Chapter I: Preface

This work is a continuation of the ‘LIFE OF MAHOMET.’ Taking up the thread from his death and burial, it tells the story of the spread of the Religion which he founded, and seeks to trace the special causes--national, tribal, and spiritual--which moulded the Faith, created its expansive power, and guided its onward progress. The object is, in short, to float the bark of ISLAM over the rapids and devious currents of its early course until, becoming more or less subject to ordinary human influences, it emerges on the great stream of time. I have, therefore, given the first four CALIPHATES in full detail; I have endeavoured to explain the ascendency of the OMEYYAD house; and then, briefly showing how the ABBASSIDE dynasty rose upon its ruins, my purpose being ended, I close the book. Thereafter the history of ISLAM spreads itself out into the history of the world.

The materials for the work will be understood by the reader as he goes along. They are purely Arabian. Christian authorities there are absolutely none to speak of. We depend entirely upon Mahometan tradition; and that in a form very different from what we have been accustomed to in the Life of Mahomet. The substance of tradition becomes, after the PROPHET’S death, more of a general outline; altogether wanting (excepting some of the special episodes) in that profuse detail with which the life of Mahomet is overlaid.

Such as it is, however, the story can be worked out broadly with consistency, and the progress of the Moslem arms and faith, as a whole, depicted truthfully. The great treasury of tradition on which the historian must draw is the Annals of TABARI, happily styled by Gibbon the Livy of the Arabians, who flourished in the third century of the Hegira. Unfortunately his work has hitherto been accessible to me, in its original form, only as far as the great battle of Câdesîya, in the fourteenth year of the Hegira--that is, three years after the Prophet’s death.[1] The materials, however, so laboriously collected by Tabari, have been copiously used by later writers, especially by IBN AL ATHÎR (d. A.H. 630), whose History has been mainly followed in these Annals, from the point at which Tabari, as at present available, ends. I have not neglected other sources, such as BELÂDZORI (3rd cent.) and IBN KHALDÛN, a later writer. In all essential points I believe that the picture which I have endeavoured to draw of the rise and spread of the Faith may be accepted with confidence.

I have received much help from the invaluable work of DR. WEIL,[2] whose literary acumen and candour are equalled only by his marvellous industry and research. I have also freely made use of M. CAUSSIN DE PERCEVAL’S admirable _Essai sur l’Histoire des Arabes_; but it unfortunately ends with the Caliphate of Omar. On the general condition of early Mussulman society I have found the scholarly volumes of H. VON KREMER most valuable.[3]

I have followed the same system of rendering names as in the ‘Life of Mahomet’ (adopted mainly from Caussin de Perceval), excepting in such received forms as Bussorah, Mecca, &c.; namely:

[Arabic] is represented by _th_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _j_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _kh_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _dz_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _z_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _dh_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _tz_.
[Arabic] by a sharp accent, as _á_, _ó_.
[Arabic] is represented by _gh_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _c_ or _ck_.
[Arabic] „ „ „ _k_.

In quoting from the ‘Life of Mahomet,’ I refer to the Second Edition in one volume, unless the First Edition in four volumes is specified.

I am indebted for the map which illustrates the campaigns, to Mr. Trelawney Saunders, whose close acquaintance with the geography of Syria and Chaldæa peculiarly qualifies him to identify many of the sites, routes, &c.

The reader must remember that the Mussulman year is a purely lunar one, being eleven days shorter than ours, so that passing through the solar cycle it gains a year in about every thirty-three years.

At the death of Mahomet, in the eleventh year of the Hegira, Moharram (the first month of the Arabian year) began on the 29th of March, so that the corresponding months of the European calendar fell at that period as in the following table:

Arabian Months. Corresponding Months

Moharram, A.H. XI. April, A.D. 632.
Safar May „
Rabî I. June „
Rabî II. July „
Jumâd I. August „
Jumâd II. September „
Rajab October „
Shábân November „
Ramadhân (Ramzân) December „
Shawwâl January, A.D. 633.
Dzul Cáda February „
Dzul Hijj March „

To keep the notation distinct, I have ordinarily marked the years of the Hegira by Roman numerals.

W. M.

_November 1882._

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

PAGE

ELECTION OF ABU BEKR 1

A.H. XI. A.D. 632.

CHAPTER II.

EXPEDITION OF OSAMA TO THE SYRIAN BORDER 8

A.H. XI. A.D. 632.

CHAPTER III.

MEDINA THREATENED.

A.H. XI. JUNE AND JULY, A.D. 632.

Attack on Medîna repulsed 11

CHAPTER IV.

RETURN OF OSAMA--EXPEDITIONS FORMED AGAINST THE
APOSTATE TRIBES THROUGHOUT ARABIA.

A.H. XI. SEPT.--OCT. A.D. 632.

Abu Bekr discomfits the rebels at Rabadza--Expeditions to
reclaim the apostate tribes 16

CHAPTER V.

CAMPAIGN OF KHALID AGAINST THE FALSE PROPHET TOLEIHA.

A.H. XI. NOV. A.D. 632.

Khâlid’s expedition against Toleiha--Khâlid defeats
Toleiha--Omm Siml discomfited by Khâlid--Abu Bekr burns a
freebooter alive 20

CHAPTER VI.

STORY OF MALIK IBN NOWEIRA.

A.H. XI. A.D. 632.

Mâlik ibn Noweira joins Sajâh the Prophetess--Is put to
death--Khâlid marries his widow 30

CHAPTER VII.

BATTLE OF YEMAMA.

END OF A.H. XI. BEGINNING OF 633 A.D.

The False Prophet Moseilama--Battle of Yemâma--The ‘Garden
of Death’ 38

CHAPTER VIII.

CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE REBELS IN THE EAST AND SOUTH
OF ARABIA.

A.H. XI. A.D. 632–3.

Bahrein reduced--Reduction of Omân and Mâhra--Rebellion
in Yemen--Reduction of Yemen--Reduction of
Hadhramaut--Authority re-established in the South 47

CHAPTER IX.

ENROLMENT OF THE BEDOUIN TRIBES FOR WAR BEYOND
ARABIA.

Arabia aroused by the war-cry from without--All slaves of
Arab blood set free--Death of Fâtima 60

CHAPTER X.

CAMPAIGN OF KHALID IN IRAC.

A.H. XII. A.D. 633.

State of Persia--Mesopotamia and the Syrian Desert--Irâc
Araby described--Khâlid’s victories over the Persians--The
River of Blood--Hîra capitulates--Hîra remains
Christian--Khâlid’s administration in Irâc--Khâlid takes
Anbâr and Ain Tamar--Dûma stormed by Khâlid--Expeditions
against Bedouins in Irâc--Khâlid’s pilgrimage incognito to
Mecca 66

CHAPTER XI.

CAMPAIGN IN SYRIA--BATTLE OF WACUSA ON THE YERMUK.

A.H. XIII. A.D. 634.

Defeat of Khâlid ibn Saîd in Syria--Reinforcements
sent to Syria--Roman army opposes the Moslems on the
Yermûk--Indecisive skirmishing with Romans--Khâlid
transferred to Syria--Khâlid’s journey across the
Desert--Roman and Moslem armies compared--Khâlid takes
command--Great battle of Wacûsa on the Yermûk--Roman army
totally defeated 92

CHAPTER XII.

EVENTS IN IRAC--MOTHANNA AND THE PERSIANS--NEED
OF REINFORCEMENTS.

Moharram--Jumâd, A.H. XIII. March--August, A.D. 634.

Mothanna asks Abu Bekr for reinforcements 112

CHAPTER XIII.

SICKNESS AND DEATH OF ABU BEKR.

Jumâd II., A.H. XIII. August, A.D. 634.

Abu Bekr visits Mecca on pilgrimage--Abu Bekr appoints Omar
his successor--Death and burial of Abu Bekr--Character of
Abu Bekr 115

CHAPTER XIV.

ACCESSION OF OMAR--REINFORCEMENTS FOR IRAC--CAMPAIGN
THERE UNDER ABU OBEID AND MOTHANNA.

Jumâd II., A.H. XIII.--Moharram, A.H. XIV.

August, A.D. 634–March, A.D. 635.

Omar raises a new levy for Irâc--Rustem sends a Persian
army against Abu Obeid--Battle of the Bridge--Moslems
routed--Fresh levies ordered to Irâc--Mothanna’s victory at
Boweib--Character of Mothanna 125

CHAPTER XV.

CAMPAIGN IN SYRIA--TAKING OF DAMASCUS--BATTLE OF FIHL.

A.H. XIV. A.D. 635.

Syria east of the Jordan--Khâlid deposed: Abu Obeida
succeeds him--Siege of Damascus--Storm and capitulation
of Damascus--Cathedral of St. John the Baptist--Battle of
Fihl--Progress of Moslem conquest on the Jordan 141

CHAPTER XVI.

YEZDEGIRD SUCCEEDS TO THE THRONE OF PERSIA--BATTLE
OF CADESIYA.

A.H. XIV. A.D. 635.

Yezdegird, King of Persia--Sád, commander-in-chief in
Irâc--Death of Mothanna--Sád encamps at Câdesîya--Rustem
advances on Câdesîya--Rustem crosses the river by a
dam--Battle of Câdesîya. First day--Attack of the
elephants--Second and third days--Night of Clangour--Defeat
of Persians--Omar receives tidings of the victory 155

CHAPTER XVII.

EVENTS FOLLOWING THE BATTLE OF CADESIYA--CAPTURE
OF MEDAIN.

A.H. XV., XVI. A.D. 636–7.

Advance upon Medâin--Western suburb of Medâin
taken--Capture of Medâin--Rich spoil of Medâin 178

CHAPTER XVIII.

BATTLE OF JALOLA--REDUCTION OF MESOPOTAMIA--KUFA
AND BUSSORAH FOUNDED.

A.H. XVI. A.D. 637.

Great booty taken at Jalôla--Operations in Mesopotamia
and the Delta of the Euphrates--Kûfa and Bussorah--Land
settled with native cultivators--Factious spirit at Kûfa
and Bussorah 187

CHAPTER XIX.

CAMPAIGN IN NORTHERN SYRIA.

A.H. XV. A.D. 636.

Northern Syria reduced--Heraclius retires to
Constantinople--Story of Jabala, Prince of the Beni
Ghassân 198

CHAPTER XX.

CONQUEST OF PALESTINE.

A.H. XV. A.D. 636.

Invasion of Palestine--Jerusalem capitulates to Omar--Omar
visits Jerusalem--Causes facilitating conquest of
Syria--Humiliation of Jews and Christians--‘Ordinance of
Omar’ 205

CHAPTER XXI.

RISING IN NORTHERN SYRIA.

A.H. XVII. A.D. 638.

Byzantine attack on Northern Syria--Campaign in Asia
Minor--Khâlid brought to trial--Khâlid dies in neglect 215

CHAPTER XXII.

EXPULSION OF JEWS AND CHRISTIANS FROM ARABIA--THE CIVIL LIST
OF OMAR--SLAVES OF ARAB BLOOD MADE FREE.

A.H. XIV., XV. A.D. 635, 636.

Expulsion of Christians from Najrân, and of Jews from
Kheibar--Dewân, or Civil List, of Omar--Omar perpetuates
military organisation--The Corân, how compiled 223

CHAPTER XXIII.

FAMINE AND PLAGUE.

A.H. XVIII. A.D. 639.

Omar visits Syria after the Plague--Muâvia, Governor of
Syria 232

CHAPTER XXIV.

CONQUEST Of EGYPT.

A.H. XX. A.D. 641.

Alexandria taken--Fostât founded--Canal from the Nile to
the Red Sea--Second siege of Alexandria 239

CHAPTER XXV.

ADVANCE ON THE SOUTHERN BORDER OF PERSIA--HORMUZAN
TAKEN PRISONER.

A.H. XVI.--XX. A.D. 637–641.

Unsuccessful attack on Persepolis--Capture of Râm Hormuz,
Tostar, and Sûs--Hormuzân sent prisoner to Medîna--Embraces
Islam 249

CHAPTER XXVI.

CONQUEST OF PERSIA.

A.H. XXI., XXII. A.D. 642, 643.

Yezdegird attacks the Moslems--Battle of Nehâvend--Persian
provinces reduced--Miracle at the siege of Darâbgird 255

CHAPTER XXVII.

THE LATER YEARS OF OMAR’S REIGN--DOMESTIC EVENTS.

A.H. XVII.-XXIII. A.D. 638–644.

Grand Square formed around the Káaba--Moghîra arraigned
for adultery--Abu Mûsa, Governor of Bussorah--Moghîra,
Governor of Kûfa--Deterioration of social life--Luxury,
intemperance, and dissipation--Simplicity of Omar’s
life--Death of Abu Sofiân and other ‘Companions’ 262

CHAPTER XXVIII.

DEATH OF OMAR.

A.H. XXIII. A.D. 644.

Omar stabbed by a Persian slave--Omar appoints
Electors--Death of Omar--Character and reign of Omar 278

CHAPTER XXIX.

ELECTION OF OTHMAN.

DZUL HIJJ, A.H. XXIII.--MOHARRAM, A.H. XXIX.

NOVEMBER, A.D. 644.

The six Electors--Conclave of the Electors--Othmân elected
Caliph--Hormuzân slain by Omar’s son 286

CHAPTER XXX.

CALIPHATE OF OTHMÂN--GENERAL REVIEW.

A.H. XXIV.-XXXV. A.D. 645–656.

Causes of Othmân’s unpopularity--Persia, Syria, Asia Minor,
and Armenia--Conquests in Northern Africa--Naval victory
off Alexandria 294

CHAPTER XXXI.

DOMESTIC EVENTS DURING THE CALIPHATE OF OTHMÂN
HIS GROWING UNPOPULARITY.

Change of governors at Kûfa--Change of governors
at Bussorah--Revision of Corân--Story of Abu Dzarr
Ghifary--Unlawful amusements checked--Othmân’s increasing
unpopularity--Othmân marries Nâila 303

CHAPTER XXXII.

DANGEROUS FACTION AT KUFA--GROWING DISAFFECTION.

A.H. XXXII.-XXXIV. A.D. 653–655.

Emeute at Kûfa--Saîd expelled from Kûfa--Aly expostulates
with Othmân--Othmân appeals to the people 316

CHAPTER XXXIII.

THE OUTLOOK DARKENS.

A.H. XXXIV., XXXV. A.D. 655.

Complainants invited to come forward--Conference of
governors at Medîna 324

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE PLOT RIPENS--CONSPIRATORS ATTACK MEDINA--DEATH
OF OTHMAN.

A.H. XXXV. A.D. 656.

Conspirators attack Medîna--Altercation of conspirators
with Othmân--Tumult in the Great Mosque--Othmân besieged in
his palace--The blockade--Death of Othmân--Burial of Othmân 329

CHAPTER XXXV.

THE ELECTION OF ALY.

END OF A.H. XXXV. JUNE, A.D. 656.

Aly will not punish the regicides--Aly appoints new
governors--Muâvia’s defiant attitude 342

CHAPTER XXXVI.

REBELLION AT BUSSORAH.

A.H. XXXVI. A.D. 656.

Ayesha at Mecca--Rebellion of Ayesha, Zobeir, and
Talha--Rebel army marches from Mecca to Bussorah--Pursued
by Aly--Ayesha’s alarm--Zobeir and Talha occupy Bussorah 351

CHAPTER XXXVII.

BATTLE OF THE CAMEL.

JUMAD II., A.H. XXXVI. DECEMBER, A.D. 656.

Aly advances on Bussorah--Negotiations with Zobeir and
Talha--Regicides bring on engagement--Battle of the
Camel--The insurgents defeated--Ayesha retires to Medîna 359

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

ALY TRANSFERS HIS SEAT OF GOVERNMENT TO KUFA.
AFFAIRS IN EGYPT.

A.H. XXXVI. A.D. 656, 657.

Cays, Governor of Egypt, deposed--Mohammed son of Abu Bekr
appointed Governor of Egypt--Amru joins Muâvia--Muâvia and
Aly 369

CHAPTER XXXIX.

BATTLE OF SIFFIN.

A.H. XXXVI., XXXVII. A.D. 657.

Aly marches against Muâvia--Fighting at Siffîn--Battle of
Siffîn--Combat closed by reference to arbitration--The
armies break up 376

CHAPTER XL.

THE KHAREJITES, OR THEOCRATIC FACTION, REBEL
AGAINST ALY 388

A.H. XXXVI. A.D. 657.

CHAPTER XLI.

DECISION OF THE UMPIRES.

A.H. XXXVII. A.D. 658.

The Umpires meet--The decision deposing Aly 391

CHAPTER XLII.

THE KHAREJITES, OR THEOCRATIC SEPARATISTS, DEFEATED
AT NEHRWAN.

A.H. XXXVII. A.D. 658.

Hostile attitude of Khârejites--Second campaign against
Syria projected--Army diverted by Khârejites--Khârejites
defeated 395

CHAPTER XLIII.

REVOLT OF EGYPT.

A.H. XXXVIII. A.D. 658.

Aly abandons the war on Syria--Aly loses Egypt 401

CHAPTER XLIV.

THE REMAINDER OF ALY’S REIGN.

A.H. XXXVIII.-XL. A.D. 658–660.

Khârejite émeutes--Syrian expeditions against Aly--Troubles
of Aly--Peace between Aly and Muâvia 404

CHAPTER XLV.

ASSASSINATION OF ALY.

A.H. XL. A.D. 661.

Conspiracy against Aly, Muâvia, and Amru--Muâvia and Amru
escape--Assassination of Aly--Character of Aly 411

CHAPTER XLVI.

HASAN SUCCEEDS ALY.--ABDICATES IN FAVOUR OF MUAVIA.

A.H. XL., XLI. A.D. 661.

Hasan abdicates the Caliphate--Muâvia sole Caliph 418

CHAPTER XLVII.

SOME BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A.H. XL.--L.

Amru, Moghîra, and Ziâd--Muâvia acknowledges Ziâd as his
brother 422

CHAPTER XLVIII.

YEZID PROCLAIMED HEIR APPARENT--HEREDITARY NOMINATION
BECOMES A PRECEDENT.

A.H. LVI. A.D. 676.

Precedents of succession--Yezîd declared Heir
Apparent--Precedent for future successions 427

CHAPTER XLIX.

YEZID AND THE TRAGEDY AT KERBALA.

A.H. LXI. A.D. 680.

Yezîd succeeds to the Caliphate--Hosein sets out
for Kûfa--Hosein stopped at Kerbala--The tragedy of
Kerbala--Death of Hosein--‘The Moharram’ 433

CHAPTER L.

THE OMEYYAD AND ABBASSIDE DYNASTIES, AND CONCLUSION.

Rebellion of Ibn Zobeir, Mukhtâr, and Khârejites--Abd al
Malik and Welîd--Omeyyad dynasty--Abbasside dynasty--The
Abbassides--Al Mâmûn--The Motázilites--Golden Age under
Abbassides--Fall of the Caliphate--Early influences
which still survive--Soonnies and Shîyas--Islam
stationary--Causes of decadence--Conclusion 443

INDEX 461

* * * * *

_Errata_

Page 72, line 14, _for_ Hâtim, son of Adî, _read_ Adî, son of Hâtim. Page 241, line 15, _for_ Khâlid _read_ Amru.

ANNALS

OF

THE EARLY CALIPHATE.