], has the greatest claim to be interpreted as the present point of
time.

In a later article (_Bulletin 28_, p. 437) Professor Förstemann says: "But I think it is more probable that the date farthest to the right (1 Ahau, 18 Zip ...) denotes the present, the other two [namely, 9.9.16.0.0 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu and 9.9.9.16.0 1 Ahau 18 Kayab] alluding to remarkable days in the future." He assigns to this date 1 Ahau 18 Zip the position of 9.7.16.12.0 in the Long Count.

The writer believes this theory to be untenable because it involves a correction in the original text. The date which Professor Förstemann calls 1 Ahau 18 Zip actually reads 1 Ahau 18 Uo, as he himself admits. The month sign he corrects to Zip in spite of the fact that it is very clearly Uo. Compare this form with figure 20, _b, c_. The date 1 Ahau 18 Uo occurs at 9.8.16.16.0, but the writer sees no reason for believing that this date or the reading suggested by Professor Förstemann indicates the contemporaneous time of this manuscript.

Mr. Bowditch assigns the manuscript to approximately the same period, selecting the second Initial Series in plate 31, that is, 9.9.9.16.0 1 Ahau 18 Kayab: "My opinion is that the date 9.9.9.16.0 1 Ahau 18 Kayab is the present time with reference to the time of writing the codex and is the date from which the whole calculation starts."[262] The reasons which have led Mr. Bowditch to this conclusion are very convincing and will make for the general acceptance of his hypothesis.

Although the writer has no better suggestion to offer at the present time, he is inclined to believe that both of these dates are far too early for this manuscript and that it is to be ascribed to a very much later period, perhaps to the centuries following immediately the colonization of Yucatan. There can be no doubt that very early dates appear in the Dresden Codex, but rather than accept one so early as 9.9.9.16.0 or 9.9.16.0.0 as the contemporaneous date of the manuscript the writer would prefer to believe, on historical grounds, that the manuscript now known as the Dresden Codex is a copy of an earlier manuscript and that the present copy dates from the later Maya period in Yucatan, though sometime before either Nahuatl or Castilian acculturation had begun.

{273}

TEXTS RECORDING SERPENT NUMBERS

The Dresden Codex contains another class of numbers which, so far as known, occur nowhere else. These have been called the Serpent numbers because their various orders of units are depicted between the coils of serpents. Two of these serpents appear in plate 32. The coils of each serpent inclose two different numbers, one in red and the other in black. Every one of the Serpent numbers has six terms, and they represent by far the highest numbers to be found in the codices. The black number in the first, or left-hand serpent in plate 32, reads as follows: 4.6.7.12.4.10, which, reduced to units of the first order, reads:

4 × 2,880,000 = 11,520,000
6 × 144,000 = 864,000
7 × 7,200 = 50,400
12 × 360 = 4,320
4 × 20 = 80
10 × 1 = 10
----------
12,438,810

The next question which arises is, What is the starting point from which this number is counted? Just below it the student will note the date 3 Ix 7 Tzec, which from its position would seem almost surely to be either the starting point or the terminal date, more probably the latter. Assuming that this date is the terminal date, the starting point may be calculated by counting 12,438,810 _backward_ from 3 Ix 7 Tzec. Performing this operation according to the rules laid down in such cases, the starting point reached will be 9 Kan 12 Xul, but this date is not found in the text.

The red number in the first serpent is 4.6.11.10.7.2, which reduces to--

4 × 2,880,000 = 11,520,000
6 × 144,000 = 864,000
11 × 7,200 = 79,200
10 × 360 = 3,600
7 × 20 = 140
2 × 1 = 2
----------
12,466,942

{274} Assuming that the date below this number, 3 Cimi 14 Kayab, was its terminal date, the starting point can be reached by counting backward. This will be found to be 9 Kan 12 Kayab, a date actually found on this page (see pl. 32), just above the animal figure emerging from the second serpent's mouth.

The black number in the second serpent reads 4.6.9.15.12.19, which reduces as follows:

4 × 2,880,000 = 11,520,000
6 × 144,000 = 864,000
9 × 7,200 = 64,800
15 × 360 = 5,400
12 × 20 = 240
19 × 1 = 19
----------
12,454,459

Assuming that the date below this number, 13 Akbal 1 Kankin, was the terminal date, its starting point can be shown by calculation to be just the same as the starting point for the previous number, that is, the date 9 Kan 12 Kayab, and as mentioned above, this date appears above the animal figure emerging from the mouth of this serpent.

The last Serpent number in plate 32, the red number in the second serpent, reads, 4.6.1.9.15.0 and reduces as follows:

4 × 2,880,000 = 11,520,000
6 × 144,000 = 864,000
1 × 7,200 = 7,200
9 × 360 = 3,240
15 × 20 = 300
0 × 1 = 0
----------
12,394,740

Assuming that the date below this number, 3 Kan 17 Uo,[263] was its terminal date, its starting point can be shown by calculation to be just the same as the starting point of the two preceding numbers, namely, the date 9 Kan 12 Kayab, which appears above this last serpent.

It will be seen from the foregoing that three of the four Serpent dates above described are counted from the date 9 Kan 12 Kayab, a date actually recorded in the text just above them. The all-important question of course is, What position did the date 9 Kan 12 Kayab occupy in the Long Count? The page (62) of the Dresden Codex we {275} are discussing sheds no light on this question. There are, however, two other pages in this Codex (61 and 69) on which Serpent numbers appear presenting this date, 9 Kan 12 Kayab, under conditions which may shed light on the position it held in the Long Count. On page 69 there are recorded 15 katuns, 9 tuns, 4 uinals, and 4 kins (see fig. 85); these are immediately followed by the date 9 Kan 12 Kayab. It is important to note in this connection that, unlike almost every other number in this codex, this number is expressed by the first method, the one in which the period glyphs are used. As the date 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu appears just above in the text, the first supposition is that 15.9.4.4 is a Secondary-series number which, if counted forward from 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, the starting point of Maya chronology, will reach 9 Kan 12 Kayab, the date recorded immediately after it. Proceeding on this assumption and performing the operations indicated, the terminal date reached will be 9 Kan 7 Cumhu, not 9 Kan 12 Kayab, as recorded. The most plausible explanation for this number and date the writer can offer is that the whole constitutes a Period-ending date. On the west side of Stela C at Quirigua, as explained on page 226, is a Period-ending date almost exactly like this (see pl. 21, _H_). On this monument 17.5.0.0 6 Ahau 13 Kayab is recorded, and it was proved by calculation that 9.17.5.0.0 would lead to this date if counted forward from the starting point of Maya chronology. In effect, then, this 17.5.0.0 6 Ahau 13 Kayab was a Period-ending date, declaring that Tun 5 of Katun 17 (of Cycle 9, unexpressed) ended on the date 6 Ahau 13 Kayab.

Interpreting in the same way the glyphs in figure 85, we have the record that Kin 4 of Uinal 4 of Tun 9 of Katun 15 (of Cycle 9, unexpressed) fell (or ended) on the date 9 Kan 12 Kayab. Changing this Period-ending date into its corresponding Initial Series and solving for its terminal date, the latter date will be found to be 13 Kan 12 Ceh, instead of 9 Kan 12 Kayab. At first this would appear to be even farther from the mark than our preceding attempt, but if the reader will admit a slight correction, the above number can be made to reach the date recorded. The date 13 Kan 12 Ceh is just 5 uinals earlier than 9 Kan 12 Kayab, and if we add one bar to the four dots of the uinal coefficient, this passage can be explained in the above manner, and yet agree in all particulars. This is true since 9.15.9.9.4 reaches the date 9 Kan 12 Kayab. On the above grounds the writer is inclined to believe that the last three Serpent numbers on plate 32, which were shown to have proceeded from a date 9 Kan 12 Kayab, were counted from the date 9.15.9.9.4 9 Kan 12 Kayab. {276}

TEXTS RECORDING ASCENDING SERIES

There remains one other class of numbers which should be described before closing this chapter on the codices. The writer refers to the series of related numbers which cover so many pages of the Dresden Codex. These commence at the bottom of the page and increase toward the top, every other number in the series being a multiple of the first, or beginning number. One example of this class will suffice to illustrate all the others.

In the lower right-hand corner of plate 31 a series of this kind commences with the day 9 Ahau.[264] Of this series the number 8.2.0 just above the 9 Ahau is the first term, and the day 9 Ahau the first terminal date. As usual in Maya texts, the starting point is not expressed; by calculation, however, it can be shown to be 1 Ahau[265] in this particular case.

Counting forward then 8.2.0 from 1 Ahau, the unexpressed starting point, the first terminal date, 9 Ahau, will be reached. See the lower right-hand corner in the following outline, in which the Maya numbers have all been reduced to units of the first order:

151,840[266] 113,880[266] 75,920[266] 37,960[266]
1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau
185,120 68,900 33,280 9,100
1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau 1 Ahau
35,040 32,120 29,200 26,280
6 Ahau 11 Ahau 3 Ahau 8 Ahau
23,360 20,440 17,520 14,600
13 Ahau 5 Ahau 10 Ahau 2 Ahau
11,680[267] 8,760 5,840 2,920
7 Ahau 12 Ahau 4 Ahau 9 Ahau
(Unexpressed starting point, 1 Ahau.)

In the above outline each number represents the total distance of the day just below it from the unexpressed starting point, 1 Ahau, _not_ the distance from the date immediately preceding it in the series. For example, the second number, 5,840 (16.4.0), is not to be counted forward from 9 Ahau in order to reach its terminal date, 4 Ahau, but from the unexpressed starting point of the whole series, the day 1 Ahau. Similarly the third number, 8,760 (1.4.6.0), is not to be counted forward from 4 Ahau in order to reach 12 Ahau, but from 1 Ahau instead, and so on throughout the series. {277}

Beginning with the number 2,920 and the starting point 1 Ahau, the first twelve terms, that is, the numbers in the three lowest rows, are the first 12 multiples of 2,920.

2,920 = 1 × 2,920 20,440 = 7 × 2,920
5,840 = 2 × 2,920 23,360 = 8 × 2,920
8,760 = 3 × 2,920 26,280 = 9 × 2,920
11,680 = 4 × 2,920 29,200 = 10 × 2,920
14,600 = 5 × 2,920 32,120 = 11 × 2,920
17,520 = 6 × 2,920 35,040 = 12 × 2,920

The days recorded under each of these numbers, as mentioned above, are the terminal dates of these distances from the starting point, 1 Ahau. Passing over the fourth row from the bottom, which, as will appear presently, is probably an interpolation of some kind, the thirteenth number--that is, the right-hand one in the top row--is 37,960. But 37,960 is 13 × 2,920, a continuation of our series the twelfth term of which appeared in the left-hand number of the third row. Under the thirteenth number is set down the day 1 Ahau; in other words, not until the thirteenth multiple of 2,920 is reached is the terminal day the same as the starting point.

With this thirteenth term 2,920 ceases to be the unit of increase, and the thirteenth term itself (37,960) is used as a difference to reach the remaining three terms on this top line, all of which are multiples of 37,960.

37,960 = 1 × 37,960 or 13 × 2,920
75,920 = 2 × 37,960 or 26 × 2,920
113,880 = 3 × 37,960 or 39 × 2,920
151,840 = 4 × 37,960 or 52 × 2,920

Counting forward each one of these from the starting point of this entire series, 1 Ahau, each will be found to reach as its terminal day 1 Ahau, as recorded under each. The fourth line from the bottom is more difficult to understand, and the explanation offered by Professor Förstemann, that the first and third terms and the second and fourth are to be combined by addition or subtraction, leaves much to be desired. Omitting this row, however, the remaining numbers, those which are multiples of 2,920, admit of an easy explanation.

In the first place, the opening term 2,920, which serves as the unit of increase for the entire series up to and including the 13th term, is the so-called Venus-Solar period, containing 8 Solar years of 365 days each and 5 Venus years of 584 days each. This important period is the subject of extended treatment elsewhere in the Dresden Codex (pp. 46-50), in which it is repeated 39 times in all, divided into three equal divisions of 13 periods each. The 13th term of our series 37,960 is, as we have seen, 13 × 2,920, the exact number of {278} days treated of in the upper divisions of pages 46-50 of the Dresden Codex. The 14th term (75,920) is the exact number of days treated of in the first two divisions, and finally, the 15th, or next to the last term (113,880), is the exact number of days treated of in all three divisions of these pages.

This 13th term (37,960) is the first in which the tonalamatl of 260 days comes into harmony with the Venus and Solar years, and as such must have been of very great importance to the Maya. At the same time it represents two Calendar Rounds, another important chronological count. With the next to the last term (113,880) the Mars year of 780 days is brought into harmony with all the other periods named. This number, as just mentioned, represents the sum of all the 39 Venus-Solar periods on pages 46-50 of the Dresden Codex. This next to the last number seems to possess more remarkable properties than the last number (151,840), in which the Mars year is not contained without a remainder, and the reason for its record does not appear.

The next to the last term contains:

438 Tonalamatls of 260 days each
312 Solar years of 365 days each
195 Venus years of 584 days each
146 Mars years of 780 days each
39 Venus-Solar periods of 2,920 days each
6 Calendar Rounds of 18,980 days each

It will be noted in plate 31 that the concealed starting point of this series is the day 1 Ahau, and that just to the left on the same plate are two dates, 1 Ahau 18 Kayab and 1 Ahau 18 Uo, both of which show this same day, and one of which, 1 Ahau 18 Kayab, is accompanied by its corresponding Initial Series 9.9.9.16.0. It seems not unlikely, therefore, that the day 1 Ahau with which this series commences was 1 Ahau 18 Kayab, which in turn was 9.9.9.16.0 1 Ahau 18 Kayab of the Long Count. This is rendered somewhat probable by the fact that the second division of 13 Venus-Solar periods on pages 46-50 of the Dresden Codex also has the same date, 1 Ahau 18 Kayab, as its terminal date. Hence, it is not improbable (more it would be unwise to say) that the series of numbers which we have been discussing was counted from the date 9.9.9.16.0. 1 Ahau 18 Kayab.

The foregoing examples cover, in a general way, the material presented in the codices; there is, however, much other matter which has not been explained here, as unfitted to the needs of the beginner. To the student who wishes to specialize in this field of the glyphic writing the writer recommends the treatises of Prof. Ernst Förstemann as the most valuable contribution to this subject.

* * * * *

{279}

INDEX

ABBREVIATION IN DATING, use, 222, 252
ADDITION, method, 149
ADULTERY, punishment, 9-10
AGUILAR, S. DE, on Maya records, 36
AHHOLPOP (official), duties, 13
AHKULEL (deputy-chief), powers, 13
AHPUCH (god), nature, 17
ALPHABET, nonexistence, 27
AMUSEMENTS, nature, 10
ARABIC SYSTEM OF NUMBERS, Maya parallel, 87, 96
ARCHITECTURE, development, 5
ARITHMETIC, system, 87-155
ASCENDING SERIES, texts recording 276-278
ASTRONOMICAL COMPUTATIONS--
accuracy, 32
in codices, 31-32, 276-278
AZTEC--
calendar, 58-59
ikomomatic hieroglyphics, 29
rulership succession, 16

BACKWARD SIGN--
glyph, 137
use, 137, 268
BAKHALAL (city), founding, 4
BAR, numerical value, 87-88
BAR AND DOT NUMERALS--
antiquity, 102-103
examples, plates showing, 157, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179
form and nature, 87-95
BATAB (chief), powers, 13
BIBLIOGRAPHY, xv-xvi
BOWDITCH, C. P.--
cited, 2, 45, 65, 117, 134, 203
on dating system, 82-83, 214-215, 272
on hieroglyphics, 30, 33, 71
on Supplementary Series, 152
works, vii-viii
BRINTON, _Dr._ D. G.--
error by, 82
on hieroglyphics, 3, 23, 27-28, 30, 33
on numerical system, 91

CALENDAR--
harmonization, 44, 215
starting point, 41-43, 60-62, 113-114
subdivisions, 37-86
_See also_ CALENDAR ROUND; CHRONOLOGY; DATING; LONG COUNT.
CALENDAR ROUND--
explanation, 51-59
glyph, 59
CALENDAR-ROUND DATING--
examples, 240-245
limitations, 76
CHAKANPUTAN (city), founding and destruction 4
CHICHEN ITZA (city)--
history, 3, 4, 5, 202-203
Temple of the Initial Series, lintel, interpretation, 199
CHILAN BALAM--
books of, 3
chronology based on, 2
CHRONOLOGY--
basis, 58
correlation, 2
duration, 222
starting point, 60-62, 113-114, 124-125, 147-148
_See also_ CALENDAR.
CITIES, SOUTHERN--
occupancy of, diagram showing, 15
rise and fall of, 2-5
CIVILIZATION, rise and fall, 1-7
CLOSING SIGN of Supplementary Series, glyph, 152-153, 170
CLOSING SIGNS. _See_ ENDING SIGNS.
CLOTHING, character, 7-8
COCOM FAMILY, tyranny, 5-6, 12
CODEX PERESIANUS, tonalamatls named in, 265
CODEX TRO-CORTESIANUS, texts, 262-265
CODICES--
astronomical character, 31-32, 276-278
character in general, 31, 252
colored glyphs used in, 91, 251
dates of, 203
day signs in, 39
errors, 270-271, 274
examples from, interpretation, 251-278
glyphs for twenty (20) used in, 92, 130
historical nature, 32-33, 35-36
Initial-series dating in, 266
examples, 266-273
interpretation, 31-33, 254-278
numeration glyphs used in, 103-104, 129-134
order of reading, 22, 133, 135, 137, 252-253
tonalamatls in, 251-266
zero glyph used in, 94
COEFFICIENTS, NUMERICAL. _See_ NUMERICAL COEFFICIENTS.
COGOLLUDO, C. L., on dating system, 34, 84
COLORED GLYPHS, use of, in codices, 91, 251
COMMERCE, customs, 9
COMPUTATION, possibility of errors in, 154-155
CONFEDERATION, formation and disruption, 4-5
{280}
COPAN (city)--
Altar Q, error on 246, 248
Altar S, interpretation 231-233
Altar Z, interpretation 242
history 15
Stela A, interpretation 169-170
Stela B, interpretation 167-169
Stela D, interpretation 188-191
Stela J, interpretation 191-192
Stela M, interpretation 175-176
Stela N, error on 248-249
interpretation 114-118, 248-249
Stela P, interpretation 185
Stela 2, interpretation 223
Stela 4, interpretation 224-225
Stela 6, interpretation 170-171
Stela 8, interpretation 229
Stela 9, antiquity 173
interpretation 171-173
Stela 15, interpretation 187-188
CRESSON, H. T., cited 27
CUSTOMS. _See_ MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.
CYCLE--
glyphs 68
length 62, 135
number of, in great cycle 107-114
numbering of, in inscriptions 108, 227-233
CYCLE 8, dates 194-198, 228-229
CYCLE 9--
dates 172, 183, 185, 187, 194, 222
prevalence in Maya dating 194
CYCLE 10, dates 199-203, 229-233
CYCLE, GREAT--
length 135, 162
number of cycles in 107-114
CYCLES, GREAT, GREAT, AND HIGHER--
discussion 114-129
glyphs 118
omitted in dating 126

DATES--
abbreviation 222, 252
errors in computing 154-155
errors in originals 245-250, 270-271, 274
interpretation, in Initial Series 157-222, 233-245
in Period Endings 222-245
in Secondary Series 207-222, 233-245
monuments erected to mark 33-35, 249-250
of same name, distinction between 147-151
repetition 147
shown by red glyphs in codices 251
DATES, INITIAL. _See_ INITIAL-SERIES DATING.
DATES, INITIAL AND SECONDARY, interpretation 207-222
DATES, INITIAL, SECONDARY, AND PERIOD-ENDING, interpretation 233-245
DATES, PERIOD-ENDING. _See_ PERIOD-ENDING DATES.
DATES, PROPHETIC--
examples 229-233
use 271-272
DATES, SECONDARY. _See_ SECONDARY-SERIES DATING.
DATES, TERMINAL--
absence 218
finding 138-154
importance 154-155
position 151-154
DATING--
methods 46-47, 63-86
change 4
_See also_ CALENDAR-ROUND DATING; INITIAL-SERIES; PERIOD-ENDING;
SECONDARY-SERIES.
starting point 60-62, 113-114, 124-125
determination 135-136
DAY--
first of year 52-53
glyphs 38, 39, 72, 76
coefficients 41-43, 47-48
position 127-128
omission 127-128, 208
identification 41-43, 46-48
names 37-41, 112
numbers 111-112
position in solar year 52-58
round of 42-44
DAYS, INTERCALARY, lack of 45
DAYS, UNLUCKY, dates 45-46
DEATH, fear of 11, 17
DEATH GOD--
glyph 17, 257
nature 17
DECIMAL SYSTEM, parallel 129
_See also_ VIGESIMAL SYSTEM.
DESTRUCTION OF THE WORLD, description 32
DIVINATION, codices used for 31
DIVORCE, practice 9
DOT, numerical value 87-88
DOT AND BAR NUMBERS. _See_ BAR AND DOT NUMBERS.
DRESDEN CODEX--
date 271-273
publication iii
texts 254-262, 266-278
plates showing 32, 254, 260, 266, 273
DRUNKENNESS, prevalence 10

EK AHAU (god), nature 17-18
ENDING SIGNS--
in Period-ending dates 102
in "zero" 101-102
ENUMERATION--
systems 87-134
comparison 133
_See also_ NUMERALS.
ERRORS IN TEXTS--
examples 245-250, 270-271, 274
plate showing 248

FEATHERED SERPENT (god), nature 16-17
FIBER-PAPER BOOKS. _See_ CODICES.
FISH, used in introducing glyph 65-66, 188
FIVE-TUN PERIOD. See HOTUN.
FÖRSTEMANN, _Prof._ ERNST--
cited 26, 137
investigations iii, 265, 276
methods of solving numerals 134
on hieroglyphics 30
on prophetic dates 272
FULL-FIGURE GLYPHS--
nature 67-68, 188-191
plate showing 188
_See also_ TIME PERIODS.
FUNERAL CUSTOMS, description 11-12
FUTURE LIFE, belief as to 19

{281}
GLYPH BLOCK, definition, 156
GLYPHS. _See_ HIEROGLYPHS.
GODS, nature, 16-19
GOODMAN, J. T.--
chronologic tables of, 134
cited, 2, 44, 116-117, 123
investigation, iii-iv
on introducing glyph, 66
on length of great cycle, 108
on Supplementary Series, 152
GOVERNMENT, nature, 12-16
GREAT CYCLE--
length, 135
number of cycles in, 107-114

HAAB (solar year)--
first day, 52-56
glyph, 47
nature, 44-51
position of days in, 48, 52-58
subdivisions, 45
HABITAT OF THE MAYA, 1-2
map, 1
HAIR, method of dressing, 7
HALACH UINIC (chief), powers, 12-13
HAND, used as ending sign, 101-102
HEAD-VARIANT NUMERALS--
antiquity, 73, 102-103
characteristics, 97-103
derivation, 74
discovery, iii
explanation, 24-25, 87, 96-104
forms, 96-104
value, 103
identification, 96-103
parallel to Arabic numerals, 87
plates showing, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179, 180
use of, in time-period glyphs, 67-74, 104
_See also_ FULL-FIGURE GLYPHS.
HEWETT, _Dr._ E. L., cited 164, 192
HIEROGLYPHS--
antiquity, iii, 2
proofs, 173, 175
character, iv, 26-30
classification, 26
decipherment, 23-25, 31, 249-250
errors in interpretation, 154-155
errors in original text, 245-250
methods, 134-155
inversion of significance, 211
mat pattern, 191-194
materials inscribed upon, 22
modifications, 23-25
order of reading, 23, 129, 133, 135, 136-138, 156, 170, 268
original errors, 245-250
progress, iv, 250
symmetry, 23-24, 88-91, 128
textbooks, vii
_See also_ NUMERALS.
HIEROGLYPHS, CLOSING, use, 101-102, 152-153, 170
HIEROGLYPHS, INTRODUCING, use in dating, 64-68
HISTORY--
codices containing, 32-33
dates, 179, 221-222, 228-229, 249-250
decipherment, iv-v, 26, 250
dates only, 249-250
outline, 2-7
recording, methods, 33-36
HODGE, F. W., letter of transmittal, iii-v
HOLMES, W. H., cited, 196
HOSPITALITY, customs, 10
HOTUN PERIOD, 166
HUNTING, division of spoils, 9

IDEOGRAPHIC WRITING, argument for 27-28
IKONOMATIC WRITING, nature 28-29
INITIAL-SERIES DATING--
bar and dot numbers in, examples, 157-167, 176-180
plates showing, 157, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179
disuse, 84-85, 199
examples, interpretation, 157-222, 233-240
plates showing, 157, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179, 180, 187, 188, 191,
207, 210, 213, 218, 220, 233, 235, 248
explanation, 63-74, 147-148
head-variant numbers, examples, 167-176, 180-188
plates showing, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179, 180
introducing glyph, identification by, 136
irregular forms of, examples, 191-194, 203-207
order of reading, 129, 136-138, 170, 268
position of month signs in, 152-154
reference to Long Count, 147-151
regular forms of, interpretation, 157-191
replacement by u kahlay katunob dating, 84-85
starting point, 108, 109, 113-114, 125-126, 136, 159, 162, 203-207
used in codices, 266
examples, 266-273
plate showing, 266
used on monuments, 85
INSCRIPTIONS ON MONUMENTS--
cycles in, numbering, 108-113
date of, contemporaneous, 179, 194, 203, 209-210, 213, 220-222
date of carving, usual, 194
day signs in, 38
errors, 245-250
historical dates, 179
interpretation, 33-35
examples, 156-250
method, 134-155
length of great cycle used in, 107-114
numeration glyphs. _See_ NUMERALS.
_See also_ MONUMENTS; STELÆ.
INTRODUCING GLYPH--
lack, 208
nature, 64-68, 125-127, 136, 157-158
INVERTED GLYPH, meaning, 211
ITZAMNA (god), nature, 16

JUSTICE, rules of, 9

KATUN (time period)--
glyph, 68-69
identification in u kahlay katunob, 79-82
length, 62, 135
monument erected to mark end, 250
naming, 80-82
series of, 79-86
use of, in Period-ending dates, 222-225
{282}
KIN. _See_ DAY.
KUKULCAN (god), nature, 16-17

LABOR, customs, 9
LANDA, BISHOP DIEGO DE--
biography, 7
on Maya alphabet, 27
on Maya calendar, 42, 44, 45, 84
on Maya customs, 7, 13-14, 19
on Maya records, 34, 36
LANDRY, M. D., investigations, 194
LEYDEN PLATE, interpretation, 179, 194-198
LITERATURE, list, xv-xvi
See also BIBLIOGRAPHY.
LONG COUNT--
date fixing in, 147-151, 240-245
nature, 60-63
See also CHRONOLOGY.

MAIZE GOD, nature, 18
MALER, TEOBERT--
cited, 162, 166, 170, 176, 177, 178, 207, 210, 224, 226, 227, 231
on Altar 5 at Tikal, 244
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, description, 7-21
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS, 8-9
MARS-SOLAR PERIOD, relation to tonalamatl, 278
MAT PATTERN OF GLYPHS, 191-194
MAUDSLAY, A. P.--
cited 157, 167, 169, 170, 171, 173, 175, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185, 186,
188, 191, 203, 205, 213, 215, 218, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227,
228, 229, 230, 235, 240, 242
on zero glyph, 93
MAYA, surviving tribes, 1-2
MAYA, SOUTHERN--
cities, 2-4
occupancy of, diagram showing, 15
government, 15-16
rise and fall, 2-4
MAYAPAN (city)--
history, 4-6
mortuary customs, 12
time records, 33-34
MILITARY CUSTOMS, nature 10-11
MINUS SIGN. _See_ BACKWARD SIGN.
MONTH. See UINAL.
MONUMENTS--
age, 249-250
date of erection, 179, 194, 203, 209-210, 213, 220-222
historical dates on, 179
period-marking function, 33-35, 249-250
texts. _See_ INSCRIPTIONS.
_See also_ STELÆ.
MOON, computation of revolutions, 32
MORLEY, S. G., on Books of Chilan Balam, 3
MYTHOLOGY, dates, 179, 180, 194, 228

NACON (official), duties, 13
NAHUA, influence on Maya, 5-6
NARANJO (city)--
antiquity, 15
Stela 22, interpretation, 162-164
Stela 23, error in, 248
interpretation, 224
Stela 24, interpretation, 166-167
Supplementary Series, absence, 163-164
NORMAL DATE, fixing, of 61
NORMAL FORMS OF TIME-PERIOD GLYPHS. _See_ TIME PERIODS.
NORTH STAR, deification, 18
NUMBERS, EXPRESSION--
high, 103-134
thirteen to nineteen, 96, 101, 111-112
NUMERALS--
bar and dot system, 87-95
examples, plates showing, 157, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179
colors, 91, 251
combinations of, for higher numbers, 105-107
forms, 87-104
head-variant forms, 24-25, 87, 96-104
plates showing, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179, 180
one to nineteen, bar and dot forms, 88-90
head-variant forms, 97-101
order of reading, 23, 129, 133, 137-138, 156, 170
ornamental variants, 89-91
parallels to Roman and Arabic systems, 87
solution, 134-155
systems, 87-134
comparison, 133
_See also_ VIGESIMAL SYSTEM.
transcribing, mode 138
_See also_ HIEROGLYPHS; THIRTEEN; TWENTY; ZERO.
NUMERICAL COEFFICIENTS 127-128

PALENQUE (city)--
history, 15
palace stairway inscription, interpretation, 183-185
Temple of the Cross, tablet, interpretation, 205-207, 227
Temple of the Foliated Cross, tablet, interpretation, 180-181, 223-224,
227
Temple of the Inscriptions, tablet, interpretation, 84, 225-226
Temple of the Sun, tablet, interpretation, 181-182
PERIOD-ENDING DATES--
ending glyph, 102
examples, interpretation, 222-240
plates showing, 223, 227, 233, 235
glyphs, 77-79,102
katun used in, 222-225
nature, 222
tun used in, 225-226
PERIOD-MARKING STONES. _See_ MONUMENTS.
PHONETIC WRITING--
argument for, 26-30
traces discovered, iv, 26-30
PIEDRAS NEGRAS (city)--
altar inscription, interpretation, 227
antiquity, 15
Stela 1, interpretation, 210-213
Stela 3, interpretation, 233-235
PLONGEON, F. LE, cited, 27
PONCE, ALONZO, on Maya records, 36
PRIESTHOOD, organization, 20-21
PROPHESYING, codices used for, 31
PROPHETIC DATES--
examples, 229-233
use, 271-272
{283}

QUEN SANTO (city)--
history, 231
Stela 1, interpretation, 199-201
Stela 2, interpretation, 201-203
QUIRIGUA (city)--
Altar M, interpretation, 240-242
five-tun period used at, 165-166
founding of, possible date, 221-222
monuments, 192
Stela A, interpretation, 179-180
Stela C, interpretation, 173-175, 179, 203-204, 226
Supplementary Series, absence, 175
Stela D, interpretation, 239
Stela E, error in, 247-248
interpretation, 235-240
Stela F, interpretation, 218-222, 239-240
plates showing, 218, 220
Stela H, interpretation, 192-194
Stela I, interpretation, 164-166
Stela J, interpretation, 215-218, 239-240
Stela K, interpretation, 213-215
Zoömorph G, interpretation, 186-187, 229-230, 239-240
Zoömorph P, interpretation 157-162

READING, order of, 23, 129, 133, 135, 138, 156, 170, 268
RELIGION, nature, 16-21
RENAISSANCE, commencement, 4
ROCHEFOUCAULD, F. A. DE LA, alphabet devised by, 27
ROMAN SYSTEM OF NUMBERS, parallel, 87
ROSNY, LEON DE, cited, 27
RULERSHIP--
nature, 12-13
succession, 13-14

SCARIFICATION, practice, 7
SCHELLHAS, _Dr._ PAUL, investigations, 265
SCULPTURE, development 2-3
SECONDARY-SERIES DATING--
examples, interpretation, 207-222, 233-240
plates showing, 207, 210, 213, 218, 220, 233, 235
explanation, 74-76, 207
irregular forms, 236
order of reading, 129, 137-138, 208
reference to Initial Series, 209-211, 217-218
starting point, 76, 135-136, 208-210, 218, 240-245
determination, 240-245
SEIBAL (city)--
antiquity, 15
Stela 11, interpretation, 230-231
SELER, _Dr._ EDUARD--
cited, 2, 43, 199
on Aztec calendar, 58
on hieroglyphics, 30
SERPENT NUMBERS--
interpretation, 273-275
nature, 273
range, 32, 273
SLAVES, barter in, 9
SOUTHERN MAYA. _See_ MAYA, SOUTHERN.
SPANISH CONQUEST, influence, 6-7
SPECTACLE GLYPH, function, 94
SPINDEN, _Dr._ H. J.--
cited, 187
works, 4
STELÆ--
character, 22
dates, 33, 83-84
inscriptions on, 22, 33-35
See also MONUMENTS, and names of cities.
STONES, inscriptions on 22
SUPERFIX, effect 120-122
SUPPLEMENTARY SERIES--
closing-sign, 152-153, 170
explanation, 152, 161
lack of, examples, 163-164, 175
position, 152, 238
SYMMETRY IN GLYPHS, modifications due to, 23-24, 88-91, 128

TERMINAL DATES--
determination, 138-151
importance as check on calculations, 154-155
position, 151-154
TEXTBOOKS, need for, vii
THIRTEEN--
glyphs, 96, 205
numbers above, expression, 96, 101, 111-112
THOMAS, _Dr._ CYRUS--
cited, 31
on Maya alphabet, 27
THOMPSON, E. H., investigations 11
TIKAL (city)--
Altar 5, interpretation, 242-245
antiquity, 127
history, 15
Stela 3, importance, 179
interpretation, 178-179
Stela 5, interpretation, 226
Stela 10, interpretation, 114-127
Stela 16, association with Altar 5, 244
interpretation, 224, 244
TIME--
counting backward, 146-147
counting forward, 138-146
glyphs for, only ones deciphered, 26, 31
lapse of, determination, 134-155
expression, 63-64, 105-107
indicated by black glyphs, 251
marked by monuments, 33-35, 249-250
method of describing, 46-48
recording, 33-36
use of numbers, 134
starting point, 60-62, 113-114, 124-125
_See also_ CHRONOLOGY.
TIME-MARKING STONES. _See_ MONUMENTS.
TIME PERIODS--
full-figure glyphs, 67-68, 188-191
plate showing, 188
head-variant glyphs, 67-74
plates showing, 167, 170, 176, 178, 179, 180
length, 62
normal glyphs, 67-74
plate showing, 157
omission of, 128
reduction to days, 134-135
_See also_ CYCLE; GREAT CYCLE; HAAB; KATUN; TONALAMATL; TUN; UINAL.
TONALAMATL (time period)--
graphic representation, 93
interpretation, 254-266
{284}
nature, 41-44, 265
relation to zero sign, 93-94
starting point, 252-253
subdivisions, 44
texts recording, 251-266
essential parts of, 265
use of glyph for "20" with, 92, 130, 254, 260, 263
used in codices, 251-266
plates showing, 254, 260, 262, 263
used in divination, 251
wheel of days, 43
_See also_ YEAR, SACRED.
TRANSLATION OF GLYPHS--
errors, 154-155
methods, 134-155
progress, 250
TUN (time period)--
glyph, 70
length, 62, 135
use of, in Period-ending dates, 225-226
TUXTLA STATUETTE, interpretation, 179, 194-196
TWENTY--
glyphs, 91-92, 130
need for, in codices, 92, 130
needlessness of, in inscriptions, 92
use of in, 254, 260, 263

UINAL--
days, 42
first day, 53
glyph, 94
glyph, 70-71
length, 45, 62, 135
list, 45
names and glyphs for, 48-51
U KAHLAY KATUNOB DATING--
accuracy, 82
antiquity, 82-85
explanation, 79-86
katun sequence, 80-82
order of reading, 137
replacement of Initial-series dating by, 84-86
UXMAL (city), founding, 4

VENUS-SOLAR PERIOD--
divisions, 31-32
relation to tonalamatl, 32, 277-278
VIGESIMAL NUMERATION--
discovery, iii
explanation, 62-63, 105-134
possible origin, 41
used in codices, 266-273
VILLAGUTIERE, S. J., on Maya records, 36

WAR GOD, nature, 17
WEAPONS, character, 10-11
WORLD, destruction, prophecy, 32
WORLD EPOCH, glyph, 125-127
WORSHIP, practices, 19-20
WRITING. _See_ HIEROGLYPHICS; NUMERALS; READING.

XAMAN EK (god), nature 18

YAXCHILAN (city)--
lintel, error in, 245-246
Lintel 21, interpretation, 207-210
Stela 11, interpretation, 176-177
Structure 44, interpretation, 177-178
YEAR, SACRED, use in divination, 251
_See also_ TONALAMATL.
YEAR, SOLAR. _See_ HAAB.
YUCATAN--
colonization, 3-4
Spanish conquest, 6-7
water supply, 1
YUM KAAX (god), nature. 18

ZERO--
glyphs, 92-95, 101-102
origin, 93-94
variants, 93

* * * * *

NOTES

[1] All things considered, the Maya may be regarded as having developed probably the highest aboriginal civilization in the Western Hemisphere, although it should be borne in mind that they were surpassed in many lines of endeavor by other races. The Inca, for example, excelled them in the arts of weaving and dyeing, the Chiriqui in metal working, and the Aztec in military proficiency.

[2] The correlation of Maya and Christian chronology herein followed is that suggested by the writer in "The Correlation of Maya and Christian Chronology" (_Papers of the School of American Archæology_, No. 11). See Morley, 1910 b, cited in BIBLIOGRAPHY, pp. XV, XVI. There are at least six other systems of correlation, however, on which the student must pass judgment. Although no two of these agree, all are based on data derived from the same source, namely, the Books of Chilan Balam (see p. 3, footnote 1). The differences among them are due to the varying interpretations of the material therein presented. Some of the systems of correlation which have been proposed, besides that of the writer, are:

1. That of Mr. C. P. Bowditch (1901 a), found in his pamphlet entitled "Memoranda on the Maya Calendars used in The Books of Chilan Balam."

2. That of Prof. Eduard Seler (1902-1908: I, pp. 588-599). See also _Bulletin 28_, p. 330.

3. That of Mr. J. T. Goodman (1905).

4. That of Pio Perez, in Stephen's Incidents of Travel in Yucatan (1843: I, pp. 434-459; II, pp. 465-469) and in Landa, 1864: pp. 366-429.

As before noted, these correlations differ greatly from one another, Professor Seler assigning the most remote dates to the southern cities and Mr. Goodman the most recent. The correlations of Mr. Bowditch and the writer are within 260 years of each other. Before accepting any one of the systems of correlation above mentioned, the student is strongly urged to examine with care The Books of Chilan Balam.

[3] It is probable that at this early date Yucatan had not been discovered, or at least not colonized.

[4] This evidence is presented by The Books of Chilan Balam, "which were copied or compiled in Yucatan by natives during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, from much older manuscripts now lost or destroyed. They are written in the Maya language in Latin characters, and treat, in part at least, of the history of the country before the Spanish Conquest. Each town seems to have had its own book of Chilan Balam, distinguished from others by the addition of the name of the place where it was written, as: The Book of Chilan Balam of Mani, The Book of Chilan Balam of Tizimia, and so on. Although much of the material presented in these manuscripts is apparently contradictory and obscure, their importance as original historical sources can not be overestimated, since they constitute the only native accounts of the early history of the Maya race which have survived the vandalism of the Spanish Conquerors. Of the sixteen Books of Chilan Balam now extant, only three, those of the towns of Mani, Tizimin, and Chumayel, contain historical matter. These have been translated into English, and published by Dr. D. G. Brinton [1882 b] under the title of "The Maya Chronicles." This translation with a few corrections has been freely consulted in the following discussion."--MORLEY, 1910 b: p. 193.

Although The Books of Chilan Balam are in all probability authentic sources for the reconstruction of Maya history, they can hardly be considered contemporaneous since, as above explained, they emanate from post-Conquest times. The most that can be claimed for them in this connection is that the documents from which they were copied were probably aboriginal, and contemporaneous, or approximately so, with the later periods of the history which they record.

[5] As will appear later, on the calendric side the old system of counting time and of recording events gave place to a more abbreviated though less accurate chronology. In architecture and art also the change of environment made itself felt, and in other lines as well the new land cast a strong influence over Maya thought and achievement. In his work entitled "A Study of Maya Art, its Subject Matter and Historical Development" (1913), to which students are referred for further information, Dr. H. J. Spinden has treated this subject extensively.

[6] The confederation of these three Maya cities may have served as a model for the three Nahua cities, Tenochtitlan, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan, when they entered into a similar alliance some four centuries later.

[7] By Nahua is here meant the peoples who inhabited the valley of Mexico and adjacent territory at this time.

[8] The Ball Court, a characteristically Nahua development.

[9] One authority (Landa, 1864: p. 48) says in this connection: "The governor, Cocom--the ruler of Mayapan--began to covet riches; and for this purpose he treated with the people of the garrison, which the kings of Mexico had in Tabasco and Xicalango, that he should deliver his city [i. e. Mayapan] to them; and thus he brought the Mexican people to Mayapan and he oppressed the poor and made many slaves, and the lords would have killed him if they had not been afraid of the Mexicans."

[10] The first appearance of the Spaniards in Yucatan was six years earlier (in 1511), when the caravel of Valdivia, returning from the Isthmus of Darien to Hispaniola, foundered near Jamaica. About 10 survivors in an open boat were driven upon the coast of Yucatan near the Island of Cozumel. Here they were made prisoners by the Maya and five, including Valdivia himself, were sacrificed. The remainder escaped only to die of starvation and hardship, with the exception of two, Geronimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero. Both of these men had risen to considerable prominence in the country by the time Cortez arrived eight years later. Guerrero had married a chief's daughter and had himself become a chief. Later Aguilar became an interpreter for Cortez. This handful of Spaniards can hardly be called an expedition, however.

[11] Diego de Landa, second bishop of Merida, whose remarkable book entitled "Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan" is the chief authority for the facts presented in the following discussion of the manners and customs of the Maya, was born in Cifuentes de l'Alcarria, Spain, in 1524. At the age of 17 he joined the Franciscan order. He came to Yucatan during the decade following the close of the Conquest, in 1549, where he was one of the most zealous of the early missionaries. In 1573 he was appointed bishop of Merida, which position he held until his death in 1579. His priceless _Relacion_, written about 1565, was not printed until three centuries later, when it was discovered by the indefatigable Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg in the library of the Royal Academy of History at Madrid, and published by him in 1864. The _Relacion_ is the standard authority for the customs prevalent in Yucatan at the time of the Conquest, and is an invaluable aid to the student of Maya archeology. What little we know of the Maya calendar has been derived directly from the pages of this book, or by developing the material therein presented.

[12] The excavations of Mr. E. H. Thompson at Labna, Yucatan, and of Dr. Merwin at Holmul, Guatemala, have confirmed Bishop Landa's statement concerning the disposal of the dead. At Labna bodies were found buried beneath the floors of the buildings, and at Holmul not only beneath the floors but also lying on them.

[13] Examples of this type of burial have been found at Chichen Itza and Mayapan in Yucatan. At the former site Mr. E. H. Thompson found in the center of a large pyramid a stone-lined shaft running from the summit into the ground. This was filled with burials and funeral objects--pearls, coral, and jade, which from their precious nature indicated the remains of important personages. At Mayapan, burials were found in a shaft of similar construction and location in one of the pyramids.

[14] Landa, 1864: p. 137.

[15] As the result of a trip to the Maya field in the winter of 1914, the writer made important discoveries in the chronology of Tikal, Naranjo, Piedras Negras, Altar de Sacrificios, Quirigua, and Seibal. The occupancy of Tikal and Seibal was found to have extended to 10.2.0.0.0; of Piedras Negras to 9.18.5.0.0; of Naranjo to 9.19.10.0.0; and of Altar de Sacrificios to 9.14.0.0.0. (This new material is not embodied in pl. 2.)

[16] As will be explained in chapter V, the writer has suggested the name _hotun_ for the 5 tun, or 1,800 day, period.

[17] Succession in the Aztec royal house was not determined by primogeniture, though the supreme office, the _tlahtouani_, as well as the other high offices of state, was hereditary in one family. On the death of the tlahtouani the electors (four in number) seem to have selected his successor from among his brothers, or, these failing, from among his nephews. Except as limiting the succession to one family, primogeniture does not seem to have obtained; for example, Moctezoma (Montezuma) was chosen tlahtouani over the heads of several of his older brothers because he was thought to have the best qualifications for that exalted office. The situation may be summarized by the statement that while the supreme ruler among the Aztec had to be of the "blood royal," his selection was determined by personal merit rather than by primogeniture.

[18] There can be no doubt that Förstemann has identified the sign for the planet Venus and possibly a few others. (See Förstemann, 1906: p. 116.)

[19] Brasseur de Bourbourg, the "discoverer" of Landa's manuscript, added several signs of his own invention to the original Landa alphabet. See his introduction to the Codex Troano published by the French Government. Leon de Rosny published an alphabet of 29 letters with numerous variants. Later Dr. F. Le Plongeon defined 23 letters with variants and made elaborate interpretations of the texts with this "alphabet" as his key. Another alphabet was that proposed by Dr. Hilborne T. Cresson, which included syllables as well as letters, and with which its originator also essayed to read the texts. Scarce worthy of mention are the alphabet and volume of interlinear translations from both the inscriptions and the codices published by F. A. de la Rochefoucauld. This is very fantastic and utterly without value unless, as Doctor Brinton says, it be taken "as a warning against the intellectual aberrations to which students of these ancient mysteries seem peculiarly prone." The late Dr. Cyrus Thomas, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, was the last of those who endeavored to interpret the Maya texts by means of alphabets; though he was perhaps the best of them all, much of his work in this particular respect will not stand.

[20] Thus the whole rebus in figure 14 reads: "Eye bee leaf ant rose can well bear awl four ewe." These words may be replaced by their homophones as follows: "I believe Aunt Rose can well bear all for you."

Rebus writing depends on the principle of homophones; that is, words or characters which sound alike but have different meanings.

[21] The period of the synodical revolution of Venus as computed to-day is 583.920 days.

[22] According to modern calculations, the period of the lunar revolution is 29.530588, or approximately 29½ days. For 405 revolutions the accumulated error would be .03×405=12.15 days. This error the Maya obviated by using 29.5 in some calculations and 29.6 in others, the latter offsetting the former. Thus the first 17 revolutions of the sequence are divided into three groups; the first 6 revolutions being computed at 29.5, each giving a total of 177 days; and the second 6 revolutions also being computed at 29.5 each, giving a total of another 177 days. The third group of 5 revolutions, however, was computed at 29.6 each, giving a total of 148 days. The total number of days in the first 17 revolutions was thus computed to be 177+177+147=502, which is very close to the time computed by modern calculations, 502.02.

[23] This is the tropical year or the time from one equinox to its return.

[24] Landa, 1864: p. 52.

[25] Cogolludo, 1688: I, lib. IV, V, p. 186.

[26] For example, if the revolution of Venus had been the governing phenomenon, each monument would be distant from some other by 584 days; if that of Mars, 780 days; if that of Mercury, 115 or 116 days, etc. Furthermore, the sequence, once commenced, would naturally have been more or less uninterrupted. It is hardly necessary to repeat that the intervals which have been found, namely, 7200 and 1800, rest on no known astronomical phenomena but are the direct result of the Maya vigesimal system of numeration.

[27] It is possible that the Codex Peresianus may treat of historical matter, as already explained.

[28] Since the sequence of the twenty day names was continuous, it is obvious that it had no beginning or ending, like the rim of a wheel; consequently any day name may be chosen arbitrarily as the starting point. In the accompanying Kan has been chosen to begin with, though Bishop Landa (p. 236) states with regard to the Maya: "The character or letter with which they commence their count of the days or calendar is called Hun-ymix [i. e. 1 Imix]". Again, "Here commences the count of the calendar of the Indians, saying in their language Hun Imix (*) [i. e. 1 Imix]." (Ibid., p. 246.)

[29] Professor Seler says the Maya of Guatemala called this period the _kin katun_, or "order of the days." He fails to give his authority for this statement, however, and, as will appear later, these terms have entirely different meanings. (See _Bulletin 28_, p. 14.)

[30] As Bishop Landa wrote not later than 1579, this is Old Style. The corresponding day in the Gregorian Calendar would be July 27.

[31] This is probably to be accounted for by the fact that in the Maya system of chronology, as we shall see later, the 365-day year was not used in recording time. But that so fundamental a period had therefore no special glyph does not necessarily follow, and the writer believes the sign for the haab will yet be discovered.

[32] Later researches of the writer (1914) have convinced him that figure 19, _c_, is not a sign for Uo, but a very unusual variant of the sign for Zip, found only at Copan, and there only on monuments belonging to the final period.

[33] The writer was able to prove during his last trip to the Maya field that figure 19, _f_, is not a sign for the month Zotz, as suggested by Mr. Bowditch, but a very unusual form representing Kankin. This identification is supported by a number of examples at Piedras Negras.

[34] The meanings of these words in Nahuatl, the language spoken by the Aztec, are "year bundle" and "our years will be bound," respectively. These doubtless refer to the fact that at the expiration of this period the Aztec calendar had made one complete round; that is, the years were bound up and commenced anew.

[35] _Bulletin 28_, p. 330.

[36] All Initial Series now known, with the exception of two, have the date 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu as their common point of departure. The two exceptions, the Initial Series on the east side of Stela C at Quirigua and the one on the tablet in the Temple of the Cross at Palenque, proceed from the date 4 Ahau 8 Zotz--more than 5,000 years in advance of the starting point just named. The writer has no suggestions to offer in explanation of these two dates other than that he believes they refer to some mythological event. For instance, in the belief of the Maya the gods may have been born on the day 4 Ahau 8 Zotz, and 5,000 years later approximately on 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu the world, including mankind, may have been created.

[37] Some writers have called the date 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu, the normal date, probably because it is the standard date from which practically all Maya calculations proceed. The writer has not followed this practice, however.

[38] That is, dates which signified present time when they were recorded.