Chapter III: Preface: To the Thirteenth Edition (3)

On the left side of the entrance is a case containing a stuffed specimen, a skeleton, and several skulls of the Susu, or Fresh-water Dolphin (_Platanista gangetica_) of the rivers of India, and also of the Dolphins of the Rio de la Plata (_Pontoporia blainvillei_) and of the River Amazon (_Inia geoffroyensis_). Among the specimens fronting the visitor as he enters the room, one of the most interesting, on account of its remarkable dentition, is the Narwhal, or Sea-Unicorn. It has only two teeth, which lie horizontally in the upper jaw. In the female both remain permanently concealed within the bone of the jaw, so that this sex is practically toothless; but in the male, while the right tooth remains similarly concealed and rudimentary (as shown in the specimen, by removal of part of the bone which covered it), the left is immensely developed, attaining a length equal to that of half the entire animal, and projecting horizontally from the head in the form of a long, straight, tapering and pointed tusk, spirally grooved on the surface. In rare cases, as in the skull exhibited near the skeleton, both teeth are fully developed, and it is noticeable that in such specimens the direction of the spiral is the same in both tusks.

[Sidenote: Sperm-Whale.]

To the right of the entrance is placed a specimen of the bony framework of one of the most colossal of animals, the Cachalot, or Sperm-Whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_), fig. 32, prepared from an old male cast ashore near Thurso, on the north coast of Scotland, in July, 1863, on the estate of Captain D. Macdonald, R.E., by whom it was presented to the Museum. Upon one side of this skeleton has been built the model of the external form of the animal. The Sperm-Whale is the principal source of supply of sperm-oil and spermaceti: the former being obtained by boiling the fat or blubber lying beneath the skin over the whole body. The latter, in a liquid state at the ordinary temperature of the living animal, is contained in cells which fill the immense cavity on the top of the skull. This Whale, which feeds chiefly on Cephalopods (Squids and Cuttle-fishes), but also on Fishes, is distributed throughout the warm and temperate regions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and sometimes enters British waters.

In order to render this skeleton more instructive, the names have been attached to the principal bones, thus enabling the visitor to trace at a glance the extraordinary modification from the normal mammalian form the huge skull of this species has undergone.

[Sidenote: Whalebone Whales.]

Most of the largest Cetacea belong to the group called “Whalebone Whales,” in which a series of horny plates termed “whalebone” grow from the palate in place of teeth, and serve to strain the water taken into the mouth from the small marine animals on which these Whales subsist. A representative of this group is the skeleton of the Common Rorqual or Fin-Whale (_Balænoptera musculus_) in the south-west portion of the room. This Whale, which is sixty-eight feet long, was captured in 1882 in the Moray Firth, Scotland. The flukes of the tail and the back-fin were preserved with the skeleton and are placed above the wall-case behind; the small pelvic bones, and a rudimentary nodule representing the femur or thigh-bone, the only trace of the hind leg of this gigantic animal, are also shown. The external form is modelled in plaster. In front is a skeleton and half-model of the Black or North Atlantic Right-Whale (_Balæna glacialis_ or _biscayensis_). Below this skeleton is placed a lower jaw of the Greenland Right-Whale (_Balæna mysticetus_), the species which formerly yielded most of the “whalebone” of commerce, and also a miniature wooden model of the entire animal, on the scale of one inch to the foot.

Remains of extinct Cetaceans--notably the solid bony beaks of the skulls of Beaked Whales (_Ziphiidæ_) from the Red Crag of the east coast of England--are placed in this gallery. A special table-case, near the Sperm-Whale, shows the curious ear-bones of various Cetaceans, both recent and fossil. These bones are perfectly sufficient for the identification of the kind of Whale from which they were taken. In a case on the opposite side of the gallery is displayed the horny wart, termed by sailors the “bonnet,” found on the nose of the Black Right-Whale.

FIRST FLOOR.

The upper floors of the wings of the Museum consist merely of single galleries extending along the whole front of the building; for the galleries which run backwards on the ground floor form only a single storey.

First Floor.

Second Floor.]

[Sidenote: Lower Mammal Gallery.]

The Lower Mammal-Gallery is entered from the western corridor of the central hall. Together with the adjacent corridor, it contains the greater part of the exhibited series of recent Mammals, with the exception of the Cetacea, Sirenia, and Proboscidea, which are downstairs, and the orders Primates, Chiroptera, Insectivora, and Rodentia, which are in the upper gallery. As three special guides[17] are devoted to these galleries, a very brief notice will serve on this occasion. Both stuffed specimens and skulls and skeletons are exhibited, although the former constitute by far the greater portion of the series. A few remains of extinct types, or plaster reproductions of the same, are introduced here and there; and photographs of living animals are hung on the walls, where will also be found some instructive series showing the modifications assumed by the teeth of certain groups. Wherever possible, the horns and antlers of the Ruminants, as well as the horns of the Rhinoceroses, are placed in juxtaposition to the animals to which they respectively belong.

[Sidenote: Ruminants, etc.]

The series commences on the right side of the gallery with the lowest forms. Down the middle is a row of large Mammals, comprising various Deer, Seals, and Rhinoceroses. On the right of the entrance a small case contains the Australian Platypus or Duck-bill (fig. 33) and the Echidnas of Australia and New Guinea, which lay eggs, and are the lowest of all living Mammals. In the adjacent bay are the Marsupials, such as Kangaroos, Phalangers, or so-called Opossums, Wombats, and Bandicoots of Australasia, and the true Opossums of America. The eighth and ninth bays on the left side contain the so-called Edentate Mammals, such as the South American Sloths, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos, the Scaly Ant-eaters or Pangolins (fig. 34) of tropical Asia and Africa, and the African Aard-Vark or Ant-Bear. The Sea-Cows, as represented by the Dugong, the Manatee, and the recently extinct Rhytina of Bering Island, are shown in the Geological Department. In the second bay are the Pigs and Hippopotamuses; in the third the Camels, and near by the Chevrotains, or Mouse-Deer. Following these are the Deer (_Cervidæ_), many of which, as already stated, are placed in the middle line of the gallery. Properly speaking, the Giraffes and their recent and extinct allies, the former represented by the Okapi of Central Africa (fig. 14, p. 41), should come here; but, as already mentioned, it has been found convenient to remove the Giraffe group into the east corridor of the central hall. In one of the cases in the bays stands the Prongbuck or Pronghorn Antelope (fig. 35), the sole living representative of a family characterised by the circumstance that the horns have hollow branched sheaths which are shed annually. Next in order come the Antelopes, a large number of which are placed in the corridors outside the gallery. This series, it may be remarked, is particularly fine, and, in fact, unique. At the last two bays on the right side of the gallery the visitor reaches the Goats; and in the “pavilion,” at the west end of the gallery, he comes to the Sheep, Musk-Oxen, and Oxen, of which there is a magnificent display, both as regards mounted specimens and horns. Many of the cases in the middle of the gallery and the bays have been fitted with artificial groundwork, one of the most striking being the European Reindeer case, for which the materials were brought from Norway.

Continuing our survey down the left side of the gallery, the bay next the pavilion and an adjacent case in the middle line contain the Zebras, Wild Asses and the Wild Horse, among which is a specimen of the extinct Quagga. Following this are the Rhinoceroses and Tapirs, some of the former being exhibited in the middle of the gallery. Adult specimens of all the living species except the one-horned _Rhinoceros sondaicus_ of Java are exhibited. The cut (fig. 36) shows the form of the head and the number of the horns in three members of the group.

[Sidenote: Hyraxes.]

In a small case by themselves are exhibited the Hyraxes, which represent a subordinal group of Ungulates. In this place should come the Elephants (Proboscidea), but it has been found advisable to exhibit the existing species of this group alongside their extinct relatives in the Geological Department, and in the central hall.

Next in order follow the Seals, Walruses, and Sea-Bears (fig. 37); and after these again, the land Carnivora. Among the former, particular attention may be directed to the specimens of Sea-Elephants or Elephant-Seals (fig. 38) of the Southern Seas and the Pacific coast of California. The visitor should also notice the various smaller southern Seals, obtained during the “Discovery” Expedition, in the case in the bay. Among the land Carnivora, special interest attaches to the huge Brown Bear from Alaska, the black and white Bear-like Great Panda (fig. 39) of North-eastern China, and the case of Tigers, in which both the long-haired Manchurian and the short-coated Indian race are shown.

SECOND FLOOR.

[Sidenote: Upper Mammal Gallery.]

The portion open to the public of the gallery on this floor in the western wing of the building contains such of the Mammalian orders (apart from Proboscidea, Cetacea, and Sirenia) as are not shown in the lower gallery. In the first two wall-cases on the right on entering the gallery is displayed a series of Bats, some stuffed, and others in spirit. In the third wall-case are the Insect-eating Mammals (Insectivora), such as Shrew-mice, Moles, Hedgehogs, etc. Next come the Rodents, and then the Lemurs, Monkeys, and Apes, the greater number of the last being exhibited in the large case in the middle of the gallery. Among the more striking specimens may be mentioned the series of Gorillas (fig. 40) and Chimpanzees, and the Proboscis and Snub-nosed Monkeys.

Nearly all the left side of this gallery is devoted to Anthropology, that is to say, to the representation of the zoological characters of the different races of Mankind[18]; the series including busts, skeletons, skulls, hair, and portraits.

At the west end of the portion of this gallery open to the public stands a case exhibiting many of the structural differences distinguishing the man-like Apes from Man himself; and also showing different types of human skulls and the method of measuring the same. On the adjacent screens and partitions are diagrams, photographs, and sketches illustrating hand and finger prints, and identification by means of the latter.

EAST WING.

GROUND FLOOR.

[Sidenote: Fossil Collection.]

The ground floor of this wing consists, as on the other side of the building, of a gallery running west and east the whole length of the wing in front, of a smaller parallel gallery behind this, and leading from the latter a series of galleries running north and south. With the exception of a certain number of recent skeletons introduced for comparison, and some of the specimens of Elephants and Sirenians or Sea-Cows, the whole of this floor is occupied by the collection of the remains of animals and plants which flourished in geological periods previous to the one in which we are now living. Some of these belong to species still existing upon the earth, but the great majority are extinct. They are arranged mainly upon zoological principles, that is, the groups which are believed to have natural affinities are placed together; but within some of the great divisions thus mapped out, especially of the Invertebrata and Plants, it has been found convenient to adopt a stratigraphical or even geographical grouping, the fossils of different geological formations being kept apart, and those of the British Isles separated from those of foreign localities.

This portion of the Museum is more fully described in the special Guides[19] than is possible in the present work.

[Sidenote: Elephants, Sea-Cows, and Extinct Mammals.]

The front gallery, entered from the central hall, is devoted to Elephants and Sea-Cows, both living and extinct, and to extinct and fossil Mammals of other groups. Down the middle are placed a number of large and striking objects, of too great size to be contained in the wall-cases. The first is a nearly complete skeleton of the American Mastodon (fig. 41), an animal closely allied to modern Elephants, from which it is chiefly distinguished by the characters of its cheek-teeth. This is followed by a skeleton of the existing Indian Elephant (_Elephas maximus_), and the mounted skin of a tuskless male of the same species, brought home from India by His Majesty King Edward VII., when Prince of Wales. Further down the gallery is the skull of the extinct _E. ganesa_--remarkable for the immense length of its tusks--from the Siwalik Hills of India; and another of the Mammoth (_E. primigenius_), with huge curved tusks, in a perfect state of preservation, found in the Brick-earth at Ilford, Essex.[20] Then follow skeletons of the great extinct Irish Deer (_Cervus giganteus_), male and female, the former distinguished by its magnificent spreading antlers, resembling those of a Fallow Deer on a large scale.

The next central case is occupied by the skulls and portions of jaws of a remarkable horned hoofed quadruped, _Arsinoïtherium_ (fig. 42), from the Upper Eocene of the Fayum, Egypt. It belongs to an ancient group not closely related to any living animal.

Equally peculiar is the _Toxodon_ (fig. 43) from the Pampas of S. America, of which a model of an entire skeleton is exhibited.

From the Pampas Formation of Argentina. About 1/18th natural size.]

Near by is placed a model of a skeleton of the _Dinoceras_ (fig. 44), one of the most remarkable of the many wonderful forms of animal life discovered in the Tertiary beds of the western portion of the United States of America. This animal combines in some respects the characters of a Rhinoceros with those of an Elephant, and has others altogether special to itself. The group to which it belonged became extinct in the Oligocene, or Middle Tertiary, period, without leaving any successors.

[Sidenote: Sea-Cows.]

Near the pavilion is a skeleton (fig. 45) of an interesting animal, the Northern Sea-Cow (_Rhytina gigas_ or _stelleri_), the last resort of which was Bering Island in the North Pacific, where it was completely exterminated towards the close of the eighteenth century. In the same case is placed the skeleton of a smaller allied animal, the _Halitherium_, from the Oligocene of South Germany. These, with their existing representatives, the Manatee and Dugong, constitute the order Sirenia, aquatic Mammals of fish-like form, presenting considerable external resemblance to Cetacea (Whales and Dolphins), but differing in many points of structure and habit. All the exhibited specimens of the group, both living and extinct, are shown in this gallery.

[Sidenote: Fossil remains of Man.]

The wall-cases on the south side (right on entering) contain typical series of chipped and polished flint implements of human workmanship, and also remains of Man found, under circumstances which may justify the appellation of “fossil,” in caves or Pleistocene deposits, associated with the bones of Mammals either completely or locally extinct. Then follow in systematic order the bones and teeth of the other Primates, the Carnivora, Ungulata, and Sirenia.

[Sidenote: Elephants and Ruminants.]

The greater part of the north side of the gallery is devoted to the exhibition of the remains of Proboscidea (Dinotheres, Mastodons, and Elephants), as well as teeth and skulls of the two existing species of Elephants. The forerunners of the Proboscidea from the Eocene strata of Egypt, as represented by _Palæomastodon_ and _Mœritherium_, are of special interest. Attention may likewise be directed to the skull of the gigantic Ruminant _Sivatherium_ (fig. 46), from the Siwalik deposits of Northern India, an ally of the living African Okapi (p. 41), with which it is connected by _Helladotherium_ of the Grecian Tertiary deposits; another still more nearly allied type being _Samotherium_, from the Isle of Samos, of which a skull (fig. 47) is exhibited.

[Sidenote: Edentates.]

In the “pavilion,” or large room at the end of the gallery, are skeletons and bones of the members of the order Edentata, mostly from South America, including fine specimens of the great Ground-Sloths, the largest of which, the _Megatherium_, is shown in the act of rearing itself on its hind-legs and powerful tail to seize and tear down the branches of a tree in order to feed upon the leaves. That this was the habit of this huge animal is clearly indicated by the structure of its bones and teeth. The mounted specimen is not an actual skeleton, but is composed of plaster-casts of the real bones, most of which are shown in the wall-case at the north side of the room. Of the _Mylodon_, a smaller but nearly allied animal, an almost perfect skeleton is exhibited in a glass case near the _Megatherium_. Near by is a portion of the skin of a closely similar animal (_Grypotherium listai_), from a cave in Patagonia, showing the hair, and also the nodules of bone embedded in the hide.

[Sidenote: Marsupials.]

Not far off is shown one of the glyptodons, huge extinct Armadillo-like animals, of which the body is enclosed in a solid barrel-like bony case. As these animals far surpassed in size their diminutive existing representatives, so the gigantic Marsupials of the corresponding period in Australia (Pleistocene, or latest Tertiary), such as _Diprotodon_ and _Nototherium_, greatly exceeded any of the species now existing on that continent; of _Diprotodon_ a complete skeleton is exhibited. On the other hand, all the Mammals of the earlier geological periods of which remains are known are of diminutive size, as seen in the series of jaws, teeth, etc., mostly from the Purbeck (Upper Oolite) beds of Dorset and the Stonesfield Slate (Great Oolite) of Oxfordshire, exhibited in the centre window-case on the east side of the room.

[Sidenote: Extinct Birds.]

The south side of this room (right on entering) is chiefly reserved for the remains of extinct Birds, including the famous Lizard-tailed Bird (_Archæopteryx_) of the Solenhofen beds of Bavaria (fig. 48), the oldest known member of the class. Although presenting many Reptile-like characters, it had well-developed feathers on the wings and tail, the impressions of which are beautifully preserved in the specimen. A series of skeletons of the “Moas,” or _Dinornithidæ_, of New Zealand, birds in which no trace of a wing has been discovered, shows the diversity in size of different members of the group, some far exceeding any existing Ostrich, while others are scarcely larger than a good-sized Turkey. Some of these remains are so recent as still to be covered with dried skin, and even feathers. Several eggs are also shown; but, large as these are, they are greatly exceeded in size by those of the Roc (_Æpyornis_) from Madagascar. The skull and certain other remains of a gigantic extinct bird, _Phororhachos_, from Patagonia are also shown in this room. These birds appear to have been allied to the existing South American Seriema.

FIG. 48.--SKELETON AND IMPRESSIONS OF THE FEATURES OF THE
LIZARD-TAILED BIRD (_Archæopteryx macrura_), FROM THE UPPER
JURASSIC (LITHOGRAPHIC STONE) OF SOLENHOFEN, BAVARIA. About ¼th
natural size.
]

[Sidenote: Extinct Reptiles.]

The long corridor north of the fossil Mammal-gallery contains a fine assemblage of Reptilian remains. The south side is devoted to the Great Sea-Lizards (Sauropterygia and Ichthyopterygia), mostly from the Lias formation. The skeleton of an Ichthyosaur from the Lias is shown in fig. 50. Skeletons of Plesiosaurians and Pliosaurians from the Oxford Clay are mounted in central cases. Ranged in the cases on the north side are remains of the gigantic Dinosaurs, which vastly exceeded in size any other land-animals. A mounted plaster cast of a complete skeleton of the Iguanodon (fig. 49), found (with many others) in the Wealden strata at Bernissart in Belgium, is exhibited in the gallery of recent Reptiles; but a large series of bones of the same reptile is shown here.

In the centre of this gallery is placed a large portion of the skeleton of a gigantic Dinosaur (_Cetiosaurus leedsi_) from the Upper Jurassic Oxford Clay near Peterborough. It is nearly allied to the North American _Diplodocus_, of which, as mentioned on page 57, the model of a complete skeleton is exhibited in the recent Reptile Gallery. Both _Cetiosaurus_ and _Diplodocus_ resemble _Brontosaurus_ (fig. 51) in the extremely small size of the skull. Another central case contains an actual skull and other remains of the American Cretaceous horned Dinosaur _Triceratops_ (see page 57), and in wall-case 8 is placed a plaster cast of the skull of the contemporary _Tyrannosaurus_, the largest known carnivorous Dinosaur.

At the eastern end of the gallery are the Pterosauria or Ornithosauria, commonly called Pterodactyles or Flying Reptiles. Their most gigantic representatives were the species of _Pteranodon_ from the Upper Cretaceous of Kansas (fig. 53). At the west end is the nearly complete skeleton of _Pariasaurus_ (fig. 52) from the Karoo formation (Trias) of South Africa. It occurs also in Russia, and belongs to a primitive section of the Theromorphs, or Anomodonts, which include the ancestors of Mammals.

[Sidenote: Extinct Fishes.]

Of the galleries running northwards from the Fossil Reptile gallery, the one nearest to the central hall is used for the display of the Fossil Fishes, many belonging to groups now extinct. Perhaps the most remarkable of all, and certainly most unlike existing forms, are the armoured Devonian Fishes known as _Cephalaspis_, _Pterichthys_ (fig. 54), etc. The well-preserved fishes from the Chalk are especially noteworthy, and a specimen of _Portheus_ in a central case, 14 feet in length, is one of the largest bony fishes known.

FIG. 53.--A GIANT PTERODACTYLE (_Pteranodon occidentalis_) FROM THE
CRETACEOUS OF KANSAS. (Original span about 18 feet.) Compare the
wing, which is supported by the outermost finger, with that of
the Bat in Fig. 8.
]

[Sidenote: Extinct Invertebrates and Plants.]

The next gallery contains the Cephalopods, a group of Molluscs abounding in extinct species, of which the Belemnites, Turrilites (fig. 55), and Ammonites (fig. 56) are some of the best-known. The form and structure of their nearest living representatives, the various species of Cuttle-fishes, Squids, Argonauts, and Nautilus (fig. 31, page 62) are illustrated by models, drawings, and specimens placed near the entrance of the gallery and along the top-line of the wall-cases. The third gallery contains the remaining Mollusca, with the Brachiopoda, Polyzoa, Echinoderma, Worms, and Crustacea; the fourth, the Corals, Sponges, Protozoa, and Fossil Plants. In these last two galleries most of the British specimens are placed in the table-cases, and those of foreign origin in the cases round the walls.

Among numerous other groups which cannot be mentioned, great interest attaches to the Trilobites (fig. 57) of the Palæozoic epoch, which are related to the modern King-Crabs and also have affinity with the Scorpions.

Very extensive is the collection of Fossil Plants from the Coal-Measures, among which _Lepidodendron_ and _Sigillaria_, as well as numerous kinds of fern-like leaves, are among the most common.

[Sidenote: Historical Collections.]

The table-cases of the end gallery contain certain special collections of historical interest, either from the circumstances under which they were formed, or the manner in which they came into possession of the Museum, or from their containing a large number of type specimens described and figured in various publications. Hence it has been considered undesirable to break up and disperse these among the general collection. They include the original collection formed by William Smith, the pioneer of geology in this country, the Searles Wood collection of Crag Mollusca, the Edwards collection of Eocene Mollusca, the Davidson collection of Brachiopoda, the types of Sowerby’s “Mineral Conchology,” and lastly, but not least in interest, specimens from the collection of Sir Hans Sloane, which formed part of the nucleus of the British Museum.

[Sidenote: British Stratigraphical Collection.]

In the wall-cases on the west side of this gallery is exhibited a stratigraphical collection, showing a series of rock-specimens, often with their included fossil remains, representing the various geological formations of the British Isles; they are arranged in the order of their sequence in time, commencing near the entrance door with the most recent, and gradually passing down to the most ancient fossil-bearing strata. Along the top of the case is displayed a running section of all the water-formed rocks of England in the order of their succession, each bed being distinctively coloured, and named to correspond with the actual specimens placed beneath. The stratigraphical collection is followed by some illustrations of rock-formation, and certain curious rock-structures simulating fossils. On the east side are exhibited additional specimens of marine Reptiles from the Lias and a series of footprints of Reptiles from the Trias of N. America, the New Red Sandstone of England, etc.

FIRST FLOOR.

[Sidenote: Gallery of Minerals.]

The gallery on this floor, entered from the south end of the east corridor of the hall, contains the extensive Mineral collections, a fuller description of which will be found in special guides.[21]

[Sidenote: Introductory Collections.]

Entering the gallery the visitor will find, in the first window-case on the left-hand side, a series of specimens selected and labelled to serve as an introduction to the study of Minerals. Beginning with a definition of what is meant by a Mineral, it shows how essential characters were gradually recognised, and how Minerals are distributed into kinds and classified. In the next three window-cases specimens are arranged to illustrate the characters of Minerals and the various terms used in their description.

[Sidenote: Rocks.]

In the remaining six window-cases on the same side of the gallery, a corresponding series of specimens illustrative of the characters and classification of Rocks is exhibited; and the eleven window-cases on the opposite side contain a collection illustrating the various kinds of Rocks.[22]

[Sidenote: General Collection of Minerals.]

In the table-cases of the gallery are exhibited specimens of every important Mineral species and variety preserved in the Museum. The cases containing this general collection are numbered from 1 to 41, and the eight panes of each case are severally distinguished by the letters _a_ to _h_. For the use of the student there is published an Index to the names of all the numerous Mineral species and varieties represented in the collection, with references to the table-cases in which the specimens are placed.[23]

The system of classification, which includes not only ores, but all known Minerals, is not easy for the visitor to follow, and it is therefore convenient to indicate the positions in the gallery of those minerals--as, for instance, precious and ornamental stones, and metallic ores--which have an interest for all; for details, reference must be made to the Mineral Guide. Most of these Minerals occur as crystals, the forms of which can be referred to six systems of crystallisation.

[Sidenote: Native Elements.]

I. In cases 1 and 2 are the native metals, as Copper, Silver, Gold, and Platinum; and non-metals, as Sulphur, Diamond, and Graphite. The large symmetrical South African “Colenso” Diamond (fig. 58), weighing 130 carats, presented by the late Professor John Ruskin, is worthy of special attention (case 1f). Models of some famous diamonds, including “The Cullinan Diamond,” the largest ever found (weight before being cut, 3025¾ carats, or about 1⅓ lb. av.) are exhibited.

[Sidenote: Sulphides.]

II. The next six cases contain Minerals which have mostly a metallic lustre and consist of metals in chemical combination with elements of the Sulphur or Arsenic groups.

Argentite (3d) is an important Silver-ore, containing 87 per cent. of Silver and 13 of Sulphur.

Blende (4b) is a valuable Zinc-ore, and contains 67 per cent. of Zinc and 33 per cent. of Sulphur.

Galena (4e) is by far the most important ore of Lead (Lead 87, Sulphur 13, per cent.).

Copper-glance (3e) is a common ore of Copper (Copper 80, Sulphur 20, per cent.).

Cinnabar (3h) is the ore from which Mercury or Quicksilver is obtained (Mercury 86, Sulphur 14, per cent.).

Pyrites (5d), one of the most common of Minerals, is a compound of Iron and Sulphur (Iron 47, Sulphur 53, per cent.).

Erubescite (5e), Copper pyrites (5f), and Tetrahedrite, or Grey Copper-ore (7a), are valuable sources of Copper. [Sidenote: Chlorides, etc.]

III. Common Salt, the chloride of the metal Sodium, is exhibited in case 8f, and Fluor-spar, a fluoride of Calcium belonging to the same division, begins at case 7e.

[Sidenote: Oxides.]

IV. The next division consists of compounds of Oxygen and includes most of the stony Minerals.

Cuprite (10a), an important ore of Copper (Copper 89, Oxygen 11, per cent.), is at first ruby-red in colour, but becomes blackened by exposure to light.

Spinel (10e), in its transparent varieties, is one of the precious stones; the deep red being the Spinel Ruby (less dense and less hard than the true Ruby), the rose-tinted the Balas Ruby, and the yellow or orange-red the Rubicelle of the jewellers: sometimes, it has a dark blue colour. On account of their hardness, the less valuable specimens are used for the jewelling of watches.

Magnetite, or Magnetic Iron-ore (10f), the richest ore of Iron, of which it contains 72 per cent., is the natural magnet.

Uraninite, or Pitchblende (10h), consists mainly of Uranium and Oxygen, but contains traces of Helium and Radium, of which latter it is the commercial source.

Chrysoberyl (9e) is another precious stone, almost equal in lustre and hardness to the Sapphire; one variety is a beautiful greenish-yellow; another, with a peculiar play of light, is the Cat’s-eye; and a third, green by sunlight, but red by candle- or lamp-light, is known as Alexandrite.

Corundum (9f), when clear and of the proper colour, is, after the Diamond, the most precious of stones. When pure, it is colourless, but with minute traces of colouring ingredient it assumes the richest and most varied hues; when red it is Ruby, and when blue Sapphire; the yellow, green, and purple varieties were at one time known respectively as the Oriental Topaz, Emerald, and Amethyst. The prefix “Oriental” was at first used to suggest that the stones are not ordinary Topaz, Emerald, and Amethyst, but other similarly coloured minerals coming from the East (India, Ceylon, Siam, Pegu, etc.); it was afterwards understood to suggest only the excellence of their characters. The Star-stone, another variety of Corundum, when placed in a strong light shows a six-rayed star.

Hæmatite (11a) is a valuable ore of iron (Iron 70, Oxygen 30, per cent.).

Cassiterite, or Tin-stone (11f), is the ore of Tin, of which metal it contains 79 per cent.

Zircon (13b), when clear and without flaws, is one of the precious stones: one variety with peculiar red tints is the Hyacinth or Jacynth, while the colourless, yellowish, and dull green phases are termed Jargoon: the colourless variety, owing to its high refractive and dispersive power, approaches the Diamond in brilliancy.

Quartz, which is Silica, the oxide of Silicon, is the most common of Minerals. In its clear and transparent variety it is the Crystal of the ancients and the Rock-Crystal of modern times; it is the Brazilian Pebble of spectacle-makers (14c). After the clear come the smoky varieties, including the Scotch Cairngorm and Occidental Topaz (14g). Next follows the Amethyst (14g), one of the less valuable, though one of the most beautiful, of gem stones. The Quartz Cat’s-eye (13f) is a variety presenting a similar play of light to that of the Chrysoberyl Cat’s-eye already referred to: the effect is due to enclosed fibres of an Asbestos-like mineral in the specimens from Ceylon, and to fibres of Crocidolite in the blue, and of altered Crocidolite in the brownish-yellow specimens from South Africa.

Jasper (13g) is a coloured mixture of Silica and Clay, distinguished from ordinary Quartz by its opacity and dull earthy fracture. It is of various colours, chiefly red, brown, yellow, and green; the colours being arranged sometimes in a nodular form, as in Egyptian Jasper, at other times in stripes, as in Riband Jasper.

The Lydian or Touch-stone (15a), by reason of its hardness and black colour, has been used from remote ages to test the purity of precious metals.

Hornstone (15a) is a variety of Silica without evident crystallisation, and generally presenting a more or less splintery fracture; in one kind, Flint (15b), the surface of fracture is generally shell-shaped (conchoidal), sometimes conical, as is well shown by specimens in the case.

Chalcedony (15b), which has a lustre nearly that of wax, is translucent. The specimens of Enhydros from Uruguay (15d) are of especial interest as containing imprisoned water.

Heliotrope, or Bloodstone (16a), is a green stone with red, blood-like spots.

Next follow the Plasma and Chrysoprase, which are green stones: and the Sard, generally brownish-red; as also the Sardonyx, its banded variety. All were much prized by the ancients because, though hard and tough enough to resist ordinary wear and tear, they are more suited to the display of the engraver’s skill than the still harder and more precious stones.

Then come the Agates (16b), chiefly formed of thin layers of porous Chalcedony of different colours, though the material of many of the white layers is a compact Semi-opal. Most are now brought from Uruguay, in South America, and cut and polished at Oberstein, in Germany, where in former times Agates were collected in quantity from the mountains of the district. Sometimes the layers are parallel, and the stone is then an Onyx, useful as a material for cameos: or the bands of a section are arranged in parallel sets of zigzag lines, and the stone is then called a Fortification-agate; but in the ordinary agate the layers are variously curved. Moss-agates, or Mocha-stones (16e), are varieties of Chalcedony enclosing moss-like forms of oxides of Manganese and Iron, and green earthy Chlorite. Carnelian (16e) is a beautiful red stone much valued by the engraver: its fracture has a peculiar waxy lustre, and is distinct from that of the Sard, which is dull and horn-like.

Opal, including the Precious or Noble Opal (16f), among the specimens of which is a fine suite from Queensland presented by the late Professor Story-Maskelyne, is hydrated Silica.

[Sidenote: Carbonates.]

Witherite, the carbonate of Barium (18a), is used in the manufacture of plate-glass. Strontianite (18b), the carbonate of Strontium, is one of two minerals from which Strontium nitrate is made for use in the manufacture of fireworks, owing to the fine crimson colour which the salt gives to the flame: the Strontium minerals are also employed in connection with sugar-refining. Cerussite (18b) is the corresponding carbonate of Lead, and when abundant is a valuable ore of that metal.

Calcite (18e), a carbonate of the metal Calcium, is represented by a fine suite of specimens, illustrating an almost endless variety of crystalline form. The clear variety from Iceland is largely used in optical instruments for polarising light. Chalybite, or Spathic Iron-ore (20h), is the carbonate of Iron, and a valuable ore of that metal. The most important English Iron-ore, Clay Ironstone, is a mixture of Chalybite and Clay. Calamine (19h), a carbonate of Zinc, is an important Zinc-ore. Chessylite (21d) and Malachite (22b) are respectively the blue and green carbonates of Copper, and are used as ores of that metal. Malachite is found in large masses; by reason of the high polish which it takes and its beautiful markings, it is much used for ornamental work of various kinds.

[Sidenote: Silicates.]

Passing to the Silicates, we come to Olivine (22f), one of the less hard of the precious stones; when of a yellow colour it is known as Chrysolite, while the green variety is the Peridot of jewellers. Hiddenite (23a) is a rare emerald-green variety of Spodumene, and Kunzite is a lilac-coloured variety which is used as a gem stone.

Asbestos (24c), a kind of Hornblende (a mineral common in rocks of igneous origin), is found in long fibres; in some of its varieties it is so flexible that it can be woven into gloves and other articles. The term Asbestos, meaning unquenched or unquenchable, was applied by the ancient Greeks, because, owing to being unaltered by heat, wicks made of this mineral were used in maintaining the perpetual sacred fires of their temples. Napkins of Asbestos were cleaned by being thrown into the fire; Asbestos-cloth was also used in the process of cremation to keep the ashes of the body distinct from those of the fuel. It is now employed for lining iron-safes, packing for steam-pipes and boilers, and in gas-stoves, for which purposes its low conductivity for heat renders it serviceable.

Jade or Nephrite (24d), a valued mineral, belongs to the same group as Hornblende. The various shades of colour and the beautiful polish which this tough mineral will take are illustrated by specimens in the case. Several worked specimens from New Zealand and China are exhibited. An immense water-worn mass, weighing 1156 lb., found some years ago in Asiatic Russia, is mounted on a separate stand near by.

Meerschaum (23g), the light soft porous mineral used for tobacco-pipes, is a hydrated silicate of Magnesium. Serpentine (25a) is another hydrated Magnesium-silicate: the ease with which it is worked and polished, its green colour, and varied markings render it much sought after as a material for mantel-pieces, tables, and other indoor work: exposed to the weather it soon loses its polish.

Topaz (25c) in its clear varieties is one of the precious stones. The crystals from the Urulga river, Siberia, are remarkably fine, and of a delicate brown colour; they are kept covered, as the action of light slowly bleaches them. The yellow crystals from Brazil assume a peculiar pink colour when heated, and are then known to jewellers as Burnt or Pink Topaz. A fine orange-red crystal from Brazil is exhibited.

Garnet also belongs to the group of precious stones; when the red is tinged with violet, the stone is the Almandine or Syrian Garnet (named after Syriam in Pegu), and when cut _en cabochon_, the Carbuncle of jewellery (26f); the Cinnamon-stone or Hessonite varies in tint from hyacinth-red to honey-yellow (26e); the Pyrope, including the “Cape Ruby” and the Bohemian garnet, is blood-red (26e), Demantoid is an emerald-green (26g).

Jadeite (27a) is one of the green stones which, under the name of Jade, are wrought into ornaments in China: from jade it is distinguished by its chemical composition, structure, and higher specific gravity. Among the specimens of Epidote (27c) a remarkable series from the Untersulzbachthal, Austria, is exhibited.

Mica (28a) is the name given to a group of minerals differing much from each other in chemical composition and optical properties, but having as a common character an easy splitting, or cleavage, in a single direction, and thus affording plates remarkably thin, transparent, tough, and elastic. One of these minerals, Muscovite (28d), has been used in Russia in place of glass for windows, and is now in common use for lanterns and stoves, not being so easily cracked as glass by changes of temperature; it is often known in commerce as talc, a term restricted by mineralogists to a different mineral.

The group of Felspars, the most important of the rock-forming minerals, begins at case 28f. After the Felspars comes Beryl, of which the bright green variety, Emerald (29c), is one of the most valued of precious stones. It was in ancient times worked in Egypt, as is proved by specimens found in the old workings by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, and presented by him to the Museum. Emeralds occur in the Urals; but the locality for the finest stones has long been Muzo, about seventy miles from Santa Fé de Bogotá, in South America. Faceted specimens of the colourless Beryl, of the bluish-green Beryl, known in jewellery as Aquamarine, and of pink Beryl from California and Madagascar, are exhibited (30a).

In cases 30f to 32d will be found examples of the Zeolite group of minerals.

Tourmaline (33a), when free from flaws, is, in some of its varieties, to be classed with the precious stones; among these being a pink variety called Rubellite. Fine specimens of Rubellite from Burma, the Urals, and Madagascar, are shown in the case; one specimen from Burma, poor in colour but remarkable for its size and shape, was brought home by Colonel Symes, to whom it had been presented by the King of Ava in the year 1795. The pink-and-green tourmalines from Maine, U.S.A., and the magnificent crystals from San Diego Co., California, are among the more beautiful of the mineral products of the United States. Examples of the blue Tourmaline, or Indicolite, are shown in case 33b.

A rich blue mineral, the Lapis-lazuli of jewellery (34b), brought from Persia, Siberia, Bokhara, and Chili, is a mixture of various species. When powdered, Lapis-lazuli furnished the once costly pigment ultramarine; but by the discovery of a method of producing an artificial and cheap form of the latter, the use of the mineral as a pigment has ceased.

[Sidenote: Sulphates, Phosphates, etc.]

The sulphates of Strontium, Celestite (35c), of Barium, Barytes or Heavy Spar (36a), and of Lead, Anglesite (36e), are all represented by series of specimens.

Gypsum, or Selenite (36f), is a hydrated sulphate of the metal Calcium: when heated, it gives up its water of crystallisation and falls to a white powder, known as “Plaster of Paris,” which, when moistened, again combines with water and yields a coherent solid. Gypseous Alabaster, a massive variety of Gypsum (36h), owing to its whiteness, fine texture, and softness is used as a material for statuettes and other indoor ornaments. Oriental Alabaster is a harder substance, Stalagmitic Calcite, carbonate of Calcium.

Borax (37c), a borate of Sodium, is much used as a flux, also in soldering, and in the preparation of easily fusible enamels. It was formerly carried over the Himalayas on sheep and goats from lakes in Tibet, but is now obtained largely from the Borax-lakes of the United States, and is also extensively prepared from the boracic acid lagoons in Tuscany.

Nitratine or Soda-nitre (37d), found in Chili in beds of large extent, is largely used for the preparation of Nitric Acid and Saltpetre, and is also used as a fertiliser.

Calaite or Turquoise (38g), a phosphate of the metals Aluminium and Copper, is generally massive; only very rarely does it occur in the crystalline state. Being as hard as Felspar and taking a good polish, it has been much prized in jewellery; that which comes into the market is chiefly brought from the Turquoise-mines not far from Nishapur, in Persia.

[Sidenote: Amber.]

As a supplement to the collection of simple Minerals, is arranged, in case 41, a group of natural substances which either belong or are closely related to the Mineral Kingdom, although, in the formation of most, organised matter has played a very important part. The most important of these are Coal and Amber. Coal (41a), in most of its varieties, gives structural evidence of its vegetable origin: its chemical composition depends on the amount of change which has taken place, and thus is less definite than in the preceding minerals. In the variety called Anthracite all traces of the original organised structure have disappeared. Amber (41c), in ancient times regarded as one of the precious stones, is likewise of vegetable origin. It is fossil resin, chiefly derived from trees allied to the pines; its originally sticky condition is proved by the insects sometimes found enclosed.

[Sidenote: Larger Mineral Specimens.]

In the pavilion at the east end of the gallery the visitor will find many mineral specimens which, owing to their size, cannot be satisfactorily exhibited in the table-cases.

Among these, attention may be directed to the magnificent series of Minerals in the wall-cases, and to the large specimen of Gypsum, or Selenite, presented by H.R.H. the late Prince Consort, which, with some fine masses of Iceland Spar, is exhibited in a special case.

Of the four table-cases in the windows of the pavilion, the first three contain a series illustrating the various kinds of Pseudomorphs, or minerals in which the original constituent has been altered and replaced by a new substance which preserves the crystalline form of the first. The fourth displays a set of specimens selected by the late Professor Ruskin to illustrate varieties of Silica.[24]

[Sidenote: Meteorites.]

The most important feature of the pavilion is the collection of Meteorites,[25] of which the smaller specimens are shown in the four central cases. The fall of masses of stone and iron from the sky, though observed again and again since the most remote ages, was very rarely credited by anyone beside the spectators themselves; and till the beginning of the nineteenth century no attempt was made to collect such specimens for examination and comparison. In the special guide it is shown how evidence of the actual fall of such bodies at length became irresistible, and a description is given of the circumstances attending their fall, of their general characters, and their chemical composition: illustrative specimens, collected together for easy reference, will be found in one of the cases. It is also shown that meteorites are closely related, not only to shooting stars, but also to comets, and probably to nebulæ and fixed stars.

SECOND FLOOR.

[Sidenote: Botanical Gallery.]

The upper floor of the East wing is devoted to the Department of Botany.

The Collections of this Department consist of two portions, the one open to the public and consisting of specimens suitable for exhibition, and mainly intended to illustrate the various groups of the Vegetable Kingdom and the broad facts on which the natural system of the classification of plants is based; the other set apart for the use of persons engaged in the detailed scientific study of plants.

On the landing outside the gallery is a series of tree-sections representing some common British-grown trees, with sections and bark of the Cork-Oak (_Quercus suber_), and large sections of the White Fir and Douglas Pine from British Columbia. The Douglas Pine was cut down in 1885 when 533 years old; its age is indicated by the annual rings seen in transverse section of the wood, and a record of events has been painted on the surface. A collection of plant-abnormalities is also shown.

[Sidenote: System of Classification.]

The system of classification followed in the exhibition-cases in the public gallery is a modification of one widely used on the Continent and in America. In the first bay on the left-hand side an attempt has been made to illustrate, by means of books dealing with the subject, the history and development of modern systems of classification. There is a _Guide_[26] to this exhibition. The series of specimens (starting on the north, or left-hand, side of the gallery) begins with the simpler orders of Dicotyledonous Seed-plants, those in which petals are wanting in the flower or if present are free from each other, and passes on to the less simple orders with united petals. The orders are represented by dried or otherwise prepared specimens of the plants themselves, drawings, fruits, and prepared sections of the woods. Diagrams are employed to indicate the characters in the flowers on which the grouping is based. The use of the same colour for corresponding structures throughout the diagrams readily conveys to the eye the points of agreement or difference on which the classification rests. The geological history of each natural order is indicated on a table of strata, and its present distribution on the surface of the earth given on a small map of the world. Descriptive labels afford particular information respecting each specimen.

The Dicotyledonous Plants extend to the fifth case on the left side of the gallery, and are followed by the Monocotyledonous orders, which fill a portion of the last case on the same side, the two half-cases at the end of the gallery, and the first case returning towards the door. The Gymnosperms are placed in the next case. Then follow the Cryptogams, a case being devoted to the higher, vascular orders, and another to the cellular plants. The series closes with an interesting collection of models of the larger British Fungi, coloured and mounted in accordance with their natural habitats. A Catalogue of these models has been prepared.[27] In the table-case in the last bay is placed an illustrated collection of the British Mycetozoa, to which there is also a _Guide_.[28] A large chalk-like mass of Diatom-earth containing twelve billion Diatoms is placed in a case by itself near the entrance to the gallery. The table- and window-cases in the bays contain exhibitions of interest under the following heads: Insectivorous plants (at present in the Central Hall), Parasitic plants, Water-plants, Xerophytic plants, Epiphytic plants, Adaptations for Defence, Climbing plants, Fertilisation of flowers (also in the Hall), and Dispersal of seeds, a selection of British plants dried in sand and preserving their form and colour, and a series of Lichens from Chili. Attention may likewise be directed to a series of coloured drawings of British Plants. At the entrance of the gallery on the right is placed a camera to exhibit stereoscopic views of plants in their natural colours; and on the left is a model of a large fungus (_Hydnum_).

At the end of the gallery the larger specimens of Palms are set up against the screen dividing the gallery from the Herbarium; other Palms, Cycads, Tree-ferns, etc., are placed in the bays next the appropriate wall-cases. Suspended from the roof is a fine specimen of the “Wabo” Bamboo (_Dendrocalamus_) from Burma, 81 feet long; and on the floor of the gallery are specimens of the Vegetable Sheep (_Raoulia_) of New Zealand, a large aërial root of a Banyan, a Brazilian Tree-lily (_Vellozia_), a large Bamboo from Demerara, an Australian Grass-tree (_Kingia_), a Brazilian Palm (_Acrocomia_), a Sugar-cane, and a Japanese Cycad.

[Sidenote: British Plants.]

A collection of British Plants is exhibited in glazed frames fastened by hinges to uprights. The classification of the Flowering Plants and Ferns is that used in Bentham’s “Handbook of the British Flora,” and descriptions are attached as labels to each plant.[29] Three series of frames contain specimens of the British Flowering Plants and Ferns. The fourth frame is occupied with the Mosses and Stoneworts (Characeæ), and forms the beginning of the exhibition of Cellular Plants. The series is continued in the frames on the other side of the gallery containing the lower Fungi and coloured drawings of the larger Fungi; a small series of the larger kind of Fungi found near London is also shown. In the first bay to the right on entering are series of coloured drawings (natural size) of edible and poisonous fungi, and of field and cultivated mushrooms and poisonous or worthless species often mistaken for mushrooms. A _Guide_[30] to the latter series has been prepared. The British Lichens are arranged in a cabinet of shallow glass-topped drawers.

[Sidenote: Herbarium.]

Above the entrance to the great Herbarium is a life-size photograph of an Orchid (_Phalænopsis_) from the Philippine Islands.

The portion reserved for the use of the scientific student consists mainly of the great Herbarium of Flowering Plants. This is a collection of dried plants, respectively fastened on single sheets of stiff folio paper, and representing, so far as it has been possible to obtain them, every species of living plant and the distribution of each of these on the surface of the earth. The various species are collected under their respective genera, which are arranged in their natural orders; the whole being classified according to the system of Bentham and Hooker’s “Genera Plantarum.” The plants of the British Isles form a small separate collection. The important herbarium of Sir Hans Sloane is kept distinct in its original form, the plants being pasted on the pages of 333 large folios. There are other ancient herbaria of great historic and scientific interest, as well as an excellent working library and a collection of drawings of plants. The Herbarium of Vascular Cryptogams (Ferns) and Cellular Plants (Mosses, Liverworts, Algæ, Lichens, and Fungi) is in a separate room entered from the head of the great staircase.

SELECTED LIST

OF THE

NATURAL HISTORY PUBLICATIONS

OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE

BRITISH MUSEUM.

The History of the Collections contained in the Natural History
Departments of the British Museum. Vol. I. Libraries; Botany;
Geology; Minerals. 1904, 8vo. 15_s._ Vol. II. Zoology. 1906, 8vo.
30_s._ Vol. II. Appendix. By Dr. A. Günther, F.R.S. 1912, 8vo. 5_s._

Catalogue of the Library of the British Museum (Natural History). By
B. B. Woodward. Vol. I. A–D. 1903, 4to. 1_l._ Vol. II. E–K. 1904,
4to. 1_l._ Vol. III. L–O. 1910, 4to. 1_l._

Report on the Zoological Collections made in the Indo-Pacific Ocean
during the voyage of H.M.S. “Alert,” 1881–2. Edited by A. Günther.
54 Plates. 1884, 8vo. 1_l._ 10_s._

Report on the Collections of Natural History made in the Antarctic
Regions during the voyage of the “Southern Cross.” 53 Plates. 1902,
roy. 8vo. 2_l._

National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904. [“Discovery” Report.]
Natural History:--

Vol. I. Geology. 10 Plates, 72 Text-figures, 2 Maps. 1907, 4to.
1_l._ 10_s._

Vol. II. Zoology (Vertebrata; Mollusca; Crustacea). 33 Plates (17
coloured), 146 Text-figures, 1 Map. 1907, 4to. 3_l._

Vol. III. Zoology and Botany (Invertebrata: Marine Algæ, Musci).
51 Plates, 8 Text-figures, and 1 Chart. 1907, 4to. 2_l._ 10_s._

Vol. IV. Zoology (Various Invertebrata). 65 Plates, 1 Text-figure.
1908, 4to. 1_l._ 15_s._

Vol. V. Zoology and Botany. 28 Plates, 19 Text-figures. 1910, 4to.
1_l._ 10_s._