Chapter VI: Flag Signals (1)

(i) EARLY SIGNALS

The few scattered references to signals found in early Greek literature are so vague in their terms that they leave us in doubt whether the ancient Greeks or their predecessors on the waters of the Eastern Mediterranean made any use of flags for signalling purposes. It seems probable that the earliest signals were given by raising the naval standard which, as we have seen, found a place at the stern of the Phoenician ships of war at least as early as 400 B.C., and that the Greeks adopted this method from the Phoenicians, substituting a cruciform standard for the Phoenician Crescent and Globe.

When Thucydides tells us that the "semeion" was raised in the Greek fleet we may, in default of some better explanation, assume that the officer in command seized the cruciform standard and elevated it at arms' length. Such a signal might be rendered more conspicuous by throwing a military cloak of bright colour over the arms of the cross before raising it and, as already remarked, it seems highly probable that the sign known as Phoinikis (φοινικὶς [Greek: phoinikis]) originated in this manner.

The earliest recorded instance of a signal at sea is probably that mentioned by Herodotus[338] as having been made by Xerxes in the year 480 B.C., when on quitting Therma in his expedition to Greece he embarked in a Sidonian ship and "gave the signal (σημήιον [Greek: sêmêion]) to the rest of the fleet to get under way." A more characteristic--or more frequently mentioned--use of the "semeion" was as a signal to commence action. The fleet fitted out by the Corinthians against the Corcyreans in the year 433 B.C. met with a joint fleet of Corcyrean and Athenian ships. Both the opposing fleets drew up in rank and the "semeia" were then raised on both sides (τὰ σημεῖα ἑκατέροις ἤρθη [Greek: ta sêmeia hekaterois êrthê]) as a signal for beginning action[339].

Thucydides mentions two other instances[340] in which a fleet awaited the signal before commencing to fight, but the only strictly tactical signal which he has recorded was one made to the Peloponnesian fleet in 429 B.C. The Peloponnesians had enticed the Athenian fleet into a disadvantageous position by a feigned attack upon Naupactus. At a given signal (ἀπὸ σημείον [Greek: apo sêmeion]) the Peloponnesians suddenly turned their ships round and attacked the Athenians[341].

Towards the end of the Peloponnesian War (if we may suppose that Polyaenus, writing in the second century A.D., was not guilty of anachronism) the purple cloak signal (φοινικὶς [Greek: phoinikis]) comes into evidence. Conon, the Athenian commander, was in the year 406 B.C. off Mitylene, flying before Callicratidas the Spartan, who had twice as many ships. Observing that the Lacedaemonian ships had, in the ardour of pursuit, broken their ranks, Conon raised the "Phoinikis," which was the signal he had pre-arranged with the commanders of his ships, and, turning together, the Athenian ships bore down on their pursuers, then in disorder[342].

The Rhodians, in the second century B.C., made signals in the early manner by raising the "signum" or military ensign. Livy relates that Eudamus, when hard pressed in his action against the Syrian fleet under Hannibal (191 B.C.) made use of such a signal to call his unengaged ships to the rescue[343].

The earliest code of naval signals is that drawn up in the ninth century A.D. by the Emperor Leo VI in his treatise on Tactics[344]. Leo in the Introduction to his nineteenth chapter explains that he has been unable to find anything on this subject among ancient Greek writers except a few scattered references and that his knowledge is mainly derived from the experience of his Generals.

In this nineteenth chapter, which deals with Naval Warfare (Περὶ ναυμαχίας [Greek: Peri naumachias]) he says:

39. Let there be some standard (σημεῖον [Greek: sêmeion]) in your
ship, either a banner (βάνδον [Greek: bandon]) or a streamer
(φλάμουλον [Greek: phlamoulon]) or something else in some
conspicuous position, to the end that you may be able, thereby,
to make known what requires to be done, and that the rest may set
themselves to carry out the course of action decided on, whether it
be to fight or to withdraw from fighting; to open out to surround
the enemy, or to concentrate to the relief of an endangered portion
of the fleet; to slow the rowing or increase speed; to make an
ambush, or, emerging from ambush to attack the enemy; or, in
general, whatever the signal that has its origin in your ship, that
the others, by keeping an eye on her, may be able to execute it.

40. For in such an emergency you will not be able to make use
either of the voice or of the trumpet to communicate what is
necessary, because of the uproar and the tumult, and the sound of
the sea, and the crash of ship against ship, the noise of the oars,
and above all the clamour of the combatants.

41. Further, let the signal be given by setting the standard
upright or by inclining it to the right or to the left, or by
moving it twice to the right or left, or by shaking it, or lifting
it up, or lowering it or altogether withdrawing it or altering its
position, or by varying the appearance of the head by means of
devices or colours as was the practice amongst the ancients; for
in time of war they gave the signal for battle by raising what was
called the Phoinikis (φοινικίδα [Greek: phoinikida]). There was
also what was called the "cap" (μαμελαύκιον [Greek: mamelaukion])
raised upon a pole, red in colour, and they had some other signals
which were made known in like manner. Perhaps however it would be
safer to make your signals by your own hand.

42. And thus, O General, let the exercise of these signals be
practised, so that all the officers in command of ships under you
may have certain knowledge of all such signs; of the reason why
each is made, and when, and how, and may not fail. So that, well
familiarised with the signals, they may readily understand them in
time of emergency and carry out the orders indicated.

In reading the above paragraphs one cannot fail to be impressed by the profound grasp of the essential requirements of the subject exhibited by the writer. Nothing like it appears again until modern times, and the concluding words might well have been written by Kempenfelt and the other reformers of the Signal System in the British navy at the end of the eighteenth century.

After Leo we meet with nothing further on this subject until the middle of the fourteenth century, and from what we then find it is clear that the art had not only made no progress in the interval, but on the contrary had decidedly deteriorated. Two sets of instructions preserved in the _Black Book of the Admiralty_, to which Sir Travers Twiss assigns a date between 1337 and 1351[345], contain each one flag signal; one for calling a council, the other for notifying the presence of the enemy:

_A xviii._ Item est assavoir que a
quel temps convenable il plest a
ladmiral dassembler les capitaynes
et les maistres de la flotte conseiller
avecques eulx il prendra hault en
mylieu du mast de sa nef une banniere
de conseil parainsi que en
toutes parties de la flotte, soit en
ports ou dehors sur la mer, ce pourra
estre congnu et apperceu &c et
doncques tantost les capitaynes et
maistres de nefs sont tenuz dassembler
sans delay avec leurs bateaux
bien eskippez de mariners
pour nager et aler en la nef de ladmiral
pour illecques oyr et faire ce
que le conseil de ladmiral aura ordonne.

_B vi._ Item en cas que aucune nef
ou outre vessel de la flotte apperceyue
aucun vessel ennemy sur la
mer doncques il mettra une banere
en hault par laquelle la nef de ladmiral
et autres nefz de la flotte pourront
avoir congnoissance qu'il a veu
ung vessel ennemy ou plusieurs et
ainsi apres ordonner le mieulx quilz
sauront pour lencontrer, &c.

xviii. Also it is to be noted that
at whatever convenient time it
pleases the admiral to call together
the captains and masters of the fleet
to take counsel with them he will
carry high in the middle of the mast
of his ship a banner of council so
that in all parts of the fleet, whether
in ports or out at sea, this may be
recognised and perceived etc., and
then immediately the captains and
masters of ships are bound to assemble
without delay with their
boats well manned with seamen to
row and go on board the ship of the
admiral there to hear and do what
the council of the admiral shall have
ordained.

Item in case any ship or other
vessel of the fleet perceive any
enemy vessel upon the sea then he
shall put a banner aloft by which
the ship of the admiral and other
ships of the fleet may have knowledge
that he has seen one or more
enemy vessels and thus afterwards
give the best orders they know of to
encounter it.

The very primitive tactics in use at this period in northern waters called for none but the most primitive signals. When at sea, the fleet gathered each evening round the admiral to take his orders for the next day, and if by any chance he wished to consult the captains or had orders to communicate before that hour he took the banner, which was normally planted on the aftercastle, and placed it halfway up the mast. When the enemy was seen, the sighting ship displayed a banner in the top, and thereupon all the ships met together to discuss what to do. Nothing could be simpler; nothing, one would suppose, more inefficient in time of emergency; certainly nothing could be farther from the well-practised organisation inculcated by the Emperor Leo.

In the waters of the Mediterranean the tradition of a more scientific method of warfare than simple _mêlée_ fighting had its natural influence on the method of signalling. The orders issued by Amadeo VI of Savoy in 1366 for the combined fleet of galleys provided by Genoa, Venice and Marseilles and sailing under his command[346] show a considerable advance upon those recorded in the _Black Book_. This may be judged from the following excerpts which include all the articles relating to flag signals.

Ce sunt les chouses ordonnees
pour larmee Monseigneur de Savoye
sur le gouvernement daler sur la
Mer.

10. Item quand le dit seigneur
voudra avoir conseil qui facet mettre
son estendart aut et que toutes les
gallees doivent venir vers le dit seigneur
et oui ce quil voudra ordonner
des autres gallees ce que le dit seigneur
voudra ordonner.

11. ... et que la ou ilz sont dessendu
a terre que chascun tirat celle
part soubz la banniere quil est.

22. Item se ensi est que monseigneur
vueille parler es gallees que
monseigneur doye lever une banniere
a ses armes a muy de la galee
et tantost chascune des gallees se
doit aprochier du dit seigneur sur
la penne dicte.

23. Item se ainsi est que monseigneur
vueille parler a lung ou a
deux ou au plus des gallees que
quant monseigneur fera lever une
bandiere a dues ou plus que le patron
du quel seront les armes de la
bannere ou dues bannieres que
monseigneur fera lever se doivent
tantost aprochier de la galee de
monseigneur pour oir ce que leur
voudra dire sur la penne dessus
dicte.

26. Item si ainsi fut que aucune
des dictes galee veist aucune nef ou
galee ou autre navile estrange que
tantost deust lever une bandiere e
baissier la bannere vers celle part ou
il verra le naviles estrange sur la
penne dicte et tienne tant la bandiere
que la galee monseigneur li ait
rendu enseigne et quil ait lever sa
bannere.

27. Item en cas avenoit que aucunes
des dites galees eist aucun cas
de necessite quil eust besoing dayde
que elle doye fere enseigne dune
banniere onmy de la galee et tantost
les autres galees doivent aprochier
celle par vers telle gallee pour ly
aydier sur la dicte penne.

28. Item que nulle des gallees ne
doivent esguarder lune contre lautre
devant que elles verront pointer une
banniere sur la galee monseigneur
de pope en proue et tantost chascune
des galees sur la penne dicte regardera
lune contre lautre.

29. Item se ainsi estoit que une
des galees fut esperdue des autres et
ensi fut quelle se retornast avec les
autres pour faire seigne de cognoissance
de jour celle qui sera dessoubz
vent ou celle doivent ou qui sera
lancre doivent lever lestandart de
son commun onmj lieu de sa galee
et l'autre galee li doit rendre l'enseigne
et lever lestandart de son
commun en la proue chascune doit
porter son estandart en lon lieu de
la poupe adonques se feront cognostre
qui sont amis et ce sur la
penne dessus dict.

These are the ordinances for the
armed force of My Lord of Savoy
concerning the regulation of going
upon the sea.

10. Item when the said Lord
wishes to take counsel let him order
his standard to be placed on high
and then let all the galleys come towards
the said Lord and hear what
he shall wish to command of the
other galleys what the said Lord
shall wish to command.

11. ... and there where they have
landed let each one go to that place
where is the banner under which he
serves.

22. Item, if it happens that my
Lord wishes to speak to the galleys
then my Lord shall raise a banner
of his arms amidships of the galley,
and immediately each one of the
galleys shall approach the said Lord
under the penalty named.

23. Item if it happens that my
Lord wishes to speak to one or to
two or to more of the galleys, then,
when my Lord shall cause to be
raised one banner or two or more;
the captains whose arms are those
of the banner or two banners that
my Lord shall cause to be raised
shall immediately approach the galley
of my Lord to hear what he
wishes to say to them, under the
penalty aforesaid.

26. Item if it has happened that
any one of the said galleys has seen
any strange ship or galley or other
vessel then immediately it shall
raise a banner and lower the banner
towards that part where it sees the
strange vessels, under the penalty
named, and hold the banner in that
position until the galley of my Lord
has returned the signal and has
raised its banner.

27. Item in case it shall happen
that any of the said galleys has any
occasion of necessity that it has need
of aid, then it shall make a signal
with a banner amidships of the galley
and immediately the other galleys
shall approach that place, towards
such galley to aid it, under
the penalty named.

28. Item none of the galleys shall
face one another before they shall
see a banner on my Lord's galley
pointed from the poop towards the
prow, and immediately each of the
galleys, under the penalty named,
shall face one another[347].

29. Item if it has happened that
one of the galleys has lost the others
and then returns to them to make a
recognition signal by day, that one
which shall be to leeward, either
that one or the one which is at anchor,
shall raise the standard of its
Commune amidships of the galley
and the other galley shall return the
signal and raise the standard of its
Commune in the prow. Each one
shall (then) carry its standard to its
place on the poop[348]. Then they will
know which are friends, and this
under the penalty aforesaid.

It will be seen that both these sets of instructions give prominence to a signal for calling a Council and both, curiously enough, betray the same confusion of thought. From the opening sentence it would be supposed that the captains of the ships are assembled to advise the Admiral in Council; from the closing sentence it would appear that they are only called to hear the result of the council's deliberations. The "etc." in the English Instructions and the repetition at the end of Article 10 in the Savoy Instructions seem, however, to indicate that the texts have not reached us in their original state. In the English fleet the "Banner of Council" signal remained in use until the close of the eighteenth century[349]. As a rule this signal was made with the royal standard, though in 1369 a special gonfanon was provided and in the reign of Henry V the "Trinity Royal" had a banner of council containing the royal arms and the cross of St George[350]. When the fleet was large, as in the Cadiz Expedition of 1596, the royal standard was hoisted for the "selected" or inner council while the flag of St George called the captain and the master of every ship to the flagship for a general council.

But while in the English fleet the Banner of Council signal underwent no development until the end of the sixteenth century, the Mediterranean instructions of 1366 contain three signals of this nature: one to call the council, another to call all the ships when some order had to be communicated, and a third to call one or more particular vessels. These, with the addition of one signal for calling aid, one manoeuvring signal, and a recognition signal, to which were added signals by sails and, at night, by lanterns, contain the germ of a complete system of signalling.

It is not until the middle of the seventeenth century that we meet with so advanced a system in the English navy. If an explanation of this be sought it will be found in the fact that the rowing galley was not suited to the waters of the English Channel and North Sea. If the Mediterranean nations had, in the Middle Ages, a comparatively advanced system of tactics and therefore--for the one inevitably follows the other--a comparatively complete method of signalling, it was because they had inherited the foundations of it with the galley from the Romans and Greeks. The sailing-ship did not assert its superiority over the older weapon until the early part of the sixteenth century, and it was another century before the seamen who manned it could be persuaded that the methods of tactics invented for the despised galley could be of use when applied to vessels whose motive power was of another order. It was the soldier-admirals, who were well acquainted with the value of formal tactics on shore, who taught the English navy the lesson it was so loath to learn.

The Instructions of 1366 just quoted may be taken as representative of the fourteenth century. For the fifteenth century we have at least two good examples; the orders for the Venetian navy drawn up by Mocenigo[351] in the year 1420 and the orders for the navy of Castile drawn up by Fadrique Henriquez[352] in 1430. It will be sufficient to extract from the Venetian orders, which are the more interesting for our immediate purpose, the various articles relating to flag signals.

Questi sono i ordeni et commandamenti
dati per il magnifico
M. Piero Mozenigo del mar Zeneral
Capitan--1420--

5. Quinto che andando à uela nulla
Galia ardisca passar el fogo à Misser
lo capetanio saluo quella Galia che
sarà de guarda, ma tuttauia debia
attendere à non spartirse da lui sotto
pena de lire diese à zaschedun che
contrefarà, massime quando se uorà
raggattar. Misser lo capetano farà
metter la bandiera al mezzo. In
quella uolta à chi piaserà ragattar
habbi libertà di poterlo fare non
si luntanando da lui mia dò al più,
sotto la detta pena.

13. Quando messer lo capitanio
uorà domandar da parte el farà
meter una bandiera in la popa, in
quella fiada tutte le Galie se debia
accostar à lui perche el possa saper
el sò parer.

14. Quando misser lo capitanio
uorà che alguna de so Galie uegna
da lui, el farà leuare in pope la bandiera
di qual sopracomito el uorà
che uegna da lui. In quella fiada
quel tal sopracomito di chi sarà la
bandiera uegni de presente à lui sotto
quella pena che à lui piaserà.

These are the ordinances and
commands given by the eminent
M^r Piero Mocenigo, Captain General
at Sea--1420--

5. Fifthly, when proceeding under
sail, no galley shall attempt to
pass the lantern of the Captain except
the galley which shall be on
guard, but should always take care
not to part company from him under
penalty of 10 lira for each one contravening,
especially when they are
racing. The Captain will place the
flag amidships. In that case anyone
wishing to race shall have liberty to
do so; not however outdistancing
him more than two miles at the
most, under the aforesaid penalty.

13. When the Captain desires to
call the ships to him he will put a
flag on the poop, in which case all
the galleys ought to approach him
in order to learn his intentions.

14. When the Captain desires any
particular galley to come to him, he
will raise on the poop the flag of
that commander whom he wishes to
come to him. In that case the commander
whose flag it is shall at once
repair to him under such penalty as
seems fit.

Signals for the galley on guard.

Primà sel uederà fusta over fusto
armado, debia leuar l' Insegna di
misier San Marco et puoi tor quela
uia tante fiade quanti sarà i nauilij
che l' hauerà descouerto, et se queli
sarano da uno in suso debia uegnir
du miser lo capitanio, et farli sauer
de queli fusti lui hauerà descouerto.
Se la sara coca zoe naue lieue la soa
bandiera dal ladi sinestro, se la sarà
barca leua un penon dal ladi destro;
fazando segni cum quela bandiera
in la qual uia queli nauiglij i sarà
descouerti et se miser lo capitanio
uorà che la Galia de guarda uada ad
algun de quali nauiglij i quali sarà
descouerti el farà leuar una bandiera
quara à pope al ladi destro à la
uia del nauilio, obseruando i ordini
infrascritti. Et se l' occorese che la
Galia de guarda andando ad algun
nauilio per l' ordene dato de sopra,
et se miser lo capitanio uolese che
quela tornase, non andase più auanti,
se miser lo capetanio andarà à remi
el farà fer uela de presente, et fara
calar, et uezudo questo segno la
Galia de guarda debia tornar subito
à lui.

Item comanda misier lo capetanio
che sel fose descouerto più fusti e
lui terminase andare a queli jn quela
fiada el farà leuar el sò stendardo
d'oro cum la so arma al fanò a pope,
et de presente tute le Galie se debia
redure appreso lui, é andare à se soe
poste, e faza dar arme in couerta, et
ordene le sue pauexade à proua segondo
uxantia, et lo resto de pauixi
sia per imbrazar et andar per couerta,
et per suso le pertegete sia meso
schiauine segondo usanza et à la
prima trombeta zascadun se debia
armar, à la segonda leuar l' Insegna
de San Marco et rinfrescarti i corpi.
A la terza quando serà leuado à meza
Galia el standardo quadro con la
Insegna del nostro signor Jesu
Christo all' hora ognun uada arditamente
et come buon' ordene che una
galia non impaci l' altra à inuestir i
diti navilij ouer fuste e non se desparta
dalla battaia fina 1' ultima
sconfita.

Et perche molte fiade ocore che
le Galie se separa una dall' altra, et
squarase da misier lo capetanio, però
lè de necesità dar ordene ò segno
per el qual posa recognoserse dalle
nostre Galie, una dall' altra si de
zorno come de note come è dito qui
de soto.

Se alguna Galia se smarirà de
miser lo capetanio per poterla recognoser,
sel sarà de zorno miser lo
capetanio farà un fumo à prua, et
uezando questo segno la Galia che
sarà squarada, responda per si fato
segno et poi farà leuar una bandera
a pope a cauo de banda destra, et per
el simel lui debba responder, et poi
lui farà leuare una bandiera quara à
prua à ladi senestro, et per el simel
quela Galia debia responder, et poi
lui farà leuar una bandiera quara à
prua et per el simel questa Galia debia
responder, e farà i diti segni, miser
lo capitanio farà leuar l' Insegna
di Misier San Marco, et cosi debia
responder la dita Galia e sia ben
prouezuda à non se acostar, sel nò
cognosese bene i deti segni.

Item zonzandò m^r lo cap^o in algun
liogo...non uoiando che algun sopracomito
faci butar i sò copani in acqua
fara butar el suo e leuerà la soa
bandera de uento, à cao de banda.
E in questo caso algun no dieba butar
lo suo, fia la deta bandiera sarà
alzada, mà mouesta sara quela cadaun
posi butar soto quela pena à
lui parerà.

Item quando m^r lo capitanio uorà,
che tuti i soracomiti uegna à lui, el
farà meter la so bandiera da uento in
pope à la scaza inuerso prua, alora
debia uegnir da lui, perche altrimenti
bisognaraue mandar per cadaun.

First, if he shall see a light galley
or armed galley, he ought to raise
the Ensign of Saint Mark and then
lower it as many times as there may
be ships which he has discovered,
and if there are more he should go
to the Captain and acquaint him
how many galleys he shall have discovered.
If that be a boat or ship he
shall raise his flag on the left side,
if a bark, a pennant on the right
side, making signals with this flag
in the direction in which these ships
are discovered, and if the Captain
wishes the Guard-galley to go to
any of these ships which shall be
discovered, he will raise a square
flag on the right side of the poop
towards that ship, in conformity
with the regulations given below.
And if it shall come to pass that the
guard-galley on going to any ship
under the above order and the Captain
should wish her to turn back
and not to advance further, if the
Captain shall proceed under oars, he
shall order sail to be taken in at
once and shall strike sail, then
having seen this signal the guard-galley
ought to turn at once to him.

Likewise the Captain commands
in case more ships are discovered
and he is determined to go to them;
in this case he shall order his own
standard to be raised, the gold
standard with his arms, at the lanthorn
on the poop, and immediately
all the galleys ought to repair close
to him, and proceed each to her own
post, and order the arms on deck
and order their pavisades to the
prow according to custom, the rest
of the shields to go round the deck,
and on the supports of the awning
the galley slaves' clothes are to be
put as is customary, and at the first
trumpet each man is to arm himself;
at the second to raise the ensign
of Saint Mark and to take refreshments
for their bodies. At the
third, when the square standard
with the ensign of Our Lord Jesus
Christ shall be raised amidships
each ship shall proceed boldly and
in good order, so that one galley
may not hinder another, to board or
come up with the said ships or galleys
and not to leave the battle until
they are finally routed.

And as it often happens that the
galleys are separated one from the
other and are dispersed from the
Captain, therefore he must necessarily
give an order or signal of
recognition by which they may be
recognised by our ships one from
the other by day as well as by night,
as is mentioned below.

If any Galley shall stray from the
Captain, in order to recognise it, if
by day, the Captain makes smoke
on the prow and seeing that signal
the galley which had separated shall
answer by the same signal, and then
the Captain shall order a flag to be
raised on the forward end of the
poop on the right side; and with the
same signal he is to answer and the
Captain shall order to raise a square
flag on the left side of the prow, and
likewise that galley is to answer and
make the aforesaid signal. The Captain
will raise the Ensign of St Mark
and this the galley ought to answer,
and be very attentive not to go
alongside if it does not well recognise
the above signals.

Item the Captain, cruising in any
place, ... not wishing any commander
to lower his boat into the water, will
launch his own boat and raise his
flag on the windward side of the
poop forward, and in this case no
one shall lower his boat as long as
the said flag is hoisted, and if any
does so it shall be under the penalty
which he thinks fit.

Item if the Captain wishes all the
commanders to come to him, he will
put his flag to windward, on the
poop near the ladder, inclined towards
the prow, and then they must
go to him because otherwise he
would have to send for them.

The Venetian orders contain no provision for calling a Council, but they include two flag signals for calling up the galleys to take orders. Possibly the Venetians, anticipating Drake, did not assent to the scriptural dictum that in the multitude of councillors is wisdom. In the Castilian Instructions there is not only provision for calling a council by day, by hoisting the royal pendant, but also for calling an informal council at night. In daytime the captain and a boatswain[353] from each galley had to come in a boat on board the Admiral, but at night each galley ranged up with the Admiral in turn, spoke with him, and then fell off again. Another signal not found in the Venetian Instructions is that for calling assistance; in the Castilian Instructions this is to be done by raising the royal pendant. There are two signals for discovery of a fleet in those instructions; if the fleet was recognised as an enemy the sighting galley hoisted the royal pendant and rushed off to tell the Admiral all about it, without attempting to denote by signal the number of ships, but if it was merely a strange fleet the sighting galley contented itself with hoisting a flag to the masthead and raising and lowering it as many times as there were ships. The first galley to sight land raised a flag to the masthead, kept it there a short time, and then lowered it. The recognition signal differs from that provided in the Venetian orders, but it contains the same serious defect found in most of the early recognition signals--the two ships simply copy one another. In the Savoy Instructions of 1366 it will be seen that there is a slight variation in the signals made by the two galleys, sufficient to betray any stranger not acquainted with the difference. One would have thought that the necessity for some such device would have been apparent to any seaman, for the use of an enemy's colours was a well-known artifice and nothing could be simpler than to copy exactly the signals of another ship.

For the early sixteenth century we have two important sets of signal instructions. One of these, the "Ordonnances et signes pour nauiguer jour et nuyt en une armée royale[354]," drawn up by Antoine de Conflans about the year 1515 for use in a fleet composed of sailing ships and galleys, is worth translation in full:

Ordinances and Signals for navigating by day and by night in a navy
royal, if his most Christian Majesty, whom God preserve, or other
prince of the realm, should set out to the conquest of the Holy
Sepulchre or other lands of the enemies of the Holy Catholic Faith,
and the Ordinances and Chapters written below, which are for the
recognition by day and by night of those who are of the party and
of the company of the said most Christian king or prince; Also if
other ships, either strangers or enemies, whether sailing ships,
galleys, foists or other vessels, should be found among the said
navy by day or night, they may be easily recognised by these said
ordinances, which must be well kept and observed by the whole fleet
and company of the said navy.

And First:

The King's ship, or that of his admiral and lieutenant if the said
lord is not himself present, shall ordinarily wear the banner in
the top called the "gabye" in the Levant; and this shall be the
mark by which the royal or admiral ship shall be recognised by day;
and by night, because the aforesaid banner can not be seen, the
said ship shall carry on its poop a lighted lantern, such as is
called a "fanal" in the Levant waters, which shall burn all night,
so that the whole fleet can see it; and by this means the royal or
admiral ship shall be recognised by all the fleet.

Item, all the ships of the fleet, whether galleys or other vessels,
shall come each morning to salute the King's or admiral's ship and
to ascertain the watchword (mot du guet), and in the evening to
learn the night-cry (cry de la nuyt); and in the evening they shall
come and salute the said lord and his ship, and enquire what route
and course he intends to follow, in order that if, through tempest
or for other reasons, any vessel should lose itself by night, it
will know what route to follow; and none of the said ships or
galleys, except the king's or admiral's, shall carry a banner in
the top, nor any lantern or beacon, except the Captain General of
the galleys, who usually may carry the banner at the stern, and by
night a stern lantern. If by chance bad weather should occur (which
God forbid) and it is feared that the vessels may become separated
from one another, the king will carry two banners by day and two
lanterns by night, and each of his fleet one; and in the same way
the Captain of the galleys and his fleet one other.

Item, no ship shall fail to change its course and go about when
the said lord does so, and generally, each one shall perform the
manoeuvre which the said lord shall perform.

Item, if the said lord wishes to speak with other ships he will put
a banner at the stern, and each ship shall be bound to approach the
said lord. And if the said lord wishes to speak with the galleys
only he will put the banner in the admiral's stern gallery.

Item, let each one carry as much sail as seems good to him, and
proceed at the same speed as the said lord and no more, so that he
does not pass his said ship, under the penalty afore-mentioned or
of being punished at his discretion. And also let each one take
care to keep near the said ship.

Item, if any of the said ships or galleys see one or more sail, the
ships shall show, as many times as they see sails, a banner in the
top on that side on which they see the said sails, and the galleys
shall show it on the mast-head[355]. Each one of them, whether ship
or galley, shall keep it there until the captain[356] has replied
with a similar signal.

Item, let no one, on pain of death, whether commanding a ship,
galley or brigantine, chase any ship of any sort or condition
without leave and licence of the said lord.

Item, let no vessel salute another whilst it is within sight of
the said lord, on pain of corporal punishment, except the galleys,
which shall salute the Captain as a mark of respect.

Item, if by day any of the said ships or galleys shall have
suffered any damage (which God forbid) that one to which the
accident has happened shall place in the top a pendant so as to
be seen by the said lord. It shall fire one gun and shall keep
the said banner flying until the other vessels have come to its
assistance. In the case of a galley it shall fly the said banner
at the masthead and shall fire one gun as already said, and each
of the said ships shall approach that to which the accident has
happened in order to render aid.

Item, if by chance the said ships have parted company, which God
forbid, and meet again by day, the one to windward shall lower and
raise the topsail once and fire one gun; and the one to leeward
shall lower and raise the said topsail once and fire two guns. In
the case of the galleys, the one to leeward[357] shall twice draw
up to the mast the lower end of the lateen yard and shall fire one
gun; and the one to leeward shall peak the lateen yard (by drawing
the upper end down to the corsia) and fire two guns, keeping the
said yard arm to the corsia[358].

Item, if any of the said ships is in need of aid from the galleys
it shall fire one gun and hoist a banner on the poop twice and the
Captain of the said galleys shall then, if possible, go or send to
it.

Item. [If any of] the said ships or galleys sights land [the ship]
shall hoist a banner at the lower yard arm and the galley at the
fore or at the after end of the lateen yard slung horizontally[359]
on the side on which land is seen, and shall keep it out until the
said lord has answered.

Item, if the said lord wishes the said ships to lower their boats
he will place two banners at the poop and fire one gun, and
immediately the said ships shall launch their boats and put out
towards the said lord or where he shall wish them to go.

Item, if the said lord, being at anchor, wishes to make sail,
he will place a banner at the edge of the top in addition to
the ordinary banner, and will fire one gun, and everybody must
thereupon return on board to hoist sail likewise.

Item, if by day one or several sail are sighted, and the said lord
wishes the galleys to chase and speak with them, he will place a
banner at each yard-arm and fire two guns.

Item, if the said lord wishes the whole fleet to chase he will
place two banners at the said yard-arms, and also two more on the
edge of the top in addition to the ordinary one, and he will fire
four guns, and every ship shall be bound to carry the requisite
number of sails.

Item, if the said lord and his fleet encounter enemy fleets where
they must fight, they shall show all the ensigns and banners they
have, so that each one may do his duty.

These articles will be changed every time that a fleet is set out,
however the substance of them remains the same.

Here follow the arrangements and chapters drawn up for night-time.

And first

If the said lord is at sea, and he wishes to make sail, he will
show two lanterns and will fire one gun, and he will keep the said
lanterns showing until the others have replied to him with two
other lanterns, but without firing guns; and each one shall be
bound to get under way and make sail like him.

Item, if, being under sail, the said lord wishes to speak with the
other ships, he will show two lanterns twice and twice conceal
them; and the last time he will keep them showing until the others
have replied by a similar signal, and each one shall be bound to go
to the said lord; and if he wishes to speak with the galleys only,
he will show a single lantern over the stern light, and if the
brigantine is to come he will show two.

Item, if any of the said ships or galleys sight one or several
sails it shall show a single lantern as many times as it sees
sails, and shall betake itself to the said lord as soon as it can,
and all the others shall do in like manner.

Item, if the said lord wishes to take off a bonnet, he will show
three lanterns, one after the other, until the others have replied
with three other lanterns, and each one shall be bound to do the
same.

Item, if the said lord wishes to set a bonnet and crowd on sail
he will show three lanterns one above the other and keep them out
until the others have answered with a similar signal, and each
shall be bound to crowd on sail to follow the said lord.

Item, if the said lord wishes to chase by night, he will show three
lanterns in a row three times, and will fire three guns, and will
keep the said lanterns showing until the others have replied by
similar lanterns. And to enable them to recognise one another each
ship shall carry four lanterns at the poop, and the said lord will
carry three on each side of his stern light.

Item, if the said lord wishes to take in sail he will show three
lanterns one above the other three times, and will fire one gun,
and the third time he will keep the said lanterns showing until the
others have replied by similar lanterns without firing guns.

Item, if the said lord wishes to come into port, he will carry two
stern lights, one above the other, and will fire one gun, and each
of the said ships shall be bound to follow him to the said port;
and when they shall have followed him and anchored, the first ones
must keep a lantern at the stern until they have all arrived in
the said port, in order that they may not hinder one another; and
when all the said ships have arrived they shall take in the said
lanterns, and the stern light of the said lord alone will remain
burning.

Item, if by night any accident shall occur to any one of the said
ships (which God forbid) it shall show four lanterns at the stern
and four at the bows, as it may be difficult to see all the said
lanterns; it shall also fire two guns until the other ships shall
come to its aid, whereupon the said ships shall be bound to come to
its succour.

Item, if one of the said ships should have need of galleys, it
shall fire one gun and keep a lantern at the poop until the said
galleys have arrived, and the Captain of the said galleys shall be
bound to go or send to it if it is possible.

Item, if it should happen that the ships part company by any chance
(which God forbid) and they find their companions by night, the one
to windward shall show six lanterns three by three and shall fire
two guns.

Item, the one to leeward shall show four lanterns one above the
other and fire four guns; and the watchword for the night shall be
cried; and thus each one will be easily recognised without having
to come right up with one another; and the said lord wills and
commands that when the fleet thus part company and find one another
by night, and some distance off find another ship not belonging
to their company, none shall dare to fire at one another without
first having made the above signals, as well by day as by night;
and moreover, the said lord wills and commands that they shall, in
addition, speak with one another.

The watchword or cry for the night, and all the other signals, as
well for day as for night, are changed and are at the discretion
and will of the lord and chief of the said fleet, with the council
of master mariners and pilots, and with the aforesaid council and
the assistance of this present collection, they can make use of as
much as seems good to them.

The instructions just quoted are plainly an ideal set; they represent the best experience of the age, but there is no indication that they were ever actually employed at sea.

The other important set of instructions of the early sixteenth century is by no means so full as that of Conflans, but it was actually used at sea, and reappears in various guises until the middle of the century. It seems to have been first drawn up by Philippe de Cleves, to have been used by the Emperor Charles V in his voyage from Flanders to Spain in 1517, and finally to have been incorporated, with slight alterations by Jehan Bytharne, Gunner in Ordinary to the King of France, in his _Livre de Guerre tant par mer que par terre_[360] written in 1543. The flag signals, which Bytharne says he had himself seen made at sea, present no improvement on those already cited, and they may, as given by Bytharne, be summarised as follows:

To assemble the Captains for
Council or to speak to them. The
Captains to bring their best pilot
and most experienced officer.

A square banner tied in a weft[361]
in the main mizen.

On sighting strange ships.

A square banner tied in a weft[362]
halfway up the shrouds on the side
on which the ships are seen.

If the strange ships are numerous,
then

Two flags as above, one over the
other.

If the Admiral, on receiving the
above signal from one of the scouting
ships, desires that they should
go forward and reconnoitre.

A banner on the fore mast inclined
forward.

All ships to chase.

A square banner between the
main top and the small banner
flown at the main topmasthead.

Sighting land.

A square banner in the main top
inclined on the side on which land
is seen.

Ship in danger.

Man in main top to swing banner
round and round. Three guns in
quick succession.

If we now turn to the contemporary instructions of the English navy as given by Audley in his _Orders to be used in the King's Majesties Navy by the Sea_ (c. 1530)[363], we are at once struck by the primitive nature of the signals contained in them. They are as follows:

Whensoever, and at all tymes the Admyrall doth shote of a pece
of Ordinance, and set up his Banner of Councell on Starrborde
bottocke[364] of his Shippe, everie shipps capten shall with spede
go aborde the Admyrall to know his will.

When and at all tymes the Admyrall will anker or disanker, he
must shote a pece, that thereby the rest may know to do the same;
and that no Shippe ride in an others walke, for in that is greate
danger.

If they saile by night the Admirall must beare a greate light
in the stearne of his Shippe, and if his fleete be greate, the
Admirall must carie ij lights; and the Vice Admirall one, and the
said Admirall must make such Saile over night that all his fleet
may kepe about him; perchanse ells in the morning a greate parte of
his flete may be out of his sight, for everie Shippe saileth not
alike.

If it chance any Shippe in the night fall in leake, or breake his
maste, he may shote a pece of Ordinance, or ij to warne the flete
he hath harme and in perall, to the entent he may have helpe, and
the rest to tarie.

The Admyrall ought to have a swifte pynnes abord alwaies abrod to
askrie so farre of that he may se the flete out of his toppe, and
if he seeth any enemyes or any other sailes, geve knowlege to the
Admyrall if they be any enemyes let him shote ij or iij peces of;
in the meanetyme the Flete may put them self in order and councel
before hand. Allwaies foreseing the pynnesse prease not so nighe
the enemve that he might be apprehended, for by that the secrets
might be knowne to the enemye, and evrie night he to cum into the
flete agayne.

If in the night there chanseth any enemyes unlooked for to fall
into the flete, he that first doth askrie the same shall shote of
ij peces, and geve a token of ij fyers and by that token shal be
understande that they be enemyes that be in the Flete. Yf they do
flee, let everie man make after, and that Shippe that is nighest
beare a light in his Stearnye that the rest may know whether[365]
the enemye goeth, for otherwise they may lose them: and if he that
giveth the chace, se not the fleete follow, let him shoote of a
pece, that they may follow by his shotte, in case they should not
see his light.

The Admyrall ought to have this order before he joyne battell
w^{th} the enemye that all his shipps shall beare a flagge in their
missentoppe and himself one in the foremaste beside the Mayne mast,
that everie man may know his owne flete by that token....

Scanty and insufficient as are these signals, and they leave everything to "councel" beforehand, there was no marked improvement on them until the days of the Commonwealth and the First Dutch War. The Instructions drawn up by Wynter[366] in the last year of Queen Mary's reign contain only one flag signal--the banner of council--one night signal for change of course, which is of interest as showing that the primitive cresset was, in 1558, still in use in the English fleet:

Item, in the night we do change our Course then the Admiral will
bear a light in his Cresset for the space of one hour, whereby
every Man may know what he ought to do; And all the night after
none, and then he will show out a Lanthorn with a Candle light in
the Mizon Shrowds.

one elementary recognition signal:

Item, if any be separated as before said, and that they descry by
fortune one another, to the end they may be assured that they are
of one Company the one shall strike his foresail, and a Yaw[367],
and to howse it and strike it in that sort, until he do think that
the same be seen unto the other, and then shall the other answer
him by striking of his foresail, and shooting of one good piece, so
that by the signs they shall be certain the one of the other.

and one signal for use in fog, that seems as inefficient as the others:

Item, if there do happen any great Mists, in such sort, that one
cannot discern another, then according to the weather, or place
we be in, we must order ourselves, that is to wit, if there be so
room. The Admiral will strike his Sail, and shoot one piece then,
whereby every Man may be warned to do the same, and if the Admiral
will anchor, then he will shoot off two pieces, one after another,
and strike the Sail incontinent upon the same, but if it so fortune
that he can neither drive nor ride at Anchor, then every man mark
well at the beginning of the mist what course the Admiral keepeth,
and to do the same. And the said Admiral will within every Glass
running shoot one piece for acknowledge, and because one may be the
better warned of another, ye shall make noise with trumpets, drums,
or knocking.

If any tactical instructions were issued to the fleet that engaged the Spanish Armada they have not been preserved to us, but there is no reason to suppose that they were--or would have been--any less rudimentary than those we have just considered. They may be taken to be represented by the "Rules in Sir John Hawkins his tyme" preserved among the State Papers of James I[368]:

5. Item that the fleetest pynassis doe waight still on the Admirall
and be at hand y^t he maye upon all occasions send them from shipp
to shipp as hee shall see Cause.

12. Item that upon the settinge up of a flagge in the quarter of
y^e Admiralls shipp every shipp come and speak w^h the Admirall.

13. Item that when the Admirall shall set up his flag of Counsell
in the shrowdes That then every Captayne shall repaire to knowe his
pleasure.

14. Item when the Admirall shall cause a pece of ordinance to be
shot of and a flagge of Counsell to be put out upon the mayne
yard then shall all the other shipp reporte to the Admirall and
the Captaynes w^h their M^r shall come in their boats aboard the
Admirall.