Chapter CLXXXIV: Appendix (1)

ESSAY ON THE LITERARY AND PECUNIARY RESOURCES WHICH ARISTOTLE
EITHER USED, OR IS SAID TO HAVE USED IN THE EXAMINATION AND
COMPOSITION OF HIS HISTORY OF ANIMALS.

_Translated from the Latin of Schneider._

Aristotle had very likely more authorities, whom he has followed, or converted to his own purposes, than those whose names he has given. These are, however, a few, whom he has named, as Alcmæon of Crotona; Dionysius of Apollonia; Herodorus of Heracleum in Pontus, the father of Bryson the sophist; Ctesias of Cnidos; Herodotus of Halicarnassus; Syennesis of Cyprus; Polybus; Democritus of Abdera; Anaxagoras of Clazomene; Empedocles of Sicily; and if there are any more which do not just now occur to my memory, they are accurately enumerated in the index, with the names of the places to which they belonged. I have said that it is probable, that Aristotle has derived information from more authorities than he has named; and a reason for this conjecture is found in a passage which he extracts, almost verbatim, from Herodotus, on the Nilotic crocodile (Euterpe, 68). This I have shewn in a note on the passage, book v. ch. 27, 2. And there are many places, both in his natural history and his other works on animals, where our philosopher refers to the ancient fables of men who were transformed into the nature and forms of various animals. The oldest author of such fables is Boeus (or Boeo, in the feminine gender, as some have conjectured). From this book Antoninus Literalis has extracted many chapters in Greek. Nicander of Colophon, and others, followed the example of Boeus. Among Latin writers, the Metamorphoses of Ovid have always commanded attention. All who have read the work of Antoninus, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid, will easily perceive how much information on the nature and habits of animals our philosopher could have derived from the very character of the books which had come down from the remotest antiquity to the time of Aristotle (compare note 9, 17, 1), especially if they bear in mind that the ancient teachers of physics always compared the habits of animals with those of man, and conjectured the causes and reasons of their actions, from similar impulses in man. This may be seen in the fables of Æsop, for they contain the first elements of the doctrines of the ancients on physics and morals. We might also offer a surmise on Eudoxus, and Scylax, and others, who wrote "Travels Round the Earth," in which they described the animals of different countries; for our philosopher appeals to the testimony of both these authors, in his work on Meteorics, and elsewhere. There is more doubt whether Aristotle used, or could have used, the numerous notices of animals, of the interior of Asia and India, which the companions of Alexander, in his Asiatic and Indian expeditions, brought back to Greece; which Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, and his successor in the schools, is found to have used so well in his History of Plants. For this I consider to be proved, that the written notices of the companions of Alexander were published after the death of the king, though we have no proof of the exact year in which they were made public. Indeed I have never found any evidence in the History of Animals which could lead us to suppose that Aristotle was acquainted with the animals of the interior of Asia and India, by information derived from the companions of Alexander; nor have I been able to find the slightest information from which I can form a conjecture as to either the place or time when this history was written: but, in order that others may institute a more rigorous inquiry into the date and place of its authorship, if any such have escaped my notice, I will place before my readers that portion of the Aristotelian chronology which relates to this work, from the disputation of St. Croix, a learned French author (Examen Critique des Historiens d'Alexander le Grand, p. 603, second edition). Aristotle, therefore, at the invitation of Philip, King of Macedon, undertook the education of his son, Alexander, when he was thirteen years of age, in the second year of the 109th Olympiad, when Phythodotus was Archon of Athens. Aristotle returned to Athens in the second year of the 111th Olympiad, in the Archonship of Evænetus. He taught at Athens for thirteen years, from whence he fled to Chalcis, and there he died, in the third year of the 114th Olympiad, during the Archonship of Philocles.

There is, indeed, a passage in Pliny, (book x. ch. 64, sect. 84, on the fecundity of mice,) where he says, that among other things Aristotle has spoken in his History of Animals (vi. 29) of the gravid fœtus of the Persian mice; but the Greek exemplar contains no authority from which Pliny could have derived the words which he has added: "More wonderful than all is the fœtus of the mice, which we cannot unhesitatingly receive, though derived from the authority of Aristotle, and the soldiers of Alexander the Great." In this and in two other places he calls those _soldiers_ whom others are in the habit of calling the _companions_ of Alexander the Great. But there is also a passage in the Meteorics of Aristotle (iii. 1), where he mentions as a recent event the destruction of the temple of Ephesus, by the incendiary Herostratus, on the day of Alexander's birth, in these words: "As it has just now happened in the burning of the temple of Ephesus." This book, therefore, appears to have been written at the commencement of the 106th Olympiad, and with it the History of Animals is very closely connected, as I have shown in my treatise on the order of the books of Physics; so that we may suppose that they were written in nearly the same Olympiad, if we regard only the series of the works; and no interruption occurred with which we are unacquainted. On the other hand, in the Meteorics (iii. 5), he speaks of a lunar rainbow, and says that it is rarely seen, and then adds, "that it has occurred but twice in more than fifty years." If we reckon these fifty years from the birth of Aristotle, in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, that book will fall in the third or fourth year of the 111th Olympiad; and from this calculation it would follow that this book was also written in Athens, but that the first date is to be taken in a wider sense.

From all this, we may easily perceive that at this day we are entirely ignorant of the sources of information collected either from ancient or contemporary writers, to which our philosopher had access in composing and completing a work of such multiplied and varied information. Even if we assume that they were as large as the mind of Aristotle was great, acute, and transparent, still, for a work so various and extensive, spread over seas, rivers, earth, and heaven, even that mind would require some assistance from other sources to which it might apply in constructing and building up a system of general instruction from the materials collected in different places about various animals, and from the observations used in describing and arranging them together in orders, classes, genera, and species. The following were the sources Aristotle used, according to the narrative of an uncertain author quoted by Pliny (viii. 16, 17)--"King Alexander the Great," he says, "was possessed with the desire of knowing the natures of animals, and therefore delegated the work to Aristotle, a man of very great learning. Some thousands of men in the whole region of Asia and Greece obeyed his commands, all, namely, who obtained their livelihood by hunting, hawking, or fishing, or who had in their care menageries, herds, beehives, fishponds, or aviaries; so that nothing in nature might be unknown to him; and from his examination of these, he compiled those fifty celebrated volumes, which I have collected into one, together with those animals with which he was unacquainted, and I hope that they will be consulted by good scholars." In all this there is nothing contradictory to the mind and liberality of Alexander, or the confidence or strength of his empire. But some may prefer the story published by Ælian, in his various history (iv. 19), who, I know not on what authority, transfers the narrative to Philip, the father of Alexander--"Having supplied abundance of riches to Aristotle, he was the means of many other undertakings, and especially of his knowledge of living creatures; and the son of Nichomachus completed his history by the liberal assistance of Philip; who also honoured Plato and Theophrastus." If this be true, it evidently refers to those seven or eight years in which Aristotle was in Macedonia presiding over the education of Alexander, the son of Philip.

These abundant supplies for the studies of Aristotle are not at all inconsistent, either with the liberality of Philip, or his love for his son and his son's tutor, nor do they surpass credibility. The gold mines of Philippi supplied the munificence and liberality of Philip. But there are difficulties in the narrative which make us question the credibility of the author of this munificence. For instance, the names of Plato and Theophrastus are mentioned; but the name of Theophrastus could not be so great and illustrious, even if it were known to the Greeks at all, as to have attracted the liberality of Philip, before the death of his master Aristotle, whom also he succeeded in the School at Athens. I should, therefore, rather imagine that Ælian, who was more diligent in the accuracy of his Attic diction than his historical fidelity, has committed some error in the name of Philip, or in those of Plato and Theophrastus, whom he has appended to his narrative.

The narrative of Athenæus, (ix. 398,) derived from the report of an unknown author, is very different; he calls the History of Animals a very expensive work, and then adds--"There is a report that Aristotle received 800 talents from Alexander, for writing the History of Animals"--a sum of money which Perigonius, in his Notes on Ælian, estimates at 1,440,000 caroli. To this narrative, or, as it may be more justly termed, rumour, is opposed the opinion of Io. Henr. Schulzius, in his History of Medicine (Leipsic, 1738, p. 358). "When I consider this matter aright, it appears to me that the whole story is very doubtful, and, for the most part, fabulous. And it can easily be proved, that the whole revenue of Macedon, if Alexander had paid it all to Aristotle for several years, would not have amounted to this sum. It is impossible, therefore, that he could have paid so much to Aristotle before the conquest of Asia; and after his expedition had been successfully accomplished, his affection was alienated from Aristotle, and, in order to annoy him, he liberally enriched other philosophers, who had done nothing to deserve his patronage. Their labours, therefore, are in vain, who demand justice of our excellent Aristotle, even in his grave, because he did not use such an immense sum of money in the composition of a more veracious history.

"I am certainly of opinion that a great deal has been made, as usual, of a very little matter, namely, that if Aristotle derived any assistance in that kingdom, all the materials were provided for him while Philip was alive, and before Alexander's expedition was undertaken, or in the first years of the expedition. But afterwards, when Alexander had set out, Aristotle returned to Athens, and was engaged in teaching: nor could he have derived any advantage from the resources which Pliny mentions, and the multitude of persons who were instructed to place themselves under his command, for he was not only occupied with other pursuits, but would have been in danger of being destroyed by the fury of the Athenians, on the plea that he was attempting innovations, if he had even ventured to dissect animals, not to say men."

In a note he adds these observations:--"Aristobulus, no unworthy companion of Alexander in his expedition, bears testimony, according to Plutarch, that the whole military chest did not contain seventy talents of coin. For the preparation of so arduous an undertaking, however, the same person says, that two hundred talents ought to have been taken for mutual exchange. I remember also to have read in Eustathius's commentary on Homer, a very learned disquisition on the scarcity of money amongst the Macedonians, at the time of Alexander's expedition; but I cannot lay my hands upon the passage."

I must confess that I am not influenced by this annotation, nor does the whole of this controversy appear to me to have been properly conducted. For the greatest doubt prevails as to the number of talents which Alexander is said to have paid to Aristotle, to help him in his task; and the report only rests on the authority of a writer who lived centuries after the death of Alexander. To refute this is useless labour, both because its origin is obscure, and also because a sum of money set down in figures might be easily corrupted by transcribers. But the testimony of Aristobulus will give little or no assistance to the opinion of the learned, if we adopt that which is most probable, namely, that Philip, or his son Alexander, gave large sums of money to Aristotle, to enable him to pursue his studies in Natural History, while he lived in Macedon, and was employed in the education of Alexander. The question about the date when Aristotle arranged and published the materials and notes he had collected is quite distinct, and I do not think that it can be precisely ascertained at the present time. The conjecture I have hazarded (light enough, I must confess) does not say much in favour of the story of abundant treasures supplied by Philip, or Alexander, to our philosopher, for the composition of his Natural History. But these persons form a very poor estimate of the study and labour bestowed by Aristotle upon the History of Animals, who imagine that our philosopher had only access to such books as now remain, forgetting those of which time has robbed us.

Most of all we must regret his Ζωϊκὰ, which appears to have given a more accurate description of animals, and his ἀνατομικὰ, which further contained notices of their internal structure, and was illustrated by drawings to which he often refers in his Natural History, as well as in his works on the parts and the generation of animals. It will scarcely be possible to fix with any accuracy on the number of books he employed, after the great carelessness of librarians, and the many facilities for error in copyists, arising from the method of notation by letters. Antigonus Carystius, in his sixty-sixth chapter, increases the number of volumes given by Pliny, for he writes seventy; and if the titles of the books, as they are given by Diogenes Laertius and Athenæus, are compared with those published, the number of books relating to Animal History to which he may have had access are readily estimated, even should every book of every work be reckoned as a separate book, and the list compared with the number given by Pliny.

In the memory of our fathers and grandfathers (for, alas! at the present time few trouble themselves with the works of the ancients) there were many who blamed Aristotle for these works, both for his manner of treating the subjects and his narratives of the lives and habits of animals, and vexed them with questions and disputations.

These objections will be better answered, when we come to those passages of the History. It may, however, be of some general avail to put a stop to these objections, which were urged against his manner of teaching; and I hope to be able to point out some peculiar sources from which Aristotle appears to have derived the more difficult parts of his History, and those which were obnoxious to dispute.

Amongst other foolish and trifling questions with which some Grammarian, in the Deipnosophistæ of Athenæus, (viii. p. 352,) has endeavoured not only to impugn, but even destroy our philosopher's credibility, is the following:--"I do not much admire the diligence of Aristotle, though others praise him so highly. At what time, I should like to know, or from what Proteus or Nereus ascending from the deep, to give him information, did he learn what the fishes were doing there, and in what manner they slept and took their food; for he writes things of this kind, which are only 'the miracles of fools,' as the comic poet says."

I will not follow the rest of his argument, which relates to terrestrial and winged animals; for the aquatic, and especially the marine creatures, seem to offer the greatest opportunity for questioning the fidelity of his narrative. In the first place, then, we may observe, that of all mankind the Greeks were amongst the greatest eaters of fish, at least after the heroic and Homeric ages; for Homer is never found to mention fish at the suppers and festivals of his heroes. So that I should not wonder if the frequent and repeated industry and observation of fishermen, following their labours both in rivers and seas, to adorn the tables of their fellow citizens, supplied ample and varied information to learned men who were engaged in the investigation of natural objects. By the same means they might learn from hunters the haunts and dispositions of wild beasts, and those of domesticated animals from husbandmen. The whole life and labour of such men was devoted to the uses, advantages, and food of man; and their observations would be particularly directed to those animals which could assist in sharing the labours of mankind, or whose flesh or other parts were required for food or medicine. Their parturition and its proper time, the number of their young, the manner of bringing them up, their nutriment, the pastures and food of the parents, and the proper time for hunting them, were observed with the greatest accuracy. And if any diseases arising from the weather, their food, or their drink impended over them, and threatened their production or the life of the wild cattle, or if a peculiar or common enemy laid in wait for the life of one or all, it could not easily escape their observation; and from these circumstances we may manifestly derive the origin of those fables and narratives in which the opinions of animals are compared with the life and manner of human beings, such as the simple minds of hunters, fishers, and rustics could comprehend. In these books of natural history we find traces of many stories of this kind which it is unnecessary here to point out.

In the aquatic and marine orders of animals there is, besides these sources of information, the diligent investigation instituted by certain writers throughout the seas and rivers of Greece, at a time when every useful fish, and marine and river animals of this class, mollusca, shell fish, and worms formed part of their food. The time and manner of their coition, parturition, pregnancy, and life, the nature of their food, places and manner of taking fish, the times in which they were not accessible, the faults and diseases of aquatic animals, were minutely described. The twentieth chapter of the eighth book of our History is on this subject, where the food and diseases of aquatic animals are described, and particular notice is taken of their use as food, besides the observations on the manners of quadrupeds.

It is very evident that the life of one man would hardly suffice for the observation of all these facts even in a single class of animals; but, as I have said, there were writers before the time of Aristotle who provided for the tastes and tables of these fish-eating Greeks a most exquisite apparatus from the rivers and seas of Greece, especially in Sicily, which has been remarkable for its wealth ever since the reigns of Gelo and Hiero, and had surpassed the rest of Greece not only in its knowledge of nature, but in the art of poetry.

There is a passage in Plato's "Gorgias," (sect. 156, p. 246, ed. Heind.) where mention is made of "Mithæcus, the author of a work on Sicilian cookery, and Sarambus, the publican. One furnished the best of food, the other the best of wine." That the art of choosing and preparing food for the table was treated of in this book we may conclude from the use of the word ὁψοποιΐα, which the Greeks especially used to signify the kinds of fish used for food. A passage from this book on the manner of cooking the fish called tenia is quoted by Athenæus, who makes the title of this book ὀψαρτυτικὸν, vii. p. 282, and xii. p. 506.

We cannot accurately ascertain the age of Mithæcus. The most ancient author of such a book that we can call to mind is Epicharmus, a Sicilian poet and physician, from whose fragments, collected by Athenæus, we may certainly conclude he was acquainted with the nature of aquatic animals.

To this class we may, in the first place, refer those passages which are extracted from the drama called the Marriage of Hebe, or the Muses, and not only teach us the nature of fishes, but also the manner of procuring and cooking them. A learned writer in the "Literary Ephemeris" of Jena, 1810, (Nos. 156, 157,) attempted to collect all these and reduce them to order. There remain, however, many more passages which the conjectures of the most learned could hardly amend or explain, from the corruption of the text by librarians and the variety of Sicilian names. And before the time of Epicharmus, Ananius, an Iambic poet, nearly contemporary with Hipponactus, an Ionian poet, composed, among other poems, a similar work on cooking fish, as we learn from a passage extracted by Athenæus, (vii. p. 282.) After Epicharmus there was Terpsion, a Sicilian, who was the first to write a gastrology, in which he taught his disciples from what kind of food they ought to abstain. He is mentioned by Clearchus Solensis, a disciple of Aristotle, in his work de Paræmiis, in "Athenæus," (viii. p. 337.)

Clearchus also mentions Archestratus, the Sicilian, the pupil of Terpsion, who, after having travelled through the whole of Greece, wrote a work in heroic verse on the nature of fishes, those especially which were fit for the table, and on the manner of cooking and preparing them. We learn that his book was called Ἡδυπάθεια, not only from the testimony of Athenæus, but from an imitation by Ennius. For Ennius, who died A.U.C. 584, one hundred and fifty-two years after the death of Aristotle, translated and in part imitated the poem of Archestratus, and called his work "Carmina Hedypathetica," as Apulegius tells us in his "Apologia." We have good reason for supposing that Archestratus was either contemporary with Aristotle, or a little older. For Archestratus mentions Diodorus Aspendius, the Pythagorean, as his contemporary, to whom Timæus, the historian, tells us that the Epistle of Stratonicus was written ("Athenæus," iv. p. 136). Therefore Archestratus, Diodorus, Aspendius, and Stratonicus, an eminent harpist, were contemporaries, and so they were with Aristotle and Demosthenes; and this conjecture is confirmed by many passages in Athenæus, where Stratonicus is reported to have been alive with those persons whom Demosthenes mentions in his orations. Aristotle, therefore, may have used this work of Archestratus in that part of his Natural History which treats of the nature of fishes.[230]

[230] To the end of this Essay are appended fragments of Archestratus, on the fishes of Sicily, amounting to 270 lines of heroic verse, together with notes, by the author of the Essay.

The writings of physicians who prescribed the food, both of sick and well, have handed down similar and much more extensive observations on the animals and fishes which were brought to the tables of the Greeks. Of this kind Athenæus has given many passages from Dorio, and Diphilus of Siphnus. Oribasius has made a long extract from the work of Xenocrates, on the aquatic animals used in food, which I purpose some day to publish with Xenocrates, if my life should be spared long enough.

INDEX.

Α.

Ἄγνος, Vitex agnus castus, a tree like a willow, the branches of which
the matrons strewed on their beds at the Thesmophoria, 266.

Ἀδριανικαὶ ἀλεκτορίδες, a small kind of domestic fowl, 138.

Ἀείσκωψ, a kind of owl. Stryx aluco, _Strack_, 249. Brown Owl. There
is also another migratory kind mentioned, 249, which does not hoot.

Ἀέροψ, the Bœotian name of the Merops, M. apiaster, 138.

Ἀετὸς, or αἰετὸς, Eagle, hence the Latin avis, 9, 61;
its eggs and young, 146;
two species, the Pygargus haliætus, and the black eagle, Aquila
anataria or Falco nævius, _ib._;
several species, 201, 250;
used in augury, 217;
eats serpents, 231;
food and manners, 251;
true eagles, Falco chrysaetos, _ib._;
the eagle kills the heron, 233;
it fights with the vulture and the swan, _ib._;
a kind of eagle in Scythia, 252.

Ἀηδῶν, nightingale, Sylvia luscinia, its song, 95, 96;
reproduction, 108;
its tongue, 246;
changes its song and colour, 276.

Ἀθερίνη, Atherina presbyter, _Spratt's Lycia_, or A. vera, in modern
Greek atherno, 159;
its reproduction, 160, 234.

Αἰγίθαλος, Parus, Tit or Titmouse, eats worms, 202;
three species, _ib._;
lays many eggs, 246;
an enemy to bees, 265;
σπιξίτης, parus major, _Strack_. ὀρεινὸς, Parus ater, _Strack_, or
P. caudatus. ἐλάχιστος, Parus cœruleus.

Αἴγιθος, Bunting, Emberiza, _Strack_, or hedge sparrow or Parus
cœruleus, dislikes the ass, builds in hedges, 232;
hostile to the anthus and acanthis, 233;
its food and young, 246.

Αἰγοθήλας, goat sucker, Caprimulgus Europæus, 250.

Αἰγοκέφαλος, Stryx otus, _Strack_, 39.

Αἰγυπιὸς, the Vulture, it is hostile to the Æsalon (small hawk), 9, 23;
and fights with the eagle, _ib._

Αἴγυπτος, Egypt, the Egyptians batch eggs in manure, 139;
two kinds of Egyptian mice, one with stiff hair (Hierax, or
Aulacodus Swinderianus), another with long hind legs (Jerboa, or
Cavia), 178;
the care of animals among the Egyptians, 231;
a large kind of oxen in Egypt, 226;
asp and ichneumon, 238;
white and black ibis, 242.

Αἰγώλιος, a night bird of prey, Stryx passerina, _Strack_, or S.
flammea. _Camus._ La chouette, little owl, 201;
kills the calaris, 232;
its habit and mode of life, 247;
in p. 139 this bird is called αἰτώλιος.

Αἰετὸς, a cartilaginous fish, one of the class selache, Raia
aquila, 104.

Αἰθιοπία, Æthiopia, winged serpents in Æthiopia, probably Draco
volans, 9;
Æthiopian sheep, 165.

Αἰθίοψ, Æthiopian, teeth, 60;
semen, 72, 188.

Αἴθυια, a large waterbird, Larus parasiticus, or L. Marinus, _Strack_,
or L. argentatus, 2;
its reproduction, 108;
food, 203.

Αἴλουρος, cat, Felis cattus, copulation, 103;
its young, food, and mode of life, 177;
kills birds, 239.

Αἱμοῤῥοΐς, or ἀποῤῥαΐς, a kind of shell fish, perhaps Murex, 85, 86.

Αἴξ, goat, male and female, Ibex or wild goat, _Spratt's Lycia_, Caper
hircus, _Strack_, 13, 27, 28, 31, 66;
the she goats of Œta, 70;
the he goat in Lemnos, _ib._;
it is mentioned with the chimæra or domestic goat in 71;
dreams, 97;
infested with ticks, 134;
discharges of the female, 163, 164;
gestation, 165;
food, drink, &c., 207;
the wild goat, 225;
Syrian Caper hircus Mambricus and Lycian goat, C. Angorensis, _ib._;
Egyptian, 226;
its mode of life, 235;
wild goats in Crete, 238;
rumination, 278.

Αἴξ, a water bird, probably Tantalus arquatus, _Strack_, Scolopax
Gallinago, 208.

Αἰσάλων, a small hawk, perhaps sparrow-hawk or merlin, Falco
Æsalon, 253.

Αἰτώλιος, see Αἰγώλιος.

Ἀκαλήφη, Medusa, and probably also some species of Actinia, 2, 3;
fixed and locomotive kinds, 87, 88;
small and edible species, others large and hard, 88;
a fleshy kind, 195;
a large kind, its food, mouth, and anus, 198.

Ἀκανθίας, a kind of shark, Squalus Acanthias, _Strack_, 256.

Ἀκανθὶς, thistle finch or gold finch, Fringilla carduelis, or
Fringilla cannabina, _Strack_, or F. spinus, brown linnet, 202;
hates the ass, lives on worms, 233;
a foe to the anthus and ægithus, 234;
its food, colour, song, 247.

Ἀκανθυλλὶς, Parus pendulinus, or caudatus, _Strack_, 202;
its nest, 245.

Ἄκαρι, mite, Dermestes fatidicus, or perhaps Bostrichus, _Strack_, 135.

Ἀκρὶς, locust, Tetigonia, _Strack_. Acridium, 89, 95;
its birth, 123;
reproduction, 132;
changes its skin, 216;
it is said to contend with serpents, 238;
the Spex lacerticida corresponds with this description, _Schneider_.

Ἀκύλος, the acorn of the evergreen oak, used for fattening pigs, 206.

Ἀλεκτορὶς, the domestic hen, Phasianus gallus, different
kinds, 111, 138;
sometimes produces soft eggs, 139;
chickens, 140, 141;
barren eggs, and times of laying, _ib._;
growth of the chick in the egg, 142;
twin eggs, 144;
the hen sometimes takes the form of the cock, 215;
rolls in the dust, 277.

Ἀλεκτρυὼν, domestic fowl, male, also used of the class, 5;
his comb, 36;
crop, 45;
appendages to intestines, _ib._;
crowing, 96;
manner of coition, 102;
appearances like ova when cut open, 139;
testicles, 148;
habits in temples, 241;
sometimes they assume the form and habits of hens, 275;
method of castration, 277.

Ἁλιαίετος, sea-eagle, different from the osprey, perhaps Aquila
albicilla or Falco haliœtus, 203, 251, 253.

Ἀλκυὼν, Alcedo, kingfisher, or perhaps Turdus arundinaceus,
reproduction, 107, 108;
two species described, 203;
materials and form of its nest, 246.
It is doubtful whether either of the species is our kingfisher.
_Schneider._

Ἁλοσάχη, probably a species of Zoophyte Alcyonia, 246.

Ἀλώπηξ, fox, Canis vulpes, 6, 29;
it breeds with the Laconian dogs, 227;
attacks the heron, 233;
is friendly with the crow, _ib._;
a troglodyte, _ib._

Ἀλώπηξ, Vampire, Vespertilio caninus, _Strack_, V. dinops or Sciurus
volans, 9;
reproduction, 177;
it hunts mice, 178.

Ἀλώπηξ, a cartilaginous fish, reproduction, 149;
represents a class, 151;
Egyptian species, 226;
stratagems, 255.

Ἀμία, a kind of tunny, mackerel, Scomber, _Strack_, 4, 40, 91;
its rapid growth, 160, 199, 200;
lives in bays, 211;
and enters rivers, 218;
its teeth and mode of defence, 255.

Ἀμυγδαλή, Amygdala communis, almond tree, 268;
almonds, 242.

Ἀνθίας, a migratory sea fish, also called αὐλωπίας, Scomber ala
longa, 159;
gregarious, 234;
also called sacred, 255.

Ἄνθος, yellow bunting, Emberiza citrinella, _Strack_, Motacilla
barula, 202;
feeds in meadows, imitates the neighing of the horse, 233;
hostile to the acanthis and ægithus, _ib._;
it lives by the side of rivers, 244.

Ἀνθρήνη, wild bee, Apis terrestris, or Vespa crabro, 88;
the larvæ, 124;
reproduction, 130;
a diligent insect, 258;
makes honey, 260;
its manners and habits, 270.

Ἄπιος, the pear tree, 126.

Ἀπλυσίας, a dark-coloured sponge, 119.

Ἀποῤῥαΐς, various reading for αἱμοῤῥοΐς, Murex, or Natica.

Ἄπους, swift, Hirundo apus, 4;
also called κύψελλος, 271.

Ἀράχνης, spider, 5, 85, 135;
its web, reproduction, 123, 131, 132;
is driven away by its young, 131;
it sucks its prey, 213;
is eaten by the lizard, 232;
four kinds, 258, 259.
Ψύλλα, Salticus scenicus--The smaller kind Dolomedes mirabilis--the
larger Lycosa ruricola, another Dolomedes fimbriatus.

Ἄρκτος, bear, Ursus Arctus, 25, 27, 29, 42;
coition, 102;
at this time it becomes fierce, 161;
period of gestation, imperfect young, 175;
mode of drinking, 205;
hybernation, 215;
eats the arum, _ib._;
the females courageous, 230;
its habits, 237.

Ἄρκτος, a crustacean, perhaps Cancer spinosissimus, _Strack_,
Scyllaris arctus, reproduction, 121;
its food and manner of seizing it, 205.

Ἅρπη, a bird of prey, falcon, lives near the sea, and attacks the gull
and brenthus, 232;
the piphinx and ictinus are friendly to it, 234;
its mode of life, attacks the eyes of its prey, 247.

Ἀρχάνος, a fish, see Ἀχάρνας.

Ἀσκαλαβώτης, lizard, Lacerta Gecko, Stellio veterum, 160;
it lives in holes, 213;
changes its skin, 216;
its bite poisonous in some parts of Italy, 227;
it eats spiders, 232;
it can walk in an inverted position, 242.

Ἀσκάλαφος, probably some kind of owl, Stryx ulula, 45.

Ἀσκαλώπας, Scolopax gallinago, snipe, _Strack_, (Schneider disapproves
of this identification), S. phæopus, 249.
See σκολόπαξ.

Ἀσκαρίδες, ascaris, intestinal worm, 124.

Ἀσκαρὶς, the larva of the empis (gnat), 125.

Ἀσπάλαξ, mole, Talpa vulgaris, lives in holes, 5;
its eyes, 13, 90;
there are many in Bœotia, none in Lebadia, 225.

Ἀσπὶς, Coluber aspis, asp, from which a poison is made in Lybia, 227;
in Egypt it is attacked by the ichneumon, 238.

Ἀστακὸς, lobster, Cancer Gammarus, and Astacus, 138;
compared with the spiny lobster, 77, 78, 79;
a small fresh-water species, Astacus fluviatilis, crayfish, 86;
its reproduction, 106, 121;
changes its shell, 217.

Ἀσταφὶς, a raisin used for feeding cattle, 206.

Ἀστερίας, a cartilaginous fish, 109, 151.
Squalus asterias.

Ἀστερίας, a hawk, 109, 151, 253.

Ἀστερίας, Ardea stellaris, bittern, 233.

Ἀστὴρ, star-fish, Uraster rubens, 118.

Ἀσφόδελος, a plant, asphodel, A. ramosus, 260.

Ἀτρακτυλλὶς, a plant of the thistle tribe, Carthamus creticus.

Ἀτταγὴν, grouse, Tetrao bonasia, or T. attagen, 249;
it lives on the ground, 276.

Ἀττέλαβος, a kind of locust, Gryllus, 123;
reproduction and death, 133.

Αὐλωπίας, the same as ἀνθίας, 159.

Αὐξὶς, the young tunny, 160.

Ἀφάκη, plant, a kind of vetch, 208.

Ἄφρος, fish spawn, 157.

Ἀφύη, anchovy or sardine, Melanurus juvenculus, 157,
its origin, _ib._;
other kinds, _ib._;
in modern Greek ἀφροψαρο.

Ἀχαΐνης ἔλαφος, a variety of large stag with a strong mane, _Strack_;
a brocket, or two-year old stag, from his single-pointed horns,
_Liddell and Scott_, 39, 237.

Ἀχάρνας, a sea fish, Anarrhicas rufus, 200;
does not bear heat, 218.

Ἀχέτας, the male grasshopper, Cicada Orni, 89.

Ἀχρὰς, a kind of wild pear, Pyrus communis, 206, 268.

Β

Βάλαγρος, a fresh-water fish, Cobitis barbus, 98.

Βάλανος, Balanus, Cirripede, acorn shell, 94, 117.

Βάλανος, acorn, 221.

Βάλλερος, a fresh-water fish, Cyprinus blicca, 156, 219;
βάλερος, βαλῖνος, βαρῖνος, are various readings.

Βασιλεὺς, also called trochilus, and presbys, lives in holes, 244;
has a bright crest, 202;
probably Regulus Cristatus, golden-crested wren, or Sylvia
troglodytes.

Βατὶς, a bird that frequents bushes, Sylvia rubicola, eats worms, 202;
mentioned with finch and sparrow.

Βατὶς, a fish, the prickly roach, _Liddell and Scott_, 149, 152.

Βάτος, ray, Raia batos, not the skate, which is perhaps
leiobatos, 8, 37;
its manner of coition, 104;
it does not receive its young into itself, 150, 151;
it lives in holes, 214;
its manner of taking its prey, 255.

Βάτραχος, frog, Rana esculenta and R. temporaria, 3, 39, 87;
croaks, 96;
the female larger than the male, 100;
coition, 103;
tadpole, 154;
its united spawn, 155;
spoken of as a class, 196;
no croaking frogs in Cyrene, 225;
marsh frogs are foes to bees, 261.

Βάτραχος, a cartilaginous fish, Lophius piscatorius and L.
barbatus, 8, 37, 38, 40;
among the selache, 104;
oviparous, 148, 150;
it produces many young, 159.

Βελόνη, fish, Syngnathus acus, 40;
its reproduction, 109, 154, 160;
gregarious, 234;
the Halcyon builds its nest with the bones of this fish.

Βολίταινα, cephalopod, Eledone moschites, _Leach_, 76;
also called ὄζολις; it does not exist in the Euripus, 256.

Βομβύκια, Apis cementaria, or also Megachile muraria, and Bombus
terrestris, forms an angular cell of mud, 131.

Βομβυλιὸς, larva of silk worm, 124;
the humble bee, 260, 271.

Βόμβυξ, silkworm.

Βόνασσος, Antelope bonassus, or Bos Urus, Bison, 26, 28;
its country, form, habits, hunting, 273.

Βοσκὰς, Anas boscas, or A. Crecca, 203.

Βόστρυχος, insect, Lampyris noctiluca, _Strack_, 125.

Βουβαλὶς, Antilope Gnou, 58.

Βοῦς, Bos taurus, Ox, 5, 27, 28, 29, 30, 41, 62;
milk, 69;
dreams, 97;
lowing of the bull, 100, 112;
coition, 103;
tormented with lice, 135;
sexual desires, 161, 162;
discharges and urine of the cow, 163;
reproductive powers of bull, 168;
the castrated animal is taught to lead the herd, _ib._;
teeth, milk, and habits, _ib._;
veins in the embryo, 190;
mode of drinking, 205;
care of the ox, 206;
red cattle of Epirus, 207;
diseases, 219, 222;
the ox drinks pure water, 224;
Egyptian oxen, 226;
habits, 236;
wild oxen, B. Bubalus, 26;
one species of ox has a bone in its heart, 39;
oxen in Phrygia which can move their horns, 61;
small oxen in Phasis, 71;
oxen in Epirus, _ib._;
in Tortona, 72;
the cow brings forth at a year old, 113;
Syrian oxen, 226;
castration of the young, 278;
rumination, _ib._

Βοῦς, a cartilaginous fish, Raia cornuta, 104, 152.

Βρένθος, a sea-bird, Anas tadorna, hostile to the larus and harpa, 232;
makes its nest in hills and woody places, 244.

Βρύας, a large owl, Stryx bubo, 201.

Βρύον, algæ, both fresh-water and marine, 155, 200, 220.

Βρύσσος, an echinite, Scutella, 102.

Βωμολόχος, Corvus monedula, 248

Βὼξ, a gregarious fish, Sparus boops, 234;
contracted from Βόαξ, from the sound it makes.

Γ

Γαλας, a kind of smooth shell-fish, mya pictorum, 82.

Γαλεὸς, a cartilaginous fish, Squalus galeus and charachias, _Strack_,
or Gadus lota, 8, 44, 49, 108, 149, 151;
uterus and ova, 150;
receives its young into itself, _ib._;
not found in the Pyrrhæan Euripus, 256.

Γαλεώδη, fish of the shark kind, 37, 40, 41;
placed under the selache, 104, 149;
the males have appendages, 104;
the uterus, 149;
galei and galeodes, 151.

Γαλῆ, weasel, martin, polecat, Mustela Faro, M. Erminea, M.
vulgaris, 20;
the wild kind hunts mice, 178;
hostile to the crow, 232;
it attacks serpents, 233;
in Poroselene, 225;
it fights with serpents, especially with those called myotheræ, 238;
its form compared with the ictis, 239;
eats birds' eggs, 232;
mode of attacking its prey, 238.

Γέρανος, crane, Ardea grus, 2, 4, 64;
coition, 102;
migrations of the male bird, 209;
they migrate after the quails, _ib._;
the fable of the stone they are said to carry, 210;
gregarious, _ib._;
migrations, leaders, prudence, 243;
they fight with each other, the number of their eggs, 245.

Γίννος, the offspring of a mule with a mare or she ass, 11;
see ἵννος.

Γλανὶς, a fresh-water fish, Silurus glanis, _Strack_, 9, 38, 40, 219;
conjoined spawn, 155:
two species, the greater and the smaller, the male watches the
spawn, _ib._;
size of the ova, 156;
diseases, 219;
unfit to eat when in spawn, the female better than the male, 229;
the male watches the young, breaks the hook with its teeth, 256.

Γλάνος, Hyæna striata, 204.

Γλαῦκος, a fish of a grey colour, Gobius Gozo, _Strack_, 44;
marine, 211;
it lives in holes during the summer, 214;
when good for food, 228.

Γλαυκώδεις, birds of the owl kind, 36.

Γλαῦξ, owl, 39, 45;
has crooked claws, 201;
how it may be taken, 210;
lives in holes, 215;
hostile to the crow and orchilus, 232;
is pecked by smaller birds, used in hawking, _ib._;
the time for taking the owl, 252.

Γλωττὶς, a bird, Rallus crex, _Strack_, Scolopax glottis, see κύγχραμος
and ὀρτυγόμητρα its tongue and migrations, 210.

Γνάφαλος, probably some Indian bird, its form and food, Ampelis
garrulus, 246.

Γνήσιοι ἀετοὶ, true eagles, Aquila Chrysaetos, 251.

Γόγγρος, conger, Muræna conger, 8, 37, 38, 40, 41, 61;
its ova and fat, 160;
it is destroyed by the spiny lobster, but destroys the polypus, 198;
its food, 199;
black and white kinds, 211;
lives in holes, 213;
it is attacked by the muræna, 235;
compared with the sea serpent, 255.

Γραῦς, a crustacean, Dromia lanosa, 217.

Γυπαίετος, or ὑπαίετος, Vultur barbatus, see ὀρειπέλαργος, 251.

Γυρῖνος, tadpole, 154.

Γύψ, vulture, Vultur cinereus, or V. fulvus, eggs and nest, 145, 243;
its food, two kinds of vulture, 201.

Δ

Δάσκιλλος, a fish, sciæna umbra, 199.

Δασύπους, hare, Lepus timidus, and L. cuniculus, 5, 29, 49, 58, 64, 71;
coition, 102;
superfetation, 108;
reproduction, 176, 186;
in Ithaca, 225;
smaller in Egypt, 226;
another species near Lake Bolba, 41.

Δελφὶς, dolphin, Delphinus delphis, 7, 13, 29, 37, 40, 46, 47, 59,
69, 91, 92, 93, 95;
its sleep, 98;
the fish called φθείρα follows the dolphin, 135;
reproduction, 104, 152;
it breathes air, 196;
food, 200;
throws itself on its back to take its prey, _ib._;
dolphin in the Pontus, 212;
gentle habits, 274;
its speed, it sometimes throws itself on the shore, 275.

Δίκταμνον, plant, dittany, 238;
origanum Dictammum, _Lin._

Δορκὰς, Antelope dorcas, 26.

Δράκων, a sea fish, Trachinus draco, lives near the shore, 211.

Δράκων, a species of serpent in fresh water, attacks the glanis, 219;
is hostile to the eagle, 231;
sucks the juice of the herb picris, 238.

Δρεπανὶς, perhaps the sand Martin, Hirundo riparia, 4.

Δρομάδες, migratory fish, perhaps some species of tunny, 4, 155.

Δρυοκολάπτης, woodpecker, 202;
three kinds, Picus varius, P. viridis, P. martius, 242;
habits, _ib._

Ε

Ἐγκρασίχολος, the parent of the Apua, Clupea encrasicolus,
_Strack_, 157.

Ἔγχελυς, eel, Muræna anguilla, 8, 37, 40, 41, 61, 66, 93;
is neither male nor female, 99;
the so-called male and female are different species, 97;
migrates to the sea to spawn, 156;
its origin, 158;
description and habits, 200, 201;
those called female are better for food, 229.

Ἐλαίας ἄνθος, the flower of the olive, 127, 133, 216, 242.

Ἔλαφος, stag, Cervus Elaphus, 5, 26, 27, 28;
those called Achaïnæ, 39, 237;
blood, 58, 67;
horns, 60, 236, 237;
the female, 100;
coition, 103, 174;
voice, 112;
habits, 236, 237;
the castrated animal, 278;
rumination, _ib._

Ἐλέα, Emberiza arundinacea, or Turdus arundinaceus, _Strack_, or E.
schœnilus, 246.

Ἐλεγῖνος, a migratory fish, 234.

Ἐλεδώνη, Eledone cirhosa, _Leach_, (Owen, in Cyclopædia of
Anatomy), 76.

Ἐλειὸς, dormouse, Myoxus Avellanarius; or perhaps squirrel, Sciurus
vulgaris, lives in holes in trees, 216.

Ἔλειοι, a kind of hawk, 253; probably an incorrect reading.

Ἐλεὸς, an owl, Stryx Aluco, _Strack_, see Ἀείσκοψ, 201.

Ἐλέφας, Elephas Indicus, 5, 13, 14, 24, 26, 28, 29, 40, 43, 46, 61, 72;
voice, 96;
reproduction, 103, 115, 161, 173;
food, 207;
life and diseases, 222, 224;
strength, 234;
capture, _ib._;
habits, docility, 274.

Ἔλλοψ, a fish with four simple branchia, sword fish or sturgeon,
_Liddell and Scott_, Centriscus scolopax, _Strack_, Accipenser
stellatus, 37;
ἔλοψ, 40.

Ἕλμινς, worms, especially intestinal worms, tænia and lumbricus, some
exist in sponges, 119;
origin, 123;
three kinds, flat worms, round worms, ascarides, 124;
worms in snow, Podura nivalis, 126;
some insect larvæ are described as worms, 135;
small worms in eels, 158;
worms in dogs, Tænia sevrata, 238.

Ἐμπὶς, gnat, larger than κώνωψ, Tabanus, or Phryganea,
_Strack_, 3, 9, 206.

Εμὺς, Testudo coriacea, fresh-water tortoise, Emys lutraria, 39;
reproduction, 136;
habits, 194, 216.

Ἔντελις or ἔτελις, probably sea bream, Sparus, _Strack_, Sparus
Rayi, 153.

Ἔντερα γῆς, the decomposing matter in which eels have their
origin, 158.

Ἔντομα, insects, as a class, 3, 10, 73, 123.

Ἐνυδρίς, otter, Lutra vulgaris, 2;
its food, 205.

Ἐπιλαΐς or ὑπολαΐς, Sylvia curruca, _Strack_, or perhaps hedge
sparrow, 202.

Ἔποψ, hoopoe, Upupa Epops, 1;
its nest, 138;
lives in woods and mountains, 244;
changes its colour, 246, 276.

Ἐρέβινθος, a plant, leguminous seeds, Ervum sativum, 221.

Ἐρίθακη, bee bread, 267.

Ἐρίθακος, Sylvia erithacus, or S. Phœnicurus, _Strack_,
Redstart, 202;
in its summer plumage called Phœnicurus, 276.

Ἐρινεὸς, wild fig tree, 136.

Ἕρπυλλος, Thymus serpyllum, wild thyme, 261.

Ἐρυθρῖνος, a red kind of mullet, Perea marina, Sparus Erythrymus,
_Strack_, Perea scriba, all have roes, there are no males, 99,
153, 211.

Ἐρωδιὸς, heron, Ardea major, 203;
a foe to the woodpecker, 212;
three kinds, ὁ πέλλος, the black, Ardea cinerea, ὁ λευκος, the
white, A. egretta, ὁ ἀστεριας, A. stellaris, 233, 247;
a friend of the crow, 323.

Εὐλαὶ, maggots in flesh.

Ἐφήμερον, ephemera, insect, 10, 126.

Ἐχενηΐς, probably Goby or Blenny, _Forbes in Spratt's Lycia_, not the
Remora, which was unknown to the ancients. Echeneis remora,
_Strack_, 38.

Ἔχιδνα, viper, Coluber vivipara, C. verus, 10;
hides under stones, 213.

Ἐχινομήτρα, Echinus Esculentus, _Forbes in Spratt's Lycia_, 86.

Ἐχῖνος, sea urchin, Echinus lividus; another species, with hard
spines, is Cidaris hystrix, also a long species, Amphidetus
Mediterraneus, _Forbes_, 10, 11;
eatable kinds, 86;
small species, E. saxatilis; white species at Torone, E.
decadactylus, _ib._, 87, 94;
at what season they are full of ova, 110.

Ἐχῖνος, hedgehog, Erinaceus Europæus, 10, 46, 61, 81;
coition, 102;
changes the entrance of its hole when the wind changes, 239.

Ἔχις, a serpent, Coluber vivipara, Vipera Reedii, viviparous, 49;
reproduction, 137;
how captured, 204;
changes its skin, 216;
becomes more poisonous by eating scorpions, 227.

Ἑψητὸς, a small fish, Atherina Hepsetus, _Strack_, 156.

Ζ

Ζύγαινα, a shark, Squalus Zygæna, _Strack_, 40.

Ζυγνὶς, a lizard, see χαλκὶς, 223.

Ζωδάρια, several small animals, 135.
1. Tinea pellionella.
2. T. sarcitella.
3. Psorus pulsatorius.
4. T. graminella.

Ζῶον, several unnamed animals.
1. A small crustacean in shell fish, perhaps Pinnotheres, 86.
2. marine creatures like small pieces of wood, Veretillum, 89.
3. marine creatures like shields, Alcyonium, 89.
4. marine creatures like αἰδοῖον ἀνδρὸς, Pennatula, 89.
5. winged creatures produced from maggots in pulse, Bruchus, 126.

Η

Ἡμίονος, mule, offspring of horse and wild ass, the female larger and
more long lived, 99, 170;
the so-called mules of Syria, Equus hemionus, 11, 172, 177.

Ἥπατος, a fish so called from its colour, Theutis hepatus, _Strack_,
Stromatos fiatola, 44.

Ἠπίολος, moth, Tinea mellonella, 225.

Ἡρακλεοτικὸς καρκίνος, Heracleotic crab, has a long tail, 77, 81.

Θ

Θαλλὸς, a shoot of a plant, especially the olive, 208.

Θηρία, animals larger than flies in fire, 126;
animals which destroy honey-combs, 225;
an animal like a moth, _ib._

Θὶς, black shore weed, fucus, 211.

Θραυπὶς, a small bird like a goldfinch, Fringilla Carduelis, or F.
Cannabina, 202.

Θρίσσα, a fish with prickly scales, 256.

Θρίψ, timber worm, 207.

Θύμον, thyme, Thymus vulgaris, 266.

Θυννὶς, the female tunny, 108, 109;
aged, 160;
food, 200;
migration, 211;
gregarious, 234.

Θύννος, tunny fish, Scomber Thynnus, 4, 38;
sleeps, 98;
swims in shoals, 108;
male and female, _ib._;
reproduction, 109, 135;
life, 149;
they appear to be a year older than the pelamys, 160;
food, 199;
migrates after the scombri, 209;
when best for food, 211;
migrations, 212;
how concealed, 214;
delights in warmth, 219;
old fish unfit for salting, their weight, 228.

Θὼς, jackal or ounce, Felis onza, or perhaps Canis aureus,
_Strack_, 42;
habits, 177;
hates the lion, 234;
carnivorous, _ib._;
several kinds, 272.

Ι

Ἴβις, Tantalus Ibis, _Strack_, two species, white, Tantalus sacer, and
black, T. falcinellus, 249.

Ἱέραξ, hawk, 9, 39, 40;
incubation, 146;
like the cuckoo, 146, 147;
the young good to eat, 147;
a kind which builds in rocks, _ib._;
three species, 201;
enumeration of species, 253;
the Egyptian hawk, 226;
its nest, 243;
does not eat the heart of birds, _ib._

Ἱέρας or ἱέρος, a kind of serpent, 228.

Ἰκτῖνος, kite, Falco milvius, 39, 40;
incubation, 146;
food, 201;
drink, 203;
migration, 215;
a foe to the raven, 232.

Ἴκτις, weasel or ferret, Mustela furo, 29;
habits, 239.

Ἰλλὰς, a kind of thrush, gregarious, Turdus iliaceus, _Strack_, 248;
this identification is very doubtful, _Schneider_.

Ἰξόβορος, a kind of thrush, Turdus viscivorus, _Strack_, 248.

Ἰξὸς, miseltoe, 248.

Ἵννος, hinnus, the offspring of a horse and she ass, 163.

Ἰουλὶς, a red fish, Labrus Iulis, _Strack_, 234.

Ἴουλος, Iulus, scolopendra, centipede, 73.

Ἱππάρδιον, giraffe, Giraffa cameleopardalis, 26.

Ἱππέλαφος, perhaps the Nilghau, Antilope picta, 26.

Ἱππεὺς, a crustacean, Ocyopode cursor, 77.

Ἱππομύρμηξ, a large kind of ant, Formica Herculanea, 225.

Ἵππος, horse, Equus Caballus, 13, 26, 27, 29, 39, 62, 66, 69, 70;
dreams, 97;
neighing, 112;
reproduction, age, life, 113, 161, 169;
food and drink, 205, 207;
small horses in the country of the Pygmies, 209;
diseases, 219, 222, 223;
story of a Scythian horse, 274.

Ἵππος ὁ ποτάμιος, river horse, Hippopotamus amphibius, 32, 196;
in Egypt, 32.

Ἵππουρος, fish, Coryphæna hippurus, 109;
hides in holes, 213.

Ἰτέα, willow, 155.

Ἴϋγξ, wryneck, Jynx torquilla, 35.

Ἰχνεύμων, Ichneumon, Viverra Ichneumon, 177;
attacks the asp in Egypt, 238.

Ἰχνεύμων, Ichneumon (insect) Sphex, hunts spiders, 124, 232.

Κ

Κάλαμος, reed, Acorus calamus, and perhaps also some of the larger
grasses, 122, 155;
its flower, 127;
used to support vine, 133, 155, 216;
flourishes in rainy weather, 217.

Κάλαρις or κόλαρις, a bird preyed on by the little owl. Motacilla alba
L., _Schneider_, 232.
Fringilla petronia.

Καλίδρις, Tringa, Sandpiper, Scolopax calidris, 203.

Καλλιώνυμος, fish, Uranoscopus, _Strack_, U. Scaber, 40;
lives near the shore.

Καλλύντρον, a shrub from the flowers of which the bees are said to
procure their young, 127;
perhaps Cerinthe, L., _Strack_, honeysuckle.

Κάμηλος, Camel, Camelus Bactrianus and C. Dromedarius, 25, 27, 29,
30, 70;
reproduction, 103, 114, 161, 173;
endurance of thirst, 207;
life, _ib._;
diseases, 222;
purity, 274;
castration of females, 278.

Κάμπη, caterpillar, 124.

Κανθαρὶς, several kinds of beetles, 88;
a kind of fly, 106;
origin, 126.

Κάνθαρος, beetle, Scarabæus pilularius, _Schneider_, Cantharis
lytta, 9;
origin, 125;
changes its skin, 216.

Κάνθαρος, a sea-fish, lives near the shore, Sparus Cantharus, 211.

Κάπρος, boar, 29;
coition, age, 112, 114;
castration, 277.

Κάπρος, a fish said to make a grunting noise. Cottus cataphractus, or
Squalus centrina, 37;
in the Achelous, 95.

Καραβοειδῆ, crustaceans, 79, 85, 228.

Κάραβος, insect, stag-beetle, Cerambyx. _Strack_, 89, 125.

Κάραβος, Palinurus vulgaris, Spiny lobster, 7, 9, 10;
as a class, 73, 77;
male and female, 78;
described, 79, 80, 84, 93;
sleep, 97;
reproduction, 120;
where produced, 121;
change their shell, _ib._;
kills other fish, is killed by the polypus, 198;
habitation, pursuit, 129;
hides itself and changes its shell, 217.

Καρίδιον πιννοφύλαξ, a small crustacean, Pinnotheres veterum, _Bell's
Crustaceans_, 117.

Καρὶς, shrimp or prawn, Crangon, Palæmon, 77;
different kinds, _ib._;
reproduction, 106, 121;
changes its colour in winter, 228.

Καρκίνιον, hermit crab, Pagurus Bernhardi, L., _Bell_, and probably
other species, 85;
in Strombi and Neritæ, _ib._, 118;
also a species in Pinnæ distinguished from καρίδιον, 117.

Καρκίνος, crab, of various species. Cancer, Carcinus, &c., 4, 10,
73, 77;
several species, 77;
fluviatile, Telphura fluviatilis, _ib._;
number of feet, _ib._;
short-tailed _ib._;
description, 80, 81, 85;
reproduction, 106;
white crabs in various shells, 117;
change of shell, 121;
rock crabs, 198;
black crabs, hard shelled crabs, 217.

Κάστωρ, beaver, Castor Fiber, 205.

Καυλίον, some kind of sea-weed, 200.

Καταῤῥάκτης, diver, Pelecanus bassanus, L., _Schneider_, 45;
mode of taking its prey, 244.

Κεγχρὶς, Falco tinnunculus, _Schneider_, 45;
lays many eggs, 138;
red eggs, 139;
mode of drinking, 203.

Κελεὸς, large green woodpecker, Picus viridis, 202, 232, 233.

Κέφρος, petrel, Procellaria pelagica, 203, 253.

Κέρθιος, creeper, Certhia familiaris, 247.

Κερκὶς, Populus tremula, osier, 205.

Κεστραῖοι, mullets as a class, 109, 159.

Κεστρεὺς, mullet. Mugil. In the lake Silpha, 37, 44, 92;
it sleeps, 98;
capture, 87;
birth, 108;
enumeration of species, 109, 153, 157;
enters rivers to spawn, 156, 159;
food, 199, 228;
habits, 200;
near the shore, 211;
associates with the labrax, 235;
the swiftest of fishes, 256;
in season in the autumn, _ib._

Κέφαλος, grey mullet. _Spratt's Lycia_, Mugil cephalus, 109, 153;
reproduction, 159;
food, 199;
injured by cold, 218.

Κήβος, monkey, Simia mora or diona, _Strack_, 32.
S. Cynologus.

Κηρὶς, κυρὶς, or κιῤῥὶς, a sea-fish, 228.

Κήρυλος, a sea-bird, mentioned with the Halcyon, 203.
Tringa variabilis.

Κήρυξ, whelk, Buccinum, its mecon, 80, 81, 82, 85;
appears in the early spring, 110;
nidulary capsules, 115, 116;
the small whelk, 118;
hides itself, 213.

Κῆτος, whale, as a class, 10, 39;
whales, 69;
other whales, 152.

Κητώδη, Cetacea, 7, 13, 104, 196;
turn on their back to seize their prey, 200.

Κηφὴν, drone, 260.

Κίγκλος, probably Tringa Cinclus, Linn. Dunlin, 244.
Cinclus aquaticus.

Κίθαρος, a kind of turbot, Trigla lyra, 44.

Κιννάμωμον, a spice, cinnamon, 245.

Κιννάμωμον ὄρνεον, cinnamon bird, 245;
Herodotus, Book 3, c. 111.

Κίρκος, perhaps Falco nisus, _Liddell and Scott_, 232, 253.
Falco pygargus.

Κισσὸς, Ivy. Hedera Helix, 130.

Κίττα or Κίσσα, Jay, Corvus glandarius, captured by the Ægolius and
Eleus, 201;
changes its note, 245;
its nest, _ib._

Κίχλη, Turdus labrus and T. merula, nest, 138;
hides, 215;
changes its colour in winter, 276;
three kinds, 244.

Κίχλη, a sea-fish, 37;
near the land, 211;
in pairs, 213;
changes its colour, 228.

Κλῆρος, also called πυραύστης, an insect injurious to beehives,
Galeria cerella and G. mellonella, 226, 266.

Κνίδη, sea-nettle, probably an actinia, 118, 255.

Κνιπολόγος, a species of woodpecker, Picus varius, or minor, 202.

Κνὶψ or σκνὶψ, an insect, Formica flava, _Strack_, finds honey by the
sense of smell, 93;
eaten by the woodpecker, 93, 202, 242.

Κόγχη, a bivalve shell, Mya pictorum, 82;
several species, _ib._;
a kind of crustacean is found in them, 85;
origin, 117, 118;
large smooth shell in rivers, 243.

Κογκύλιον, a small bivalve shell, 198, 199.

Κοῖτος or κόττος, a fresh-water fish. Trout, Salmo Fario, _Strack_, 92.

Κοκκάλιον, Helix, land snail, 81.

Κόκκυξ, cuckoo, Cuculus Canorus, 93, 138;
habits, form, and eggs, 146;
eatable, 147;
lays in the nests of other birds, 249;
changes its note when about to migrate, 276.

Κολεὸς, also ἐλεὸς, and κελεὸς, woodpecker, 233.

Κολίας, a kind of tunny, Scomber colias, in the Propontis, 211;
when taken, 212;
gregarious, 234.

Κολιὸς, Corvus monedula or Picus viridis, 36;
in p. 242 colœus should probably be colius.

Κολλυρίων, Ampelis garrula, L. _Schneider_. Lanius garrula or
excubitor, 248.

Κολοιὸς, Pelecanus graculus, four species, 248.

Κολοκύντη, cucumber, Cucumis Sativus, 124, 208.

Κολυμβὶς, a sea-bird, diver, Colymbis, 3, 203.

Κόνις, knits, 134.

Κόνηξα, plant, Inula Conyza, or I. pulicaria, flea bane, 93.

Κορακίας, probably the Cornish Chough Pyrrocorax Graculus, 248.

Κορακῖνος, sturgeon, Accipenser huso, _Strack_, Sparus Chromis, 109,
159, 160, 213, 218, 228, 234.

Κορακοειδῶν γένος, the crow tribe, 5.

Κόραξ, raven and rook, Corvus Corax and frugilegus, 40, 45, 64;
eggs, incubation, young, 146;
Egyptian raven, 226;
hostile to the hawk, 232;
pecks the ass and bull, _ib._;
friend of the fox, 233;
frequent in towns, 248;
nest and habits, 250.

Κόραξ, a water-bird, Pelecanus Carbo, _Strack_, 203.

Κορδύλη or σκορδύλη, the young tunny fish, 160.

Κορδύλος, water-newt, Triton aquaticus, 3, 9, 197.
Siren Proteus.

Κόρις, cimex, bug, C. lectularius, 134.

Κορυδαλὸς, lark, Alauda arvensis cristata, 277.