Chapter II: Preface: To the Thirteenth Edition (2)

3. The outer covering modified into true scales, much resembling in structure the nails of the human hand. This occurs in only one family of Mammals, the Pangolins, or _Manidæ_.

4. Hair in various forms, including bristles and spines. The two kinds of hair composing the external clothing of most Mammals, the long, stiffer outer hair, and the short, soft under-fur, are shown by various examples.

5. The special epidermal appendages found in nearly all Mammals on the ends of the fingers and toes, called according to the various forms they assume, nails, claws, or hoofs.

6. The one or two unpaired horns of the Rhinoceroses, shown by sections to consist of a solid mass of hair-like epidermic fibres.

7. The horns of Oxen, Goats, and Antelopes, each consisting of a hollow conical sheath of horn, covering a permanent projection of the frontal bone (the horn-core).

8. The antlers of Deer, forming solid, bony, and generally branched projections, covered during growth with soft hairy skin, and in most cases shed and renewed annually.

On the wall is arranged a series of antlers of an individual Stag or Red Deer (_Cervus elaphus_), grown and shed (except the last) in thirteen successive years, showing the changes which took place in their size and form, and the development of the branches, or tines, in each year. In old age the number of these tines tends to diminish.

On the north side of the table-case are shown dissections of the principal internal organs of Mammals.

[Sidenote: Bay III. General structure of Birds.]

Bay No. III is devoted to the class of Birds. An Albatross (_Diomedea exulans_) mounted with the wings expanded shows the most important characters by which a Bird is externally distinguished from other animals. The body is clothed with feathers, which (in the majority of Birds), by their great size and special arrangement upon the fore-limbs, enable these to act as organs of flight. The mouth is in the form of a horny beak. A nestling Albatross shows that at this stage of its existence the bird is not clothed with ordinary feathers, but with soft down, which serves to keep the body warm, although it confers no power of flight. An Emu and an Apteryx in the lower compartment of the case display the exceptional condition (found only in a comparatively few members of the class) of Birds with wings so small as to be concealed beneath the general feathery covering of the body, and quite useless. In the Penguins, of which two species are shown in the case, the wings are reduced to the condition of fins, and are serviceable only for progress through water.

In the first wall-case the principal features of the skeleton of the class are shown. Sections of bones exhibit the large air-cavities within; a complete skeleton of an Eagle, with the bones separated and named, and mounted skeletons of the Ostrich, Penguin, Pelican, Vulture, Night-Parrot, Fowl, etc., show the chief modifications of the skeleton. The Apteryx possesses the smallest, and the Frigate-bird the longest bones of the wing, the correspondence of which can be readily traced by means of the labels attached to them. The under surfaces of the skulls of various birds are shown with the different bones coloured to indicate their limits and relations; these are followed by a series of the different types of sternum or breast-bone.

The second wall-case contains further illustrations of the anatomy of Birds. In the left-hand part a series of wings of Birds displays the form characteristic of different groups; while above them are a few of the different types of tails, supplementing the series of tails in the table-case. Very instructive is a series of skins of white chickens of the same brood at different ages, displaying the gradual replacement of the down by the adult plumage.

The table-case in the middle of the bay contains illustrations of the external characters, the beak, the feathers, and the tail, as well as of the fore and hind limbs, or wings and feet. By the aid of the explanatory labels, the essential characters and the principal modifications of all these parts may easily be followed.

Two cases on the wall in the vestibule leading to the Fish Gallery illustrate the chief modifications of the eggs of Birds, and their differences in structure, number, form, size, texture of surface, and colour. On the side of the main staircase opposite are specimens illustrating the parasitic nesting habits of certain Cuckoos and various other Birds; while near by is a remarkably fine series of the eggs of Cuckoos with those of the Birds among which they were respectively deposited. On the opposite (east) side of the staircase the visitor will find a case showing the remarkable variation in colouring and markings displayed by the eggs of the Guillemot.

[Sidenote: Bay IV. General structure of Reptiles and Amphibians.]

The fourth bay on the west side of the hall exhibits the leading peculiarities in the structure of Reptiles and Amphibians. Owing to the large number of groups in the former class now extinct, many fossil specimens, or plaster reproductions of the same, are shown. The wall-case on the south side of this bay illustrates the different ordinal groups of Reptiles--living and extinct. Very instructive are the skeletons of Tortoises and Turtles, showing the relations of the vertebræ and limb-bones to the bony part of the shell. Lizards and Snakes are mostly represented by coloured casts. The extinct Dinosaurs are represented by a small-sized model of _Iguanodon_, together with a photograph of the skeleton and a plaster-cast of the bones of the hind-foot showing the three toes.

The adjacent side of the table-case shows the modifications of the backbone, or vertebral column, of the ribs, and of the limbs, in the different groups of the class. Specially noticeable are examples of five types of Skink-like Lizards, exhibiting the gradual diminution in the size of the limbs and their final disappearance.

The opposite, or north, side of the table-case displays the different modifications of the skull and teeth of living and extinct Reptiles. In some, like Crocodiles and Ichthyosaurs, the jaws are armed with a full series of sharply pointed teeth, while in others, like the Tortoises and Turtles, they are devoid of teeth and encased in horn. Very remarkable is the approximation to a carnivorous mammalian type presented by the dentition of some of the extinct mammal-like Reptiles, or Theromorphs, and equally noticeable are the palatal crushing teeth of certain other extinct Reptiles known as _Placodus_ and _Cyamodus_. The peculiar dentition of the New Zealand Tuatera, and likewise that of its extinct European and Indian ally _Hyperodapedon_ (fig. 9), are also shown.

FIG. 9.--SKULL OF THE GIANT TUATERA (_Hyperodapedon gordoni_), from
the Triassic Sandstone of Lossiemouth, Elgin, (¼ nat. size). A,
upper surface of skull; B, palatal aspect of skull; C, under side
of front of lower jaw; _Pmx_, premaxillary bone; _Mx_, maxillary;
_Pl_, palatal teeth; _Md_, lower jaw; _O_, orbit, or eye-socket;
_N_, nostrils; _S_, temporal pit; _S’_, lateral temporal fossa.
]

The brain and other internal organs of Reptiles are displayed in the left half of the wall-case on the north side of this bay, in which are also shown the eggs of many species, in some cases with the embryo.

FIG. 10.--SKELETON OF THE GREAT BLUE SHARK (_Carcharodon
rondeletii_), with portion of backbone on a large scale. _pl_,
functional upper jaw, and _su_, its reflected portion; _md_,
lower jaw; _hy_, ceratohyal; _br_, branchial arches; _co_,
pectoral girdle; _ph_, cartilaginous portion of pectoral, or
front paired fin; _r_, dermal portion of pectoral fin; _pu_,
pelvic, or hind paired, fin; _c_, centra, or bodies, of the
vertebræ; _na_, neural, or upper, and _ha_, hæmal, or lower,
arch. The median fins are not lettered.
]

In the right half of the same case are exhibited a number of preparations showing the external form and internal structure of Frogs and Salamanders, or Amphibians, living and extinct. The Giant Salamander of Japan (_Megalobatrachus_ or _Cryptobranchus_) is represented by a stuffed specimen; but the Newts, Salamanders, and Frogs are shown in spirit. Very curious is the almost colourless and blind Olm (_Proteus_) from the caves of Carniola; as also are the so-called Cœcilians, or Apoda, which have the habits and, in some degree, the appearance of large worms. Special specimens exhibit the structure of the extinct Labyrinthodonts, in which the hinder half of the skull is completely roofed over by bone; while the teeth in many instances exhibit a curious in-folded arrangement from which the group derives its name.

[Sidenote: Bay V. Structure of Fishes.]

The last bay (No. V) on the west side of the Central Hall is devoted to the display of the form and structure of Fishes.

The wall-case on the left side of this bay exhibits the external form of several characteristic types of Fishes, such as the Pike, Cod, Turbot, Dog-fish, and Skate, with the names of the various fins affixed. A striking specimen is the skeleton--mainly cartilaginous--of the Great Blue Shark (_Carcharodon rondeletii_), fig. 10, which occupies the greater portion of this case. It should be noted that, as in all Sharks and Rays, the upper jaw does not correspond with that of the higher Vertebrates; and particular attention should be devoted to the structure and arrangement of the arches supporting the gills.

In the south side of the table-case in this bay are shown a number of dissections, mounted in spirit, displaying the different types of skeletal structure presented by the fins in various groups of Fishes. One of the most remarkable of these types occurs in _Ceratodus forsteri_, the Queensland Lung-fish, in which the skeleton of the fin consists of a central jointed rod, from each side of which diverge narrower jointed rods. Alongside are specimens showing special modifications of certain fins, as in the Flying Fish (fig. 11) and Flying Gurnard (fig. 12), for the purpose of sustaining the body in the air, or, as in _Pentanemus_, to serve as organs of touch. Specimens of the West Indian Goby and the Lump-Sucker show modifications of the pelvic fins in connection with a sucker on the lower surface of the body; while other preparations display the pectoral (_Doras_) and pelvic fins (_Monocentris_) reduced to the condition of saw-like spines.

The structure of the skull of Fishes is illustrated in another part of the same side of this case. From this the visitor may learn how the primitive cartilaginous skull of the Sharks (fig. 10), Rays, Chimæras, and Lung-fishes has been gradually modified, by the addition of superficial sheathing-bones, into the bony skull of modern Fishes, such as the Cod and Perch.

FIG. 12.--THE FLYING GURNARD (_Dactylopterus_).]

The north side of the table-case in bay V is mainly devoted to the display of the different types of scales, spines, and teeth found among Fishes. In one corner are the enamelled “ganoid” scales of the modern American Bony Pike (_Lepidosteus_) and the African Bichir (_Polypterus_) alongside those of certain extinct forms. A scale of the Tarpon, or King-of-the-Herrings, illustrates the largest development in point of size of the modern “cycloid” type. Spines of the Porcupine-fish show an extreme development of this kind of structure. Diagrams and spirit-preparations illustrate the mode of attachment and succession of fish-teeth. A large series of the teeth of Sharks and Rays displays the gradual passage from those of the ordinary pointed form to others arranged in a pavement-like manner and adapted solely for crushing. Both types occur in the Port Jackson Shark (fig. 13), but those of some Rays are solely of the pavement modification. Very remarkable is the dental structure in the Parrot-fish. The west end of this side of the case shows the various modifications assumed by the teeth of the modern Bony Fishes; among which, as exemplified by the Wrasse, teeth are developed on the bones of the throat, as well as on those of the jaws. Throughout this case specimens, or models, of the teeth of extinct Fishes are placed side by side with those of their nearest living relatives.

The wall-case on the north side of this bay shows the history of the development of various Fishes, together with the form and structure of the gills, brain, heart, digestive system, and other organs.

[Sidenote: Lancelet.]

A small case affixed to the pillar at the entrance of the fifth bay illustrates the structure of the Lancelet (_Branchiostoma_, or _Amphioxus_), by the aid of spirit-specimens, enlarged models, and coloured diagrams. One of the most remarkable features in the structure of this strange and primitive little creature is the outer cavity enclosing the part of the body which contains the large and complex pharynx. The Lancelet was formerly included among the Fishes, but is now accorded the rank of a class (Cephalochorda) to itself.

Leaving bay VI, next the principal staircase on the east side of the central hall, which is devoted to illustrations of heredity, especially in relation to the Mendelian theory, and to modes of Flight in Vertebrates and Insects, we pass on to a table-case assigned to the illustration of “Mimicry” and kindred phenomena. Most of the examples shown occur among Insects; but one example among Mammals and a second in Birds are illustrated. Very striking is a coloured sketch showing a group of red and black caterpillars from Singapore grouped side by side on the stem of a plant so as to present a remarkable similarity to a succulent fruit.

[Sidenote: Bay VIII.]

[Sidenote: Bay IX.]

In bay VIII, on the eastern side of the central hall, is displayed an exhibition illustrating trees, native to or grown in Britain. The winter and summer states are indicated by photographs, and the foliage, flowers, fruits, seedlings, and texture of wood and bark by specimens, models, and drawings. Bays IX and X are intended to illustrate the general characters of the great groups of the Vegetable Kingdom. Bay IX, in course of arrangement, is devoted to the Cryptogams (Ferns, Mosses, Fungi, Seaweeds, and Lichens).

At the back of the bay is a fine polished section of a buttress from the base of the Tapang (_Abauria excelsa_), the largest tree in Borneo, which attains a height of 250 feet.

[Sidenote: Bay X. Seed-bearing Plants.]

The last bay (No. X) is devoted to the Seed-bearing Plants, which are characterised by the formation of a seed--the result of the fertilisation of an ovule by the male cell which is developed in the pollen. The series begins on the left hand side with the Pteridosperms, an extinct group combining the characters of Ferns and Seed-plants and forming a link between them. Then follow the Gymnosperms (Cycads, Pines, Firs, etc.), in which the seed is borne naked on an open scale which generally forms, with others like it, the characteristic cone. Certain points in the development of pollen and ovule recall similar stages in the Fern group, and indicate that the Gymnosperms stand nearer to the Cryptogams than do the Angiosperms, the other and larger group of Seed-plants. The Gymnosperms are also the older group, and contain many extinct forms. In the Angiosperms the seed is enclosed in the fruit, and in the development of pollen and ovule almost all traces of a cryptogamic ancestry have been lost; the great development of the flower is a characteristic feature of the Angiosperms. The arrangement of the vegetative parts of the plant is based on its separation into root, stem, and leaf. In the right-hand wall-case the upper series of specimens illustrates the leaf, its form, veining, direction, the characters of its stalk and stipules, its modification for special purposes, and its arrangement on the stem and in the bud. Below, the stem and root are similarly treated, and above are some anatomical drawings. The display of the root is continued in the lower part of the opposite wall-case. In the central case the chief types of the flower with its parts, the fruit, and the seed are exhibited.

At the back of the bay is a large transverse section of the Karri tree (_Eucalyptus diversicolor_) of Western Australia, a species which grows to a height of 400 feet. The tree from which the section was cut was about 200 years old when felled.

The Introductory Collection of Minerals will be found in the gallery devoted to the Mineral Department (see p. 90).

THE NORTH HALL.

[Sidenote: Domesticated Animals,[6] Hybrids, and Economic Zoology.]

The North Hall, or that portion of the building situated to the northward of the principal staircase, is used for the exhibition of the more important breeds of Domesticated Animals, as well as of examples of Hybrids and other Abnormalities. A series of specimens illustrative of Economic Zoology is likewise temporarily placed here.

The examples of Domesticated Mammals include Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Llamas, Dogs, Cats, and Rabbits. One of the main objects of this series is to show the leading characteristics of the well-established breeds, both British and foreign. In addition to Domesticated Animals properly so called, there are also exhibited examples of what may be termed Semi-domesticated Animals, such as white or parti-coloured Rats and Mice.

The skulls and skeletons of celebrated Horses[7] of all breeds, including those of the Thoroughbreds “Persimmon” (presented by His Majesty King Edward VII.), “Stockwell,” “Bend Or,” and “Ormonde,” and of the Shire “Blaisdon Conqueror,” form a notable feature of the series. In another case is exhibited the dentition of the Horse at different periods of existence; while on the opposite side of the same is illustrated the evolution of the Horse from three-toed and four-toed ancestors, and also certain peculiarities distinguishing the skulls of Thoroughbreds and Arabs from those of most other breeds.

Among the more notable exhibits are a mounted specimen of a Spanish Fighting Bull, which belongs to an altogether peculiar breed, and heads of Spanish Draught Cattle, presented by H.M. King Edward VII. Among the Sheep, attention may be directed to the four-horned, fat-tailed, and fat-rumped breeds, and also to the small breed from the island of Soa, as well as the curious spiral horned Wallachian Sheep. The so-called wild cattle of Chillingham Park are included in this series, since they are not truly wild animals, but are descended from a domesticated breed. The celebrated Greyhound “Fullerton” is shown among the series of Dogs, which also comprises examples of the Afghan Greyhound, and of the Slughi or Arab Greyhound. Small-sized models of Cattle, Horses, Sheep, and Pigs also form a feature of the series.

A hybrid between the Zebra and the Ass is shown in one of the cases; while photographs illustrate the results of experiments undertaken by Professor Ewart in cross-breeding between Burchell’s Zebra and the Horse. An example of the Lion-Tiger hybrids born many years ago in Atkins’ menagerie is likewise shown.

A fine series of hybrid Ducks and hybrid Pheasants is exhibited in the north hall.

[Sidenote: Skeletons of Man and Horse.]

Facing the visitor as he approaches the middle of the north hall are the skeletons of a Man and of a Horse, arranged for comparison with each other, and also to show the position of the bones of both in relation to the external surface. In the case of the Horse, the skin of the same animal from which the skeleton was prepared was carefully mounted, and, when dry, divided in the middle line; one half, lined with velvet, has been placed behind the skeleton. In the case of the Man, the external surface is shown by a _papier-maché_ model, similarly lined and placed in a corresponding position. As all the principal bones of both skeletons have their names attached, a study of this group will not only afford a lesson in comparative anatomy, but be of practical utility to the artist.

[Sidenote: Section of “Big Tree.”]

Against the wall dividing the north hall from the central hall is placed a section of a very large Wellingtonia or “Big Tree” (_Sequoia gigantea_), which was cut down in 1892 near Fresno, in California. It is about fifteen feet in diameter, and perfectly sound to the centre, showing distinctly 1,335 rings of annual growth, which afford exact evidence of the age of the tree. An instantaneous photograph, taken while the tree was being felled, is placed near by, and shows its general appearance when living. The height of the tree was 276 feet.

The exhibits of Economic Zoology at present occupy the northern division of this hall. In the western wall-case are specimens showing the injuries caused to trees by various insects. The table-cases contain examples of the damage done in Britain to fruit, roots, corn, and garden and vegetable produce, with specimens of the insects, and hints as to methods of destruction. There are also examples of injury done by insects abroad to cotton, tea, coffee, etc. In the cases under the windows are various parasites affecting man and domesticated animals.

STAIRCASE AND CORRIDORS.

[Sidenote: Statue of Darwin.]

On the first landing of the great staircase, facing the centre of the hall, is placed the seated marble statue of CHARLES DARWIN (b. 1809, d. 1882), to whose labours the study of natural history owes so vast an impulse. The statue was executed by Sir J. E. Boehm, R.A., as part of the “Darwin Memorial” raised by public subscription. It was unveiled and placed under the care of the Trustees of the Museum on the 9th of June, 1885, when an address was delivered on behalf of the Memorial Committee by the late Professor Huxley, P.R.S., to which His late Majesty King Edward VII. (then Prince of Wales), as representing the Trustees, replied.

[Sidenote: Statue of Banks.]

Above the first landing the staircase divides into two flights, each leading to one of the corridors which flank the west and east sides of the hall and give access to the galleries of the first floor of the building. Near the southern ends of these corridors two staircases join to form a central flight leading to the second floor. On the landing at the top is a marble statue by Chantrey of SIR JOSEPH BANKS (b. 1743, d. 1820), who for 41 years presided over the Royal Society and was Trustee of the Museum. His botanical collections are preserved in the adjoining gallery, but his library of works on natural history, also bequeathed to the Museum, remains at Bloomsbury, where the statue, erected by public subscription in 1826, stood until it was removed to its present situation in 1886. On the wall above is displayed a series of unusually fine heads of Indian Big Game Animals, bequeathed by Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B., in 1912.

[Sidenote: African Antelopes.]

The west, south, and east corridors contain a portion of the collection of mounted Mammals for which there is not room in the gallery immediately adjoining. The specimens placed here include a large number of species of the finest African Antelopes, animals remarkable for their beauty, for their former countless numbers, and for their threatened extermination in consequence of the inroads of civilized man into their domain.

[Sidenote: Giraffes and Okapi.]

In a case at the head of the staircase leading to the east corridor are several mounted specimens of Giraffes, and near by a skeleton of the same. Alongside the former is placed a case containing the heads and necks, together with skulls, of the various local races of Giraffes; while in a third are displayed three specimens of their near ally the Okapi (fig. 14) of the Congo Forest, as well as a skeleton of the same.

[Sidenote: Collections of Humming-Birds.]

The collection of Humming-Birds (_Trochilidæ_) arranged and mounted by the late Mr. John Gould, and purchased for the Museum in 1881, is principally shown in the vestibule leading from the hall to the Fish-gallery, but a few cases are placed on the pillars of the staircase. Another large collection of these birds, presented in 1913 by Mr. E. J. Balston, of Maidstone, is exhibited in the corridor leading to the Whale-room.

WEST WING.

The whole of the west wing of the building is devoted to the collections of recent Zoology.

(A) GROUND FLOOR.

[Sidenote: Bird Gallery.[8]]

The ground floor is entered from the west side (left hand) of the central hall, near the main entrance of the building. The long gallery, extending the entire length of the front of the wing as far as the west pavilion, is assigned to the exhibited collection of Birds, the study-series of the same group being kept in cabinets in a room behind.

[Sidenote: Systematic Series in Wall-cases.]

The wall-cases contain mounted specimens of all the principal genera, placed in systematic order, beginning with the Crows and Birds of Paradise on the left hand on entering, and ending with the Ostriches, Emus, etc., on the right.

Ground Floor.]

Among the multitude of species exhibited in this gallery, which form, however, but a small proportion of the different kinds of Birds known to inhabit the globe, only a few of the more striking can be mentioned. The various types of the Birds-of-Prey are very fully represented: from the Condor of the Andes, the large Sea-Eagle of Bering Strait, and the Great Eagle-Owl of Europe (all of which are placed in separate cases), to the Dwarf Falcon in case 53, which is not much larger than a sparrow, and preys upon insects. Among the large group of Perching-Birds, attention may be directed to the cases of Birds of Paradise and Bower-Birds in the first bay on the left. In separate cases in the sixth bay on the opposite side of the gallery are placed skeletons of the Dodo and Solitaire, large Pigeon-like birds with wings too small for flight, once inhabiting the islands of Mauritius and Rodriguez, respectively, but now extinct. Other cases on the right-hand side of the gallery are occupied by the Game-Birds, and the Wading and Swimming Birds. Here may be noticed a nearly complete series of the genera of Pheasants and Pigeons, showing the various forms. Special attention may be directed to the Great Auk (fig. 15), from the Northern Atlantic, which became extinct only in the last century. Casts of the eggs (fig. 16) of this curious bird are also exhibited. A case in the 7th bay contains a series of Penguins, flightless birds which may be regarded as representing the northern Auks and Guillemots in the southern oceans. Particularly interesting is the great Emperor Penguin, which lays its eggs and rears its young in winter amidst the ice of the Antarctic. Most of the specimens exhibited were obtained during the British Antarctic Expedition of 1839–43, under the command of Captain Sir James Clark Ross.

Other noteworthy types are the Great Bustard, once an inhabitant of England, and the Flamingos; a pair of the latter being exhibited with their nest.

In the first two bays on the right side of the gallery are placed specimens of the Ostrich group, characterised by the flat or raft-like form of the breast-bone. Owing to the rudimentary character of their wings, these Birds lack the power of flight. They include the largest existing Birds, the Ostriches, Emus, and Cassowaries, as well as the small Kiwis (_Apteryx_) of New Zealand, together with the extinct Moas (_Dinornis_, etc.), of the same country, and the Roc (_Æpyornis_) of Madagascar. A fossil egg of the latter is placed alongside eggs of the existing species of the group.

[Sidenote: Groups of British Birds and Nests.]

Down the middle line of the gallery, as well as in many of the bays, are placed groups showing the nesting-habits of various species of British birds. The great value of these groups consists in their absolute truthfulness to nature. The surroundings are not selected by chance or from imagination, but in every case are carefully executed reproductions of those that were present round the individual nest. When it has been possible, the actual rocks, trees, or grass, have been preserved, but in cases where these could not be used, they have been accurately modelled from nature. Great care has also been taken in preserving the natural form and characteristic attitudes of the Birds themselves. Among the more attractive cases are, near the centre of the gallery, a pair of Puffins feeding their single young one, and Black-throated Divers with their eggs in a hollow in the grass on the edge of a mountain-loch in Sutherland. Hen-harriers--the male grey and the female brown--are shown with their nest among the heather from the moorland of the same county. On the left of these is a Peregrine Falcon’s eyrie, on the ledge of a rocky cliff, containing three white downy nestlings. Near by are various species of Ducks, notably the Red-headed Pochard on the sedgy border of a Norfolk mere. In the last bay but one on the right side is a nest of the Heron, in a fir-tree, with the two old birds and three nearly fledged young. Various species of Gulls and a particularly beautiful group of Arctic Terns from the Shetland Islands are exhibited in the middle line towards the west end of the gallery and in the eighth and ninth bays. In the eighth bay on the right side and in the adjoining passage are Plovers, Sandpipers, Snipes, etc., some of which (especially the Ringed and Kentish Plovers) show the wonderful adaptation of the colouring of the eggs and young birds to their natural surroundings for the purpose of concealment. In the second passage leading to the Coral-gallery are Ptarmigan and Capercaillie from Scotland, and in the adjacent part of the middle line Wood-Pigeons and Turtle-Doves building their simple, flat nests of sticks in ivy-clad trees. In the fourth, sixth and seventh bays on the left are Sand-Martins and Kingfishers, showing, by means of sections of the banks of sand or earth, the form and depth of the hole in which the eggs are placed; and also nests of the Swift, Swallow, and House-Martin, all in portions of human habitations.

[Sidenote: Pavilion, with British Land and Fresh-water Vertebrates.[9]]

The “pavilion” at the west end of the Bird-gallery is devoted to the exhibition of the land and fresh-water Vertebrated Animals of the British Islands. The larger Mammals and Fishes occupy the wall-case on the north side, which is surmounted with horns. In the two pairs of centre cases is exhibited the series of British Birds, supplemented by the groups, to which reference has been made already. The wall-case on the north side of the archway contains a group of Gannets and other sea-birds from the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth. On the opposite side are two striking groups with the surroundings true to nature, the one of the Golden Eagle and the other of the Buzzard, both taken in Scotland. Other groups in the pavilion display the Kestrel, the Peregrine Falcon, and the Merlin amid natural surroundings. Among the Mammals, especial attention may be directed to a case of British Hares and Rabbits. In another case may be seen a female Badger and her young; in a third is a group of Otters; in a fourth a vixen Fox with her cubs; in a fifth a Mole-hill with its inhabitants; in a sixth a pair of Martens; in a seventh Polecats and their young; while other cases are devoted to Stoats, Weasels, Hedgehogs, Squirrels, Rats, Mice, etc.

Here it may be mentioned that the animal inhabitants of any country or district are collectively termed its “_fauna_.” The British Islands in this respect belong to the great zoological region called Palæarctic, or Eastern Holarctic, embracing all Europe, the north of Africa, and the western and northern portions of Asia. As in the case of other islands, the species belonging to groups in which the power of locomotion is limited to land or fresh-water are not numerous compared with those inhabiting large continental tracts. Their numbers can only increase under exceptional circumstances, and have a tendency to diminish as the growth of human population and increase of the area of cultivated land gradually reduce their native haunts. In this way the Brown Bear, the Wolf, the Beaver, and the Wild Boar have disappeared from Britain within the historic period, while other species, such as the Badger, Marten, and Wild Cat, with difficulty maintain a more or less precarious existence. All these were originally derived from the mainland of Europe, probably before the formation of the channel which now separates it from Great Britain. The wider and older channel which separates Ireland from Great Britain has been a greater barrier to the emigration of animal life than that between the latter and the Continent, many species (as the Polecat, Wild Cat, Mole, Squirrel, Dormouse, Harvest-Mouse, Water-Rat, Short-tailed Field-Mouse, Brown Hare, Roedeer, as well as Snakes and Toads) never having crossed what is now the Irish Sea, unless by human agency.

On the other hand, those species that have the power of travelling through the air or traversing the ocean are far less fixed in their habitat; and it results from this that the list of so-called “British Birds” receives accessions from time to time from stragglers which find their way from the European continent or Asia, or even across the Atlantic.

Slight but permanent variations from the continental type may be recognised in many native British species, some of the most marked among vertebrated animals being the Irish Stoat, the Squirrel, the Red Grouse, the St. Kilda Wren, the Coal-Tit, the Goldcrest, and several species of fresh-water fishes, mostly belonging to the genera _Salmo_ and _Coregonus_. Some of the latter, such as the Vendace, the Gwyniad, and their allies, of which specimens are exhibited in the wall-case in the pavilion, have an extremely local distribution, being found only in certain small groups of mountain lakes.

Of the Seals, only two species are really natives of Britain, the Common Seal (_Phoca vitulina_) and the great Grey Seal (_Halichœrus grypus_); specimens of both these are shown in the pavilion.

Those desirous of studying more minutely the characteristics of British Mammals should examine the series of skins and skulls exhibited in a special case on the right side of the central west window.

[Sidenote: Coral Gallery.[10]]

Parallel with the Bird-gallery, on the north side (right on entering), and approached by several passages, is a long narrow gallery containing the collection of Corals and Sponges and allied types. Commencing at the eastern end, some of the lowest forms of animal life are exhibited in the wall-case and table-cases; they belong to a group called PROTOZOA, and, for the greater part, are so minute, that they can be studied only with the microscope; their structure is therefore illustrated chiefly by means of models and figures. The next divisions of the gallery are occupied by the Sponges, most conspicuous among these being a series showing the variations of the common Bath-Sponge (cases 1 and 2), the beautiful flinty Venus’ Flower-basket or _Euplectella_ (fig. 17), the Japanese Glass-rope Sponge or _Hyalonema_ (case 3), and the gigantic Neptune’s Cup or _Poterion_, of which several specimens are placed on separate stands. Special interest attaches to the case showing the different kinds of Sponges used in commerce.

Nearly the whole of the remainder of the gallery is given up to Corals. In life these organisms display an immense variety of form and colour, sometimes presenting a marvellous resemblance to vegetable growths; but the part exhibited in the gallery is merely the dried, hard, horny, or stony basis or supporting skeleton, either of isolated individuals, or of colonies. Corals are allied to the well-known Sea-anemones of the British and other coasts; the combined skeletons of myriads of these animals form the coral-reefs which constitute the bases of thousands of islands in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Among the larger reef-making species are the Brain-Corals (_Meandrina_), one of which is shown in figure 18. Near the west end of the gallery is placed a magnificent specimen of the Black Coral of the Mediterranean (_Gerardia savalia_), obtained off the coast of the island of Eubœa in the Ægean Sea. The drawing in the case shows a magnified view of the “animals” or polyps of this species as they appear in life. In case 13 are specimens and drawings of the Red Coral (_Corallium rubrum_), so largely used for ornamental purposes, and also of the crimson Organ-pipe Coral (_Tubipora musica_). Arranged on shelves on the south wall of the western end of this gallery is a series of _Pennatulidæ_ (Sea-pens, Sea-rushes, or Sea-ropes) preserved in spirit. These Zoophytes live at the bottom of the sea, with their lower ends fixed in the sand and mud; the skeleton being never more than a straight internal rod in addition to innumerable microscopic spicules.

Approached through the Coral-gallery, and running backwards at right angles with it, are several galleries containing other portions of the zoological collections.

[Sidenote: Fish Gallery.[11]]

I. The Fish-gallery is nearest to the central hall, and contains the exhibited portion of the collection of Fishes. The greater number of specimens, preserved in spirit, are, however, placed for safety in a detached building outside the Museum, where they are available for study under special regulations. The gallery contains mounted examples, models, and skeletons of many of the more remarkable members of the class.

The wall-cases on the east side of the gallery (right on entering) contain the fishes with completely bony skeletons (Teleostei); to which division belong by far the greater part of the species now inhabiting the waters of the globe. Large and remarkable examples are placed in separate cases opposite to the wall-cases. As the colours of fishes are very fugitive, and disappear more or less completely after death, most of the mounted examples have been painted. The fishes allied to the Perch, Gurnard, Mackerel, Sword-Fish, Wrasse, Cod, Plaice, Catfish, Salmon, Pike, and Eel are represented by numerous examples. Specially noticeable, so far as size and external form are concerned, are the Sunfishes, _Orthagoriscus_ (fig. 19).

Even more strange are several of the species of deep-sea Fishes exhibited in a table-case in the Fish-gallery, which live at depths where the sun’s rays cannot penetrate, and many of which are self-luminous. Two deep-sea Fishes are shown in the accompanying illustrations (figs. 20 and 21). From another point of view, special attention may be given to the Sucker-Fish or Remora (_Echeneis remora_), fig. 22, which attaches itself by the sucker on the top of its head to the bodies of Fishes or Turtles, or to the bottom of ships. As it attaches itself back-downwards, the under-parts are coloured dark while the back is light; a condition just the reverse of that obtaining in ordinary Fishes.

The western or left side of the gallery is devoted to the exhibition of certain very different types of Fishes, which were much more numerously represented in ancient times than at present. The majority have a cartilaginous skeleton. Among these may be specially mentioned the Bichir of the tropical African rivers, the Gar-Pike of North America, the Sturgeons, the Lung-Fishes (Dipnoi) of South America, Africa, and Australia, the Chimæras, and finally the Sharks and Rays. Among the two latter are included the singular Hammer-headed Shark (_Zygœna_), and the Saw-Fishes (_Pristis_), which have long projecting flattened snouts, with a row of teeth arranged something like those of a saw on each side (fig. 23). A remarkably large specimen from the coast of British Guiana of a species of this group (_Pristis perrotteti_) is exhibited. Another very small division of Fishes comprises the Lampreys and Hags, of which a few specimens are shown.

The largest exhibited specimen of the class is the head of a full-grown example of the great Basking Shark (_Selache_, or _Cetorhinus, maxima_), fig. 24, captured on the 2nd of March, 1875, near Shanklin, in the Isle of Wight. The length of the entire specimen was twenty-eight feet, but, as the minute size of the teeth indicates, it is a comparatively harmless fish. A smaller female specimen is suspended from the roof; and below this is placed a model of the skeleton of the same species. Near by is a young specimen of another basking species, the Elephant-Shark (_Rhinodon typicus_), which when adult is said to attain a length of at least fifty feet. It inhabits the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Models of some of the more remarkable types of extinct Fishes are exhibited in cases on the same side of the gallery.

[Sidenote: Insect Gallery.[12]]

II. A small gallery is devoted to the group of Arthropoda or Invertebrate animals with jointed limbs, such as Lobsters, Crabs, Spiders, Centipedes, and Insects.

At the south end of this gallery are exhibited specimens of Crabs and Lobsters. Among the former, special attention may be directed to the specimens of the Giant Crab (_Macrocheira_) of Japan, and also to the Coconut Crab (_Birgus latro_), fig. 25, which climbs trees to feed on young cocoanuts, and is related to the Hermit-Crabs. In the central table-cases, besides Crustacea (Crabs, Lobsters, etc.), are displayed representative Scorpions and Spiders, including several examples of the large Bird-eating Spiders of South America.

.

The northern half of this gallery is devoted to the exhibited series of Insects. Next to the door on the east side are the nests of White Ants or Termites, while on the opposite side are some remarkable cocoons of social Caterpillars of various Moths, and also a series of preparations showing the metamorphoses or changes undergone by Insects as they grow to maturity. At the sides of the gallery are models of various galls, with drawings of the insects which cause them; and others showing the life-histories of certain Beetles, Bees, and Moths. Beneath a shelf, on the west side, are four cabinets containing a collection of British Butterflies and Moths with their caterpillars, prepared and presented by Lord Walsingham; and near by stands a cabinet containing a collection of the Butterflies and Moths of the British islands formed by the late Mr. William Buckler, most of the specimens in which were bred by him during the preparation of his “Larvæ of British Butterflies and Moths.” Above these are maps illustrating the geographical distribution of certain Beetles (_Calosoma_, _Carabus_, _Julodis_ and _Stigmodera_); actual specimens of the insects being placed in position on the maps. The wall-cases at the end of the gallery are devoted exclusively to the nests of Ants, Wasps, and Bees. On the east wall is a large case containing specimens and drawings explaining the structure of Insects. On the west side, next the Walsingham collection, are cabinets containing a selection of British Insects. Lower down are other cabinets in the series of foreign Butterflies; while foreign Moths and other Insects are arranged in adjacent cabinets. In another part of the gallery are exhibited coloured drawings of a few of the smallest Insects known, namely the _Mymaridæ_, a group of minute parasitic Hymenoptera; and above is a drawing of a House-Fly, enlarged in the same proportion--thirty diameters--to show the contrast. A few specimens of the insects themselves are placed in the microscope below.

In the table-cases in the middle of the gallery are specimens and illustrations of some of the principal families of Insects, with explanations of the characters by which these may be recognised. The first case (next to the west door) contains an introductory series, and then follow the various orders in sequence commencing with the most primitive forms or Aptera, among which _Campodea_, a small British insect, may be specially noticed.

The classification of Butterflies, Bees and Ants, and Beetles is shown in the last three cases; and attention may be specially directed to a series of drawings illustrating the transformations of Fleas, Gnats, Midges, etc.

The main collection of insects is kept in cabinets in the “Insect Room” in the basement, but is open to students under the regulations mentioned at the end of this guide.

[Sidenote: Reptile Gallery.[13]]

III. The long Reptile-gallery contains mounted specimens and skeletons of Reptiles, including Crocodiles, Lizards, Snakes, and Tortoises, as well as restorations or casts of the remains of many groups now entirely extinct. The most noticeable specimen in this gallery is the model of the skeleton of the gigantic extinct North American land Reptile known as _Diplodocus carnegii_, which measures over eighty feet in length, and was presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie in 1905. Restored models of the skeletons of the Iguanodon, a British Dinosaur, and of the North American Horned Dinosaur (_Triceratops_) are also noteworthy.

The Crocodiles and their extinct relatives occupy the cases on the left of the entrance from the Bird-gallery and also a stand in the middle of the gallery; and among these may be specially noticed the Indian Gharial, of which both the skeleton and skin are exhibited. The two small cases on each side of the west doorway are occupied by extinct forms and the peculiar Tuatera Lizard of New Zealand. At the south end of the east side are arranged the Turtles and Tortoises, including examples of the Giant Tortoises of the Galapagos (fig. 26) and Mascarene Islands, as well as a large species (_Testudo calcarata_) from North Africa. Opposite the Turtles and Tortoises are the Snakes, among which two large Pythons, coloured to nature, form attractive exhibits. Extinct groups occupy a small case on each side of the east door. Beyond these come the Lizards, which occupy the cases opposite the Crocodiles. The series of Old World Monitor Lizards and American Iguanas is specially noteworthy; and attention may be likewise directed to the curious worm-like Amphisbænas, of which the majority inhabit Tropical America. Casts of remains of the extinct marine Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs are shown in the small cases on the sides of the doorway in the east wall.

[Sidenote: Amphibians (Salamanders and Frogs).]

In the Reptile-gallery is placed a large table-case containing a selection of the more important forms of Amphibians, which are divided into such as possess a tail:--Salamanders and Newts; and those without tails:--Frogs and Toads. During some period of their existence most of these animals live in the water, when they breathe by gills, and are in this respect akin to Fishes. The comparatively enormous size attained by certain tropical species of Frogs and Toads, such as the South American Horned Frog (fig. 27), should be noticed. The largest representative of the group is the Giant Salamander of Japan and China.

[Sidenote: Starfish Gallery.[14]]

IV. A small gallery is devoted to Starfishes and their allies collectively constituting the class ECHINODERMA. Specimens of these are arranged systematically in table-cases 1–24; and in case 36 are specimens illustrating the anatomy of the skeleton, and models and figures showing the remarkable changes undergone by these animals in the course of their development. In a separate case on the east side of the gallery is a case containing specimens of a large Starfish to illustrate the variability in the number of rays from 4 to 7. In a case on the opposite side is shown _Luidia savignei_ from Mauritius, one of the largest of Starfishes. The Feather-stars (_Antedon_) are also members of this group; but the most beautiful and remarkable specimens in the gallery are the Sea-Lilies, or Crinoids, collected by the “Challenger” Expedition. One specimen was found attached to an old telegraph-wire taken up in the Caribbean Sea. These deep-sea Crinoids, of which representatives, now extinct, were abundant in earlier periods of the world’s history, are exhibited on tables in the corners of the gallery, by cases 37 and 38. Some of the larval stages of the Feather-stars (fig. 28) resemble stalked Crinoids.

The wall-cases contain representatives of the groups collectively known as Worms. Case 1 contains the Tape-Worms or Cestoda, and the Flukes or Trematoda, the life-history of a species of each being illustrated by specimens, figures, and models. In case 2 the Round-Worms are illustrated by models of _Trichina_, and the anatomical structure of various other kinds is shown by the aid of diagrams. Case 3 contains specimens of free-living terrestrial and marine Worms, Leeches, and Gephyreans. Case 4 is devoted to specimens of Echinoderms preserved in spirit, especially Holothurians, such as Trepangs or Sea-Cucumbers, the Bêche-de-Mer of the French.

[Sidenote: Shell Gallery.[15]]

V. A large gallery is devoted to the great group of Shell-fish or MOLLUSCA, the exhibition of which is, however, mainly restricted to their shells. In some cases the form of the soft parts is, however, shown either by specimens in spirit or by means of models.

In wall-cases on the west side of the gallery is a series of shells arranged on tablets to show the leading structural types, such as univalve, bivalve, multivalve, etc.; then the nature of the outer coat, or “skin”; and, thirdly, some of the more striking styles of ornamentation and colouring. Following these, a division is devoted to the display of the general form of the shells of bivalves, special attention being directed to the nature of the hinge by which the two valves are joined. Fresh-water Mussels (_Unionidæ_) are selected as examples of great variability in the form of the shell in closely allied species. Near by is a small series of the shells of boring bivalves, many in the various substances they perforate. Alongside are shown in a similar manner modifications in form and structure presented by Univalve or Gastropod shells; many of the shells having been cut to show their internal structure. Specimens of the horny or shelly plate (operculum) closing the mouth of many Gastropod shells are also exhibited. In one compartment are displayed spirit-preparations of Cephalopod Molluscs, such as Octopus, Cuttle-fish, Squids, Nautilus, Argonaut or Paper-Nautilus, etc. Specimens of the horny beaks possessed by all members of this class are also exhibited; and a Pearly Nautilus (fig. 31), with the shell cut in two in order to show the air-chambers and the comparatively small space occupied by the “animal,” will be found of special interest. From the roof are suspended life-sized models of a Giant Squid (_Architenthis_) and a Giant Octopus. The Cephalopods were extraordinarily numerous in past ages, and many of the fossil forms are exhibited in the Geological Department.

The main shell-collection is contained in four parallel rows of table-cases, the arrangement commencing on the right as the gallery is entered. The first two rows contain the marine forms of Gastropods--a division which includes Snails, Slugs, Whelks (fig. 29), and all those Molluscs which crawl upon the under surface of their bodies; the Cowries, Cones, Volutes, Mitras, and Murexes forming some of the most attractive groups. The two rows of cases on the left contain Land-Shells, Bivalves, and Cephalopods. The Cockles, Oysters, Clams, Piddocks, Teredos, Scallops, and Ark-Shells represent some of the principal types of Bivalves, so called on account of their shells being formed of two pieces or valves. A Giant Clam (fig. 30), at the S. end of the gallery, weighs 310 lbs., and measures 36 inches in length.

[Sidenote: Sea-Mats, Lamp-shells, and Sea-squirts.]

In the same gallery are exhibited examples of three other groups of marine organisms, respectively known as Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, and Tunicata. The Polyzoa live in colonies, and include the so-called Sea-Mat. They are often mistaken for sea-weeds, although in reality they are animals of comparatively high organisation. The Brachiopods have two shells like Bivalve Molluscs, but the valves are dorsal and ventral--that is to say, back and front--instead of right and left. One valve is frequently perforated, hence the name of “Lamp-shells,” from a resemblance to an ancient Roman lamp. Sea-squirts, Tunicates, or Ascidians, are worthy of the attention of the visitor on account of their affinity with the Vertebrate stock, of which they may be regarded as a degenerate type. It is in the larvæ or “Ascidian Tadpoles” that the evidence of Vertebrate relationship is most conspicuous, as shown by certain important characters in the nervous system, skeleton, and respiratory organs.

A series of large shells occupies some of the space in the wall-cases, among which attention may be directed to the thick and often handsomely coloured Helmet-shells (_Cassis_), which, together with the pink Queen-conch (_Strombus_), were formerly largely used in the now nearly obsolete art of cameo-cutting. In addition to these, a selection of British shells, and series of the eggs of Molluscs, as well as specimens illustrating the formation of pearls, and other points of special interest connected with Molluscs, are displayed. These specimens include not only the Pearl-oyster, but some of the other shells used in the mother-of-pearl trade.

WHALE-ROOM.

[Sidenote: Whale-Room.]

Approached by a staircase, leading down from the last (or western-most) of the passages which connect the Bird-gallery with the Coral-gallery, is a separate room in which are placed the specimens of Whales and their relatives. For these, on account of their large size, no other place could be found in the Museum; but the room has, unfortunately, the disadvantage of being too small to display such large animals to full advantage. It is also intersected by columns, which interfere with the complete view of the larger specimens.

As it is almost impracticable to preserve the skins of the larger species of Whales, owing to the oil with which they are saturated, the exhibition of the characters of these animals is carried out by means of their skeletons and artificial models of one side of the body. Complete models, which are much better than actual skins, of many of the smaller kinds, are shown. A general account of the structure and classification of the Cetacea, as Whales are technically termed, with reference to those exhibited in this gallery, will be found in a Special Guide.[16]

[Sidenote: Fresh-water Dolphins.]

[Sidenote: Narwhal.]