Chapter II: Myology (4)

1, Femoral trochlea; 2, tibia; 3, tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus; 4, cuboid branch of same; 5, 5, its metatarsal branch; 6, fleshy portion; 7, cuneiform branch of its tendon; 8, metatarsal branch of the same tendon; 9, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges turned outwards); 10, peroneus brevis (lateral extensor of the phalanges).]

=Tibialis Anticus= (Fig. 83; Fig. 84, 6; Fig. 85, 4; Fig. 87, 10; Fig. 88, 10, 11).--It is further named by veterinarians the _flexor of the metatarsus_.

In the dog and the cat this muscle, which is rather large, arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia and from the crest of this bone. In its superior part it is flat, but lower down it is thick and produces a prominence in front of the tibia. Finally, it becomes tendinous, and passes towards the tarsus; thence it is directed towards the inner side of the metatarsus, and is inserted into the great-toe, this latter being sometimes well developed, but also often merely represented by a small bony nodule on which the muscle is then fixed.

In the other animals with which we here occupy ourselves, the tibialis anticus presents a complexity which would be incomprehensible unless this muscle be first studied in the horse.

In this latter the tibialis anticus consists of two distinct portions, placed one in front of the other: a fleshy portion, and a tendinous portion running parallel to it.

The muscle is covered, except on its internal part and inferiorly, by a muscle with which we will occupy ourselves later on--that is, the common extensor of the toes.

The tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus (Fig. 83), especially covered by the extensor of the toes, arises from the inferior extremity of the femur, from the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle; thence it descends towards a groove which is hollowed out on the external tuberosity of the tibia, and is directed towards the tarsus, where it divides into two branches, which are inserted into the cuboid bone and the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal. These two parts form a ring through which the terminal tendon of the fleshy portion of the same muscle passes.

This fleshy portion, situated behind the preceding, arises from the superior extremity of the tibia, on the borders of the groove in which the tendinous portion lies; thence it passes downwards for a short distance on the inner side of the common extensor of the toes, which covers it in the rest of its extent. It ends in a tendon which, after passing through the tendinous ring above noticed, divides into two branches. One of these branches is inserted into the anterior surface of the superior extremity of the principal metatarsal, the other into the second cuneiform bone.

1, Biceps cruris and fascia lata, divided in order to expose the upper part of the muscles of the leg; 2, inferior portion of the triceps cruris; 3, patella; 4, semi-tendinosus; 5, inferior extremity of the femur; 6, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 7, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 8, tibia; 9, peroneus longus; 10, peroneus brevis; 11, fifth metatarsal; 12, fasciculus detached from the peroneus brevis and passing towards the fifth toe; 13, external head of gastrocnemius; 14, tendo-Achillis; 15, calcaneum; 16, flexor digitorum sublimis; 17, 17, tendon of the flexor digitorum sublimis; 18, flexor longus pollicis (portion of the deep flexor of the toes); 19, dorsal muscle of the foot (short extensor of the toes).]

In the ox the same two portions of the tibialis anticus exist, but with this capital difference--that the anterior portion is fleshy, superficial, and blended for a great part of its length with the common extensor of the toes.

The portion which corresponds to that which is fleshy in the horse arises from the tibia; below, it ends on the inner surface of the superior extremity of the metatarsus and the cuneiform bones. That which represents the tendinous part, which is also fleshy, as we have just pointed out, arises above with the common extensor of the toes, from the femur, in the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle; whilst below, after having given passage to the tendon of the preceding portion, as in the horse, it is inserted into the metatarsus and the cuneiform bones.

In the pig, the tibialis anticus presents an arrangement nearly similar to that which we have just described.

It seems to us of interest to add that it has been sought to ascertain to what muscle of the human leg the tendinous part of the tibialis of the horse corresponds--a part which has become fleshy in the pig and the ox.

According to some authors, it represents the peroneus tertius; but that muscle is situated on the outer side of the common extensor of the toes; and here the portion with which it has been compared is placed on the inside. It has also been likened to a portion of the common extensor of the toes, but it does not pass to the latter. Lastly, it has been considered as being the homologue of the proper extensor of the great-toe; but why, then, in the ox, which has no great-toe, is it so highly developed? Nevertheless, its position and its relations sufficiently warrant this method of comprehending it. The tibialis anticus is a flexor of the foot. It is also able, in animals in which the tarsal articulations allow of the movement, to rotate the foot inwards.

1, Gluteus maximus and biceps cruris; 2, semi-tendinosus; 3, patella; 4, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 5, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 6, fasciculus of the extensor longus digitorum, which is considered as the representative of the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus in the horse; 7, peroneus longus; 8, peroneus brevis (proper extensor of the external toe); 9, external head of gastrocnemius; 10, soleus; 11, tendo-Achillis; 12, calcaneum; 13, tendon of the extensor longus digitorum (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 14, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 15, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes; 16, tendon of the deep flexor of the toes; 17, suspensory ligament of the fetlock.]

With regard to the tendinous part, called by veterinarians the _cord of the flexor of the metatarsus_, it serves, in the horse, to produce the flexion of the metatarsus when the knee is already flexed; it thus acts in a passive fashion, which is explained by its resistance and the position which it occupies in relation to these two articulations.

=Extensor Proprius Pollicis.=--This muscle exists only in the dog and the cat, and there in a rudimentary condition.

It is covered by the common extensor of the toes and the tibialis anticus, and passes, accompanied by the tendon of this latter muscle, to terminate on the second metatarsal, or the phalanx, which articulates with it. When the first toe exists in the dog, it is inserted into this by a very slender tendon.

=Extensor Longus Digitorum= (Fig. 83, 9; Fig. 84, 7; Fig. 85, 5, 6; Fig. 86, 4; Fig. 87, 12; Fig. 88, 7).--It is also called by veterinarians _the anterior extensor of the phalanges_.

In the dog and the cat this muscle is to be seen in the space limited behind by the peroneus longus and in front by the tibialis anticus. Above it is covered by this latter. In the lower half of the leg, it is also in relation, on the inner side, with the tibialis anticus; but behind it is separated from the peroneus longus by the external surface of the shaft and inferior extremity of the tibia. This arrangement, besides, recalls that which is found in man, the peroneus longus of the latter diverging in the same way, at this level, from the common extensor, and leaving exposed the corresponding portion of the skeleton of the leg.

This muscle, fusiform in shape, arises at its upper part from the external surface of the inferior extremity of the femur, then its tendon passes into a groove hollowed on the external tuberosity of the tibia. The fleshy body which succeeds is directed towards the tarsus, but before reaching it is replaced by a tendon. This tendon, at the level of the metatarsal bones, divides into four slips, which pass towards the toes, and are inserted into the second and third phalanges of the latter.

In the horse it covers, to a great extent, the tibialis anticus, so that it is the latter which forms the large fusiform prominence especially noticeable in the middle region, to which the contour of the anterior surface of the leg is due.

1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, biceps cruris; 3, patella; 4, extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 5, reinforcing band arising from the ligament of the fetlock; 6, peroneus brevis (lateral extensor of the phalanges); 7, external head of gastrocnemius; 8, soleus; 9, tendo-Achillis; 10, calcaneum; 11, tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 12, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 13, 13, tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges; 14, 14, tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges; 15, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 16, principal metatarsal: 17, external rudimentary metatarsal.]

It arises above from the inferior extremity of the femur, from the fossa situated between the trochlea and the external condyle; therefore, it has a common origin with the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus, or flexor of the metatarsus.

The tendon, which at the level of the inferior part of the leg succeeds to the fleshy body, passes in front of the tarsus, the principal metatarsal, and receives the tendon of the peroneus brevis which we will describe later on. It then reaches the anterior surface of the fetlock. There it presents an arrangement analogous to that which we have pointed out in connection with the anterior extensor of the phalanges--a muscle which, in the fore-limbs, corresponds to the common extensor of the digits; that is to say, it is inserted, in form of an expansion, into the pyramidal prominence of the third phalanx, after having formed attachments to the first and second, and having received on each side a strengthening band from the suspensory ligament of the fetlock.

In the ox the long extensor of the toes is united above, and for a great part of its length, with the portion of the tibialis anticus, which represents, albeit in the fleshy state, the tendinous cord of the latter in the horse.

In common with this portion, it arises from the inferior extremity of the femur. Thence it passes towards the tarsus and divides into two fasciculi, internal and external, which are continued by tendons. These pass towards the phalanges, and, in case of the common extensor of the digits belonging to the fore-limbs, the internal is destined for the internal toe, and the external is common to the two toes.

1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, semi-membranosus; 3, triceps cruris (vastus internus); 4, sartorius (patellar); 5, sartorius (tibial); 6, patella; 7, first or middle adductor; 8, small and great adductor united; 9, gracilis; 10, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus); 11, tibia; 12, tendon of extensor longus digitorum (anterior extensor of the phalanges): 13, gastrocnemius, inner head; 14, tendo-Achillis; 15, calcaneum; 16, popliteus; 17, superficial flexor of the toes; 18, flexor longus pollicis (portion of the deep flexor of the toes); 19, flexor longus digitorum (portion of the deep flexor of the toes); 20, tendon of the tibialis posticus.]

1, Semi-tendinosus; 2, semi-membranosus; 3, triceps cruris (vastus internus); 4, patella; 5, sartorius; 6, gracilis; 7, extensor longus digitorum common extensor of the toes (anterior extensor of the phalanges); 8, tendon of the preceding muscle; 9, reinforcing band given off by the suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 10, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus), its tendinous portion; 11, tibialis anticus (flexor of the metatarsus), its fleshy portion; 12, cuneiform branch of the tendon of this fleshy portion; 13, internal head of gastrocnemius; 14, popliteus; 15, tendon of the flexor brevis digitorum (superficial flexor of the phalanges); 16, flexor longus pollicis and tibialis posticus (deep flexor of the phalanges); 17, flexor longus digitorum (oblique flexor of the phalanges); 18, 18, tendon of the superficial flexor of the phalanges; 19, 19, tendon of the deep flexor of the phalanges; 20, suspensory ligament of the fetlock; 21, principal metatarsal; 22, internal rudimentary metatarsal.]

In the pig the general arrangement of the muscle is similar, but the tendons end in a manner which is a little more complicated. Apart from the fasciculi which correspond to the tendinous portion of the tibialis anticus (fleshy here, as in the ox), the long extensor of the toes at the level of the tarsus divides into three tendons: the internal goes to the great internal toe; the middle bifurcates in the upper part of the digital portion of the foot, and each of its branches goes towards one of the great-toes; the external divides to pass towards each of the two small toes, and towards the great ones; but this latter disposition is not constant.

By its contraction the muscle which we have just studied extends the phalanges and flexes the foot.

=Peroneus Tertius.=--This muscle is not found in domestic quadrupeds.

We should remember, nevertheless, that certain authors consider as representing it the tendinous portion of the anterior tibial of the horse, or the corresponding portion now fleshy, of the same muscle in the pig and the ox. It is by reason of this fact that it is called the third peroneal, notwithstanding that in the numerical order of the peroneals it is rather the first.

But that which still further complicates this question of nomenclature is that some authors give this name of third to a peroneal which, in the carnivora, is situated more definitely in the group of external muscles (see below, =Short Lateral Peroneal=).

Muscles of the External Region

In man, two muscles constitute this region; they are the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis.

=Peroneus Longus= (Fig. 84, 9; Fig. 85, 7).--This muscle does not exist in the domestic animals; only in the flesh-eaters, the pig and the ox excepted.

It is in relation superiorly with the tibialis anticus, and inferiorly with the common extensor of the toes; in the ox, it is in contact with this latter muscle throughout its whole length.

The peroneus longus arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia; towards the middle of the leg it is replaced by a tendon. This proceeds towards the tarsus, but previously it passes between the tibia and fibula. In the ox it is situated in front of the coronoid tarsal bone; we recollect that this bone is regarded as representing the inferior extremity of the fibula (see p. 97). Then it passes into a groove belonging to the cuboid bone or to the cuboido-scaphoid bone in the ox, traverses obliquely the posterior aspect of the tarsus, and is inserted into the rudimentary bone which represents the first toe; or, if this does not exist, into the innermost of the metatarsal bones.

This muscle is an extensor of the foot. It also rotates it outwards in the animals in which the articulation permits this latter movement.

=Peroneus Brevis= (Fig. 83, 8; Fig. 83, 10; Fig. 84, 10; Fig. 86, 6).--In the dog and the cat, this muscle is covered in part by the peroneus longus, and arises from the inferior half of the tibia and the fibula; at the level of the tarsus it becomes tendinous, passes into a groove hollowed out on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the fibula, and terminates on the external aspect of the superior extremity of the fifth metatarsal. A little before this insertion it crosses the tendon of the long peroneal in passing to the outer side of the latter.

To the short peroneal muscle is found annexed a very thin fasciculus which lies upon it. This fasciculus arises from beneath the head of the fibula, and is soon replaced by a thin tendon, which, accompanying that of the short peroneal, proceeds towards the foot, after having traversed the groove in the inferior extremity of the fibula; passes along by the fifth metatarsal (Fig. 84, 12); blends at the level of the first phalanx of the fifth toe with the corresponding tendon of the long extensor of the toes, and partakes of the insertions of this tendon.

This fasciculus is designated by some authors under the name of the peroneal of the fifth toe, or the proper extensor of the same toe. But what makes still further complications is that other authors regard it as an anterior, or third, peroneal. Now, these names are those which other anatomists have applied to the fasciculus of the anterior tibial, which, in the pig and the ox, is fused in part with the long extensor of the toes. Hence there results a confusion which is truly regrettable.

In brief, we can, without inconvenience, consider it as a fasciculus of the short peroneal muscle.

We sometimes find in man, but abnormally, an arrangement which partly recalls that which we have just indicated. It consists in a duplication of the tendon of the short peroneal, one of the branches of which goes to the fifth metatarsal, and the other to the fifth toe; it is sometimes a single fasciculus which goes to the phalanges of this latter. We have met with examples of these anomalies.[31] In the pig, the short peroneal is situated on the same plane as the long. It consists of two clearly distinct fasciculi, which arise from the fibula. The tendon of the anterior fasciculus proceeds to the great external toe--that is to say, the fourth, of which it is the proper extensor. The posterior fasciculus terminates on the small external toe, the fifth, of which it is in like manner the extensor.

[31] Edouard Cuyer, 'Anomalies, Osseous and Muscular' (_Bulletins de
la Societe d'Anthropologie_, Paris, 1891).

In the ox, the fleshy fibres of the short peroneal arise from a fibrous band which replaces the fibula, and from the external tuberosity of the tibia. Situated behind the long peroneal and on the same plane, it terminates in a tendon which appears at the level of the inferior part of the leg; it passes in front of the canon, and is inserted into the external toe, of which it is the proper extensor.

In the horse, it is the sole representative of the peroneal muscles, and veterinary anatomists have given it the name of _the lateral extensor of the phalanges_.

Its fleshy body arises above from the external lateral ligament of the knee-joint, and from the whole length of the fibula. In the middle third of the leg it is narrowed; lower down it is replaced by a tendon. This is lodged in a groove hollowed on the external surface of the inferior extremity of the tibia; then after passing along the external surface of the tarsus, it is directed forward, and proceeds to blend towards the middle of the canon-bone with the tendon of the long extensor of the toes, or anterior extensor of the phalanges, of which it shares the insertions. It extends the phalanges into which it is inserted. It also flexes the foot.

Muscles of the Posterior Region

It will not be unprofitable to recall to mind that, in man, the muscles of this region are arranged in two layers: a superficial layer consisting of the gastrocnemius and soleus, to which is added a muscle of little importance, the plantaris, and a deep layer formed by four muscles--the popliteus, flexor longus digitorum, tibialis posticus, and flexor longus pollicis.

The gastrocnemius and soleus, independent in their upper portion, unite below in a common tendon; they thus form also a triceps muscle, which we designate under the name of the triceps of the leg, or triceps suralis, because it forms the elevation of the calf of the leg (from _sura_, calf).

=Gastrocnemius= (Fig. 83, 9, 11; Fig. 84, 13, 14; Fig. 86, 7, 9; Fig. 88, 13).--The external and internal heads of the gastrocnemius, distinct from one another only in their upper portion, arise from the shaft of the femur, above the condyles, on the borders of the popliteal surface, to a relatively considerable extent in the great quadrupeds.

At this level they are situated in the popliteal region--that is to say, in the space limited externally by the biceps, and internally by the semi-tendinosus. But as they descend to a rather low level on the leg in quadrupeds, and especially in carnivora, they do not, properly speaking, determine a projection of the calf of the leg. However, they pass from this region but to be soon continued by a tendon--the tendo-Achillis, which is inserted into the calcaneum.

Now, the region of the tarsus is called by veterinarians _the ham_, the posterior surface of which is angular, because of the oblique direction of the leg with regard to the vertical direction of the metatarsus and the presence of the calcaneum; the prominence which this surface presents has received the name of _the point of the ham_, and the tendon which ends there that of _the cord of the ham_.

But the tendo-Achillis does not alone form this cord. Indeed, as we will soon see, the tendon of the superficial flexor of the toes takes part in its formation.

We may add, with regard to the tendo-Achillis, that it is more clearly perceived as an external feature, because the skin sinks in front of it, as it does in man, over the lateral parts of the region which it occupies.

The gastrocnemius, when it contracts, extends the foot on the leg.

It serves to maintain the tibio-tarsal angle in the standing position, and during walking, to determine the steadying of the hind-limbs, which then, after the fashion of a spring, project the body forward.

By an analogous movement they take part in the posterior projection of the hind-limbs in the act of kicking; but they are not the only ones to act in this case, the muscles of the buttock and thigh also being brought into play.

=Soleus= (Fig. 83, 10; Fig. 86, 8).--This muscle, much less developed in quadrupeds than in man, does not exist in the dog.

With regard to the soleus in the pig, Professor Lesbre says: 'Meckel denied its existence; we, however, believe that it is united to the external head of the gastrocnemius, its origin being transferred to the femur.'[32]

[32] F. X. Lesbre, 'Essai de Myologie comparee de l'homme et des
mammiferes domestiques en vue d'etablir une nomenclature unique
et rationelle,' Lyon, 1897, p. 169.

But in animals in which it exists, this muscle, of but little importance, occupies the outer side of the leg. It arises above from the external tuberosity of the tibia, and terminates below in a tendon which is united with that of the gastrocnemius.

The soleus has the same action as these latter.

=Plantaris.=--In quadrupeds this muscle is blended with the superficial flexor of the toes, which we will study afterwards.

=Popliteus= (Fig. 87, 16; Fig. 88, 14).--In man, this muscle, which occupies the posterior surface of the tibia, above the oblique line, is completely covered by the gastrocnemius.

In quadrupeds, where it is more voluminous, it projects internally beyond the gastrocnemius, so that it is seen in the internal and superior part of the region of the superficial layer of muscles, immediately behind the internal surface of the tibia, which, as we know, is subcutaneous.

The popliteus arises from the external surface of the external condyle of the femur. Thence its fibres which diverge pass to be inserted into the superior part of the posterior surface and of the internal border of the tibia. It is in this latter region that it projects beyond the gastrocnemius, but we may add that there it is more or less covered by the semi-tendinosus.

It flexes the leg, and rotates it forwards.

=Superficial Flexor of the Toes= (Fig. 83, 13, 15; Fig. 84, 17; Fig. 86, 11, 13, 13; Fig. 87, 17; Fig. 88, 15, 18, 18).--In man, the homologue of this muscle is found in the sole of the foot. It is called _the short flexor of the toes_. It arises from the calcaneum, and passes to the four outer toes. In quadrupeds, it rises as high as the back of the knee, and is found blended with the plantaris.

Further designated by the name of _the superficial flexor of the phalanges_, covered in part by the gastrocnemius, with which it is in relation for a great part of the course which it traverses, this muscle arises from the posterior surface of the femur, on the external branch of the inferior bifurcation of the linea aspera. In the horse, this origin takes place in a depression situated above the external condyle, in the supracondyloid fossa. Then it accompanies the gastrocnemius, and becomes tendinous where the tendo-Achillis commences. It then winds round the latter in placing itself on its inner side, then on its posterior surface, and reaches the calcaneum. It accordingly contributes, as we have already pointed out, to form the cord of the ham. After having become expanded, and having covered as with a sort of fibrous cap the bone of the heel, it descends behind the metatarsus, and presents there an arrangement analogous to that which we pointed out in connection with the superficial flexor of the digits--that is, it contributes to form the _tendon_. This prominence, in the form of a cord, we see behind the canon-bone in solipeds and ruminants. It finally terminates in the same way as the muscle with which we have compared it (see p. 197).

In the horse, its fleshy body is but slightly developed, so that its tendon alone is specially visible in the superficial muscular layer, but in the dog and the cat it is large. Hence it results that its fleshy body appears on each side of the inferior half of the gastrocnemius, and produces an elevation which recalls that which the soleus produces on each side of the same muscles in the human species.

The muscles which follow form, with the popliteus, which we have already studied, the deep layer of the posterior region of the leg.

=Flexor Longus Digitorum= (Fig. 87, 19; Fig. 88, 17).--This muscle, in man, is the only common flexor of the toes belonging to the muscles of the leg.

In comparison with the preceding muscle, it is a deep flexor. Veterinarians have given it the name of _the oblique flexor of the phalanges_.

Visible on the internal aspect of the superficial layer of the muscles of the leg, this muscle arises above from the posterior surface of the external tuberosity of the tibia, becomes tendinous, passes towards the metatarsus, and blends with the tendons of the posterior tibial and the long proper flexor of the great-toe. In the dog and the cat it is blended with this latter only.

=Tibialis Posticus= (Fig. 85, 14; Fig. 86, 12; Fig. 87, 20; Fig. 88, 16).--This muscle arises from the external tuberosity of the tibia, and from the head of the fibula. Thence it passes to the tarsus, and terminates in different fashion in carnivora and other quadrupeds.

In the dog and the cat, it is inserted into the ligamentous apparatus of the tarsus, or into the base of the second metatarsal.

In the other quadrupeds with which we are here occupied it is blended with the long proper flexor of the great-toe.

It is accordingly in the carnivora that the mode of termination of the tibialis posticus most nearly resembles that of this same muscle in the human species. From this independence there results a special action.

It is an adductor and internal rotator of the foot.

=Flexor Longus Pollicis= (Fig. 84, 18; Fig. 85, 14; Fig. 86, 12; Fig. 87, 18; Fig. 88, 16).--This muscle, as that in man, is the most external of the deep layer of the leg. It is on the external aspect of the latter we perceive it, between the peroneals and the gastrocnemius or tendo-Achillis.

It arises from the fibula and tibia, and is thence directed towards the tarsus. It unites with the long common flexor of the toes to form with it _the deep flexor of the phalanges_, of which it is the principal fasciculus. We may add that in the dog and the cat the posterior tibial remains independent of this latter, but that in the pig, ox, and horse the posterior tibial is united to the preceding to form with them the deep flexor muscle.

Thus constituted, the deep flexor goes towards the phalanges, where it terminates as the deep flexor of the digits of the fore-limbs (see p. 197). In animals possessed of a canon it contributes to form the _tendon_ (Fig. 85, 16; Fig. 86, 14, 14; Fig. 88, 19, 19).

Muscles of the Foot

We must remember that on the dorsal surface of the foot in man we find but a single muscle--the dorsalis pedis. The remaining subcutaneous structures of this region consist of the tendons of the anterior muscles of the leg which occupy this dorsal aspect.

=Dorsalis Pedis= (Fig. 84, 19).--Also called the extensor brevis digitorum, the dorsalis pedis muscle is found in all domestic quadrupeds; but its development is so much the less as the number of digits is more reduced.

In the dog and the cat it arises from the calcaneum, and is inserted into the three internal toes (the first toe excepted) by uniting with the corresponding tendons of the common extensor.

In the pig its disposition is analogous.

As for the dorsalis pedis of the ox and the horse, it is extremely rudimentary, and occupies the superior part of the canon. It is a small, fleshy body, situated on the anterior surface of the metatarsus, which arises from the calcaneum, whence it passes to unite at its inferior extremity with the tendon of the extensor of the phalanges.

As regards the muscles of the sole of the foot, we think it unnecessary to occupy ourselves at any length with them because of their slight importance with regard to external form.

We will only recall that in the median portion of this plantar surface we find in man the short flexor of the toes, which in quadrupeds arises higher up, from the posterior surface of the femur; that it belongs to the muscles of the leg; and that it forms the superficial flexor of the toes, which we have already studied.

We may further add that the suspensory ligament of the fetlock in ruminants and solipeds represents, as in the fore-limbs, the interosseous muscles.

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD

We will divide these muscles into two categories: masticatory and cutaneous.

Masticatory Muscles

The muscles of this group which specially interest us are the masseter and the temporal. As regards the pterygoids, since they are situated within the borders of the inferior maxillary bone, and consequently do not reach the surface, we shall not require to occupy ourselves with them here.

=Masseter= (Fig. 89, 2; Fig. 90, 1; Figs. 91, 92).--For those who have studied the masseter of man, it is not difficult to recognise that of quadrupeds. Nevertheless, the particular aspect which it presents in different species gives to its study a certain interest.

Arising from the zygomatic arch, and passing downwards and backwards, it is inserted into the external surface of the ramus of the mandible and into its angle.

Its posterior border is in relation with the parotid gland (Fig. 90, 14; Figs. 91, 92), this gland being situated between the corresponding border of the lower jaw bone and the transverse process of the atlas. Such are the general characters; the following are the particular ones:

In the carnivora it is thick and convex. In the horse it is flat, but more expanded; it forms the _flat of the cheek_. In the ox it is flat, as in the latter; but, while being less thick, it is more prolonged in the vertical direction.

The form of the osseous parts which give it origin is, besides, in relation with these differences, and explains the peculiar characters which the masseter presents.

1, Zygomatic arch; 2, masseter; 3, temporal exposed by the suppression of the auricular and occipital muscles and the pinna of the ear; 4, auditory canal; 5, inferior maxillary bone; 6, digastric.]

Indeed, in the dog and the cat the zygomatic arch, strongly convex, springs up in a marked manner from the plane of the lateral aspects of the skull.

In the horse the same arch, less prominent externally, is prolonged by a rectilinear crest on the superior maxillary bone, where it is continued in forming the zygomatic or maxillary spine.

In the ox the same crest ascends a good way towards the inferior margin of the orbit in a curved direction with the concavity inferior, to redescend afterwards on the external surface of the superior maxilla.

The masseter is an elevator of the lower jaw. It acts, above all, as in the human species, in the process of mastication.

=Temporal Muscle= (Fig. 89, 3).--The development of the temporal is in proportion to the energy of the movements of elevation which the lower jaw has to execute.

It arises from the temporal fossa, and is inserted into the coronoid process of the inferior maxilla.

Its development, enormous in the carnivora, is such that the muscle projects beyond its fossa. It is less voluminous in the horse, and still less so in the ox. In the latter, indeed, the temporal fossa, although deep, is of small extent (see Fig. 62, p. 119); the frontal bone being large, it is found to be thrown back on the lateral walls of the cranium, below the osseous processes which support the horns and overhang the fossa in question, as well as the muscle which it contains.

It is covered by the auricular muscles, and by the base of the pinna of the ear.

Like the masseter, the temporal is an elevator of the lower jaw.

Cutaneous Muscles of the Head

=Occipito-Frontalis.=--The epicranial aponeurosis is extremely thin. In the dog the occipital muscle occupies the superior part of the head; it overlies the temporal muscle.

With regard to the frontal muscle, which is of great extent in the ox (Fig. 91, F), it is represented in the horse and the carnivora by a small fleshy fasciculus only, the _fronto-palpebral muscle_, similar to the superciliary muscle. This, occupying the superior and internal part of the border of the orbit, ends by blending its fibres with those of the orbicular muscle of the eyelids at the region of the eyebrow.

=Orbicularis Palpebrarum= (Fig. 90, 2; Figs. 91, 92).--This annular muscle surrounds the palpebral orifice, and takes its origin on the internal part of the orbital region. In the horse it arises, by a small tendon, from a tubercle which occupies the external surface of the os unguis, or lachrymal bone.

This muscle determines the narrowing and closure of the palpebral orifice.

=Pyramidalis Nasi.=--The pyramidal muscle is not found in the domestic animals. It appears to be blended with the internal elevator of the upper lip and wing of the nose; this is easy of comprehension if we bear in mind the relative position of these two muscles in the human species.

1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; 3, zygomaticus major; 4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the small zygomatic); 5, levator labii superioris proprius; 6, levator labii superioris alaeque nasi; 7, caninus; 9, buccinator; 11, zygomatico-auricularis; 12, external temporo-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis; 16, inferior maxillary bone; 17, digastric.]

=Corrugator Supercilii.=--This muscle is represented by the fronto-palpebral muscle noticed above, which is by some regarded as a vestige of the frontal.

=Zygomaticus Major= (Fig. 90, 3; Figs. 91, 92).--This is the _zygomatic-labial_ of veterinarians. This muscle is of an elongated form, and has a ribbon-like aspect.

In the dog and the cat it arises from the base of the pinna of the ear, from the portion of this base which bears the name of scutiform cartilage. (With regard to this cartilage, see p. 242, =Zygomatico-auricularis=.) From this it is directed downwards and forwards, to terminate, after having crossed the masseter, on the deep surface of the skin of the corresponding labial commissure.

This mode of termination is the same in the ox and the horse; but where the muscle differs is at the level of its upper extremity. There it ascends less than in the carnivora. In the ox it arises from the zygomatic arch in the neighbourhood of the temporo-maxillary articulation; in the pig and the horse its origin is still lower, on the surface of the masseter, close to the maxillary spine.

When it contracts, it draws upwards the labial commissure.

Now, in man, we remember, it is the great zygomatic that, by an action of the same kind, determines the essential characters of the expression of laughing.

There is, accordingly, a connection to be established between those displacements which are similar and the analogy of facial expression which necessarily results from them.[33]

[33] Edouard Cuyer, 'The Mimic,' Paris, 1802.

=Zygomaticus Minor= (Fig. 90, 4; Figs. 91, 92).--The existence of this muscle has not been clearly demonstrated. Nevertheless, Straus-Durckheim noted its presence in the horse, and described it as 'a muscle arising by two heads, of which one, the superior, arises from the malar bone below the orbit, and passes downwards and forwards over the fibro-adipose layer which supports the moustache. The second, the inferior, arises from the alveolar border in front of the second molar tooth, and passes forward to be inserted into the same fibro-adipose layer.'[34]

[34] H. Straus-Durckheim, 'Anatomie descriptive et comparative du
chat,' Paris, 1845, t. ii., p. 210.

In connection with other quadrupeds, it is described by certain authors as a very thin muscle, arising below the cavity of the orbit, where it is blended with the fibres of the internal elevator of the upper lip and the ala of the nose; thence it proceeds to terminate below by uniting with the subcutaneous muscle. But this muscle is regarded by other authors as the lachrymal muscle, which does not exist in this state in man, but of which the development is particularly remarkable, as to extent, in the ox, in which it descends as far as the buccinator.

According to other authors, some of the fibres of this muscle constitute the small zygomatic.

1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; F, frontalis; 3, zygomaticus major; 4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the name of small zygomatic); 5, levator labii superioris proprius; 6, levator labii superioris alaeque nasi; 7, levator anguli oris or caninus; 8, orbicularis oris; 9, buccinator; 10, maxillo-labial; 11, zygomatico-auricularis; 12, external temporo-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis; 16, inferior maxillary bone.]

=Levator Labii Superioris Proprius= (Fig. 90, 5; Figs. 91, 92).--Also named by veterinarians the _supramaxillo-labial_, or again, the _proper elevator of the upper lip_, this muscle arises from the external surface of the superior maxillary bone, passes under the superficial elevator, which we shall study in the succeeding paragraph, and goes to be inserted into the thickness of the lip, to which its name indicates that it belongs.

The peculiarities of this muscle in different animals are the following:

In the dog and the cat it arises behind the infra-orbital foramen.

In the pig it arises from a depression below the orbital cavity, and its fleshy body is terminated in front by a strong tendon in the upper part of the snout, in which it divides into fasciculi.

In the ox it arises from the maxillary spine.

In the horse it arises below the orbital cavity; then, after having crossed the superficial elevator, it ends in a tendinous expansion, situated in the median line between the nasal fossae. This expansion divides into fasciculi, which end in the thickness of the upper lip.

By the contraction of this muscle, the lip is raised, on one side only, if a single muscle contracts, or in its whole extent, if the two muscles act simultaneously.

=Internal Elevator (or Superficial) of the Upper Lip and the Wing of the Nose= (_levator labii superioris alaeque nasi_) (Fig. 90, 6; Figs. 91, 92).--This is the muscle veterinarians designate _the supranaso-labial_.

Arising from the frontal and nasal bones, it thence passes towards the upper lip, where it is inserted as well as into the wing of the nose.

In the ox it is united above with the frontal muscle, and below is divided into two fasciculi, between which pass the elevator described above and the canine muscle.

In the horse it is also divided into two fasciculi; but the arrangement is the opposite as regards, their relations with neighbouring muscles, in this animal and in the preceding.

In the ox the external fasciculus is covered by the external elevator and the canine, which pass under the internal fasciculus; in the horse the deep elevator passes under the two fasciculi, and the canine passes under the external bundle, and afterwards covers the internal.

In the pig, the internal elevator is wanting.

As its name indicates, it raises the upper lip and the wing of the nose.

=Transversus Nasi.=--In the horse this muscle, which is very thin, is situated on the dorsum of the nose, and proceeds to be inserted into the cartilaginous skeleton of the nostrils. In the pig, it occupies an analogous situation. It does not exist in the ox or in carnivora. The transversus nasi is a dilator of the nostrils.

1, Masseter; 2, orbicularis palpebrarum; 3, zygomaticus major; 4, lachrymal (this muscle is sometimes described under the name of the small zygomatic); 5, external elevator (or deep) of the upper lip and ala of the nose; 6, internal elevator (or superficial) of the upper lip and of the ala of the nose; 7, levator anguli oris or caninus; 8, orbicularis oris; 9, buccinator; 10, maxillo-labialis; 11, zygomatico-auricularis; 12, temporo-auricularis externus; 13, cervico-auricularis; 14, parotid gland; 15, parotido-auricularis; 16, inferior maxillary bone.]

=Caninus= (Fig. 90; Figs. 7, 91, 92).--This is the muscle called by veterinarians _the great supramaxillo-nasal_.

In the dog and the cat it is situated below the inferior border of the external elevator of the upper lip, of which it follows the direction. It arises, as does this latter, from the external surface of the maxilla, and goes also to terminate in the upper lip by blending with the internal elevator of this lip and of the alae of the nose. It raises the upper lip.

In the ox, it arises from the maxillary spine, and then divides into three parts; the superior passes under the internal portion of the internal elevator of the upper lip and the alae of the nose, and goes into the nostril; whilst the two others, situated lower down, terminate in the upper lip.

In the pig, it is formed of two superimposed fasciculi, which arise from the spine of the maxilla and the impressions in front of it. These two fasciculi terminate in the snout, which they move laterally.

In the horse, it is situated at a certain distance from the external elevator; in the preceding animals it is in contact with the latter. Arising behind from the external surface of the maxilla, in front of the maxillary spine, it is directed towards the anterior part of the face, passes under the external portion of the internal elevator (it is the opposite of this in the ox), and proceeds, on expanding, to terminate in the skin of the nostril. By its contraction it dilates the latter.

=Orbicularis Oris= (Fig. 91, 8; Fig. 92).--This muscle, very fleshy in the solipeds and the ruminants, is arranged as a ring round the buccal orifice, in the thickness of the lips, where it is blended with the other muscles of this region.

Having for its function the narrowing of the orifice it surrounds, it acts during suction and in the prehension of food.

=Triangularis Oris.=--This muscle does not exist in domestic quadrupeds.

=Quadratus Menti.=--In the pig and the carnivora, it arises from the anterior part of the body of the inferior maxillary bone, and passes at the other end to terminate in the corresponding portion of the lower lip, which it depresses by its contraction.

In the ox and the horse this muscle does not exist; it is replaced for the depression of the lower lip, which it affects in other animals, by supplemental fibres of the buccinator.

=The Prominence of the Chin.=--Below the lower lip in the horse is situated the so-called _prominence of the chin_, limited posteriorly by the _beard_, a depressed region which gives point to the curb of the bridle.

The prominence, which also exists in the ox, is a fibro-muscular pad which blends with the orbicular muscle of the lips, and receives on its superior aspect the insertion of the two muscles (_levator menti_) by which it is suspended. These arise, above, on each side of the symphysis of the inferior maxillary bone. They raise the lower lip with force, and they are the agents which, as we can sometimes observe in the horse, make it click against the upper lip, suddenly projecting it upwards. This action sometimes becomes a habit, and its continuance constitutes a vice.

A corresponding structure is found in the pig and in the carnivora, but in them it does not produce an external prominence such as we have described.

=Buccinator= (Fig. 90, 9; Figs. 91, 92).--Further designated by the name of _alveolo-labial_, this muscle is situated on the lateral portions of the face, in the thickness of the cheeks. It consists of two layers, one superficial and the other deep.

The deep portion arises from the portion of the alveolar border of the superior maxillary bone which corresponds to the molar teeth, and from the anterior border of the ramus of the mandible. Thence it is directed forwards, passes under the superficial layer, and blends with the fibres of the orbicular muscle of the lips. To this part of the buccinator some authors give the name of molar muscle.

The superficial portion is formed by fibres which pass from the alveolar border of the superior maxillary bone to the corresponding border of the opposite bone. It is very highly developed in the herbivora.

This muscle acts especially during mastication; it serves to press back again under the molar teeth the portions of food which fall outside the dental arch.

In the pig, the ox, and the horse, a muscle which is considered as supplemental to the buccinator is placed along the inferior border of the latter.

This muscle, which we describe separately under the names of _maxillo-labialis_ (Fig. 91, 10; Fig. 92) and _depressor of the lower lip_, is clearly distinct from the buccinator, especially in the horse. It arises, behind, with the deep layer of the muscle to which it is annexed, from the anterior border of the ramus of the lower jaw; in front it terminates in the thickness of the lower lip.

In the ox, it is more intimately united with the buccinator.

It depresses the lip to which it is attached, and displaces it laterally when it acts on one side only.

In the human species, the pinna of the ear being generally immobile, the muscles which belong to it are, very naturally, considerably atrophied. Accordingly, the auricular muscles, anterior, superior, and posterior, are reduced to pale and thin fleshy lamellae, whose action is revealed in certain individuals, only in a way which may be said to be abnormal.

It is not the same in quadrupeds. The pinna of the ear is extremely mobile, and its displacements have a real value from the point of view of physiognomical expression. It is therefore necessary to review the muscles which move this pinna without giving them, at the same time, more importance than they merit, since in themselves they do not determine the formation of surface reliefs, which are sufficiently apparent.

Notwithstanding that for certain of these muscles it is possible to trace their analogy with those of the auricular region of man, it is very difficult, because of their complexity, to trace this analogy for all. This is why we shall not be able here, as we have done for the other muscles of the subcutaneous layer, to give at the head of each paragraph the name of a human muscle, and then to group in the same paragraph the muscles which correspond to it in different quadrupeds. Therefore the nomenclature and the divisions adopted for these latter must serve us as a base or starting-point.

Because the pinna of the horse's ear is so very mobile, we will first begin with a study of its auricular muscles.

=Zygomatico-auricularis= (Fig. 92, 11).--This muscle, which is formed of two small bands of fleshy fibres, arises from the zygomatic arch in blending with the orbicular muscle of the eyelids; thence it is directed towards the base of the pinna of the ear, and is inserted into this base, and also into the cartilaginous plate situated in front of and internal to this, and resting on the surface of the temporal muscle; this is the scutiform cartilage.

The zygomatico-auricularis, which we look on as the homologue of the anterior auricular of man, draws the pinna of the ear forwards.

=Temporo-auricularis Externus= (Fig. 92, 12).--This, which is thin and very broad, covers the temporal muscle.

It arises from the whole extent of the parietal crest, blending in this plane, in its posterior half, with the muscle of the opposite side. Thence it is directed outwards towards the pinna of the ear, and is inserted into the internal border of the scutiform cartilage and on the inner side of the concha--that is to say, of the conchinian cartilage--which forms the principal part of the pinna. We are supposing, in the description of the muscles which move it, that this pinna has its opening directed outwards.

The external temporo-auricular, which recalls, from its situation, the superior auricular of man, is an adductor of the ear; besides, it causes it to describe a movement of rotation from without inwards, so as to direct its opening forwards.

=Scuto-auricularis Externus.=--This muscle may be considered as supplementary to the external temporo-auricular; the concha fasciculus of this latter partly covers it.

Extending from the scutiform cartilage to the inner side of the concha, it contributes to the movement of rotation by which the opening of the pinna of the ear is directed forwards.

=Cervico-auricular Muscles= (Fig. 92, 13).--These muscles, three in number, are situated behind the pinna of the ear; they are called, from their mode of superposition, the superficial, middle, and deep.

These arise, all three, from the superior cervical ligament, and pass from there towards the cartilage of the concha. They recall, as regards situation, the posterior auricular muscle of man.

=Superficial Cervico-auricular= (_Cervico-auricularis superioris_).--This muscle, inserted into the posterior surface of the concha, draws this cartilage backwards and downwards.

=Middle Cervico-auricular= (_Cervico-auricularis medius_).--Situated between the two other muscles of the same group, it proceeds, after having covered the superior extremity of the parotid gland, to be inserted into the external part of the base of the concha. It determines the rotation of this concha in such a way as to direct the opening of the ear backwards.

=Deep Cervico-auricular= (_Cervico-auricularis inferioris_).--Covered by the preceding muscle and the superior portion of the parotid, it is inserted into the base of the pinna of the ear, and has the same action as the middle cervico-auricular.

=Parotido-auricularis= (Fig. 92, 15).--This is a long and thin fleshy band which arises from the external surface of the parotid gland, and tapering as it passes upwards towards the pinna of the ear, is inserted into the external surface of the base of the concha, below the inferior part of the angle of reunion of the two borders which limit its opening.

It inclines the pinna outwards; it is, accordingly, an abductor of the pinna.

=Temporo-auricularis Internus.=--This muscle is covered by the external temporo-auricular and the superior cervico-auricular. It arises from the parietal crest, and is inserted into the internal surface of the concha. It is an adductor of the pinna of the ear.

There are, finally, an internal scuto-auricular muscle and a tympano-auricular; but they do not present any interest for us; we can simply confine ourselves to making mention of them.

In the ox, because of the situation of the temporal fossa and the fact that the external temporo-auricular muscle is applied, as in the horse, over the muscle which this fossa contains, this temporo-auricular muscle does not reach the middle line (Fig. 91, 12).

But in the cat and the dog this muscle covers all the upper part of the head (Fig. 90, 12). It is divided into two parts: the interscutellar and the fronto-scutellar.

The interscutellar is a single muscle, thin and broad, covering the temporal muscle and a portion of the occipital, extending from the scutiform cartilage of the pinna of one side to the same cartilage of the pinna belonging to the side opposite. It approximates the two pinnae to one another by bringing them each into the position of adduction.

The fronto-scutellar arises from the orbital process of the frontal bone, and from the orbital ligament, which at this level completes the interrupted osseous boundary of the orbital cavity. Thence it is directed, widening as it proceeds, towards the scutiform cartilage, and is there inserted by blending with the corresponding part of the great zygomatic. Its action is analogous to that of the preceding muscle; but, further, it directs the opening of the pinna forwards.