Chapter VIII: Part II: The True Butterflies (2)

To me the seasonal variations of a butterfly are always of greater interest than those which are geographical. We know that in the case of a great many animals, from insects to mammals, the different conditions of climate and physical environment found in different regions produce variations of many sorts. So it does not seem especially strange that in Alaska there should be a different form of a certain butterfly than is found in Virginia. But that in the same locality there should be two or more forms of a butterfly existing under identical conditions as to climate and environment is not so easily explained. In the case of the Gray-veined White we collect in early spring in New England, or other Northern states, a lot of chrysalids. We keep them until the butterflies come forth and we find even here two distinct forms, one smaller and more delicate than the other, with both surfaces of the wings pure white: scientists call this form, _virginiensis_; the other larger with the under surface of the wings slightly tinted with yellow: scientists call this form _oleracea_. The first named has but one brood a year while the second lays eggs which develop into caterpillars that produce butterflies of still a _third_ form, in which the upper surface of the wings is pure white with a slightly greater expanse: scientists call this form _cruciferarum_. These three varieties occur in Eastern regions and may be found in the same localities, and differ considerably from various geographical varieties found in the Far West.

The caterpillar of the Gray-veined White is a bit smaller than those of the nearly related forms, and in color is green with no distinct longitudinal markings, but with many fine dots of black over the surface. The cylindrical body is covered with a fine down. When feeding upon cabbage it is more likely to attack the outer than the inner leaves, and so even when abundant it is less troublesome to gardeners than the imported species. It is now, however, so rare that it seems to feed chiefly upon wild cruciferous plants and is more likely to be found along the borders of open woods than in gardens and fields. The winter is passed in the chrysalis state.

=The Checkered White=
_Pontia protodice_

Some years ago the Checkered White was commonly called the Southern Cabbage Butterfly but the general distribution of the imported species has had the same effect upon its abundance in the South that it has had upon the Gray-veined White in the North. Consequently, it is now much less abundant than formerly, even in the Southern states where it is most at home. There are two fairly distinct forms: the spring form and the summer form. The latter is practically of the same size as the Imported Cabbage Butterfly: the males have the hind wings nearly white above and the fore wings with a few black dots or spots upon their outer halves. The females are much more definitely marked, having the upper surface of both pairs of wings marked in black or brownish black in such a way as to enclose a large number of white diamonds. The spring form is decidedly smaller and the markings are much less distinct than in the summer form.

The seasonal history of this species is comparatively simple. In winter the chrysalids are found. From these chrysalids in early spring the small butterflies of the spring form come forth. These lay eggs upon various cruciferous plants which hatch into greenish caterpillars that eat the leaves and soon mature so far as their caterpillar stage is concerned. They are then about an inch long, with downy cylindric bodies more or less marked with rather pale yellow stripes, touched here and there with purplish green or dotted slightly with fine black dots. These caterpillars now attach themselves by means of a button of silk and a silken loop to some support like a piece of board, the side of a stone, or almost any available shelter. Each casts its larval skin and appears as a grayish chrysalis from which probably a fortnight later the summer form of the butterfly emerges. There are commonly two broods of this summer form, making three sets of butterflies for the entire season. The caterpillars of the second summer brood of butterflies go into the chrysalis stage in autumn to remain throughout the winter.

Some very interesting observations upon the sleeping habits of this butterfly have been made in St. Louis by Mr. and Mrs. Phil Rau. The insects were found abundantly resting upon the seed heads of white snakeroot. Early in October, when a warm south wind was blowing, the great majority of the butterflies slept horizontally with their heads toward the wind. At other seasons and in other places, many of them were found in a vertical position but practically all had their bodies toward the wind prevailing at the time. The observers were unable to ascertain definitely whether the insects thus oriented themselves at the time of alighting, so that their wings presented the least resistance to the force of the wind, or whether this was a mechanical result of the breezes.

=The Great Southern White=
_Pontia monuste_

There used to be in the Northern states before the advent of the Imported Cabbage butterfly a familiar white butterfly which then laid its eggs upon cabbages in much the same way that the imported pest now does. One who has seen this northern Gray-veined White and then sees the Great Southern White will be likely to think of the latter as a larger edition of the former, for in the males of the southern species the wings are practically white save for a narrow dusky border at the outer angle of the front pair, although in the female this dusky margin is wider and the hind wings show a series of dusky triangles near the margin. There is also a curious black marking suggestive of a crescent on each front wing near the middle of the front border, which helps to make the appearance of this butterfly very distinct from that of any other.

Although this species is at times so abundant that it swarms in great flocks and although it has been known for many years, its life-history seems not to have been carefully worked out since it was first described by Abbott more than a century ago. The caterpillars feed upon cruciferous plants and when full grown are about an inch and a half long, of a general yellow color, more or less striped with purple lines. The species is distinctly tropical extending northward into our Southern states.

Dr. G. B. Longstaff reports this species as abundant in Jamaica where he found that the clubs of the antennae of the living insects showed a beautiful turquoise blue color, although another observer described them as bright green with a tinge of blue. This is an interesting color variation for a member of this group. In the tropics also there are two forms, one belonging to the dry season and one to the wet season.

_Synopsis of the Whites_

_Imported Cabbage Butterfly_ (_Pieris rapae_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface white with a black marginal dash on the front outer angle of the front wing. One round black spot on each of the four wings in the male. Two round spots on each of the front wings in the female and one round spot on each of the hind wings. Under surface of hind wings yellowish white; spots on front wings in same position as on upper surface. A spring form (_immaculata_) is smaller and the black spots are almost obsolete.

_Gray-veined White_ (_Pieris napi_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface white with only a darker marginal splash next the body. Under surface white with gray veins.

_Checkered White_ (_Pontia protodice_ or _Pieris protodice_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface white, strongly marked especially in the female with dark grayish brown on both pairs of wings. Along the outer margins these marks are so arranged as to enclose white diamond spots. Male with front wings only lightly marked and hind wings scarcely marked at all. Under surface much like upper, with a slight yellowish tinge in female.

_Great Southern White_ (_Pontia monuste_ or _Pieris phileta_.) Expanse 2 1/2 inches. General color white with a narrow black margin around apical angle of front wings. These margins are wider in the female, in which sex there is a series of marginal spots on the hind wings. Easily known by its large size.

THE TRIBE OF THE ORANGE-TIPS

When one sees a gossamer-winged butterfly flitting from flower to flower on a bright June day it seems one of the most ethereal of earth's visions. One could readily fancy that the whole sight--flowers, butterflies, and all--might easily vanish into thin air. So it is something of a shock to hear scientists talk about fossil butterflies and to realize that these fragile creatures have been living generation after generation for untold millions of years. A realization of this fact, however, helps us to understand the many wonderful ways in which butterflies in all stages of their existence have become adapted to the conditions of their lives.

There is perhaps no group of butterflies whose beauty seems more fragile than that of the Orange-tips. These are delicate creatures, with slender bodies and almost gauzy wings, of a size somewhat smaller than our common white and yellow butterflies. Perhaps the most remarkable feature is the marking of the wings, the upper sides of the front pair having an orange patch near the apex and the under sides having a background of delicate whitish or yellowish green, lined and spotted with darker coloring in a very characteristic way. This peculiar marking is so significant that it has been called "flower picturing." To understand the reason for its existence one has only to watch the butterflies in their native haunts. He will find them flitting from blossom to blossom among the plants of the mustard family--the _Cruciferae_. This is one of the most characteristic families in the plant world: the foliage for the most part is small and delicate and the flowers have a characteristic four-petaled structure, being practically always of small size and generally toned in whites or yellows. When an Orange-tip is at rest upon these blossoms it merges so completely into the background that it disappears from view. Should a bird chase one of these insects through the air it would see chiefly the orange tips which are so marked upon the upper side of the wing, and when the butterfly closed its wings and lighted among the flowers the orange color would instantly disappear and there would be only an almost invisible surface against the background of flower and leaf.

The adaptations of these Orange-tips to the conditions of their lives are by no means confined to this remarkable resemblance to the flowery background. In the case of some species the whole yearly cycle has been adapted to correspond to the yearly history of the cruciferous food plant. As is well known many species of the mustard family spring up early in the season, put forth their blossoms which quickly develop into fruits and then die down, the species being carried through until the next year by the dormant seeds. In a similar way the Orange-tips feed as caterpillars upon the host plant through the spring, completing their growth before the plant dies and then changing to chrysalids which remain dormant through summer, fall, and winter and come forth as butterflies early the following spring. The insect has thus adapted itself in a most remarkable manner to the yearly history of its plant host.

=The Falcate Orange-tip=
_Synchloe genutia_

The Falcate Orange-tip is about the only member of this tribe generally distributed east of the Rocky Mountains. This is a beautiful insect which is sparingly found even as far north as New England. It is more abundant throughout the Southern states, occurring south at least as far as Texas. It appears to be a good illustration of the adaptation of its development to that of its food plants. The eggs are laid upon leaves or stems of such spring-flowering _Cruciferae_ as rock cress (_Arabis_), and hedge mustard (_Sisymbrium_). On hatching the caterpillars feed upon stems, leaves, flowers, and even seed pods of these plants, becoming mature in a few weeks and changing to chrysalids under the protection of such shelter as they can find. In the Northern states these chrysalids remain unchanged until the following spring when the butterflies emerge and are found upon the wing for a few weeks in May and early June. In some southern regions at least the species is evidently double-brooded, as Dr. Holland reports that he has taken the butterflies in late autumn in the western portion of North Carolina.

This Falcate Orange-tip is one of the daintiest and most exquisite of northern butterflies. It is a prize which any collector will find joy in possessing. It is easily recognized by its general white color, which in the female is relieved only by a distinct black mark on the upper surface of the front wings and a row of marginal markings upon all the wings. The male is slightly smaller and is at once known by the orange blotch on the outer angle of the upper surface of the front wing. This outer angle projects into a distinct point which gives the species its name Falcate. (_See plate, page 256._)

Dr. J. L. Hancock has described in a most interesting manner the way in which this Orange-tip loses itself among the flowers of rock cress. In northern Indiana he found this butterfly abundant in April at the time of the blossoming of _Arabis lyrata_. The butterflies would be flying about, easily seen in the air. Then they would suddenly disappear and could be found only after the most careful search. They had simply lit upon the flower heads, when the flower picturing of the under surface of the wings blended perfectly with the appearance of the clustered flower.

"The green markings of the under side of the wing," writes Dr. Hancock, "are so arranged as to divide the ground color into patches of white, which blend with or simulate perfectly the petals of the clustered flowers. The eyes of the butterfly are delicate pale green and the antennae are whitish, all of which adds to the effectiveness of the blend. The flowers of _Arabis_ have white petals with the centre yellowish green, as is also the calyx. There is a shade of pink outside the base of the petals. All in all, the adaptation of insect to flower here displayed is one of rare exquisiteness."[C]

[C] "Nature Sketches in Temperate America", p. 83.

Dr. Hancock found that the butterflies were able to cling on the flowers during strong winds very persistently, so that even when a storm blew across the sand dunes they were likely to remain in position. They also have the instinct to rest very quietly after they have lit upon the clustered flower heads.

=The Olympian Orange-tip=
_Synchloe olympia_

In various parts of the Southern states there is at least one other Orange-tip butterfly which is found occasionally in connection with the Falcate Orange-tip. It was named Olympia many years ago by William H. Edwards. It is a delicate white species marked with black and yellow very lightly both above and below, the yellow showing only on the under side of the hind wings and that part of the front wing which is exposed when the insect is at rest. Strictly speaking, this is not an Orange-tip because the orange color is lacking in both sexes.

This is rather a rare species which occurs occasionally from the Atlantic states to the Great Plains south of a line drawn from northern Maryland to northern Missouri. Like its allies the larvae feed upon various cruciferous plants, the hedge mustard being one of these and the adults visit the flowers of the same family. They doubtless have habits similar to those of the Falcate Orange-tip, and the extreme delicacy of color must render them practically invisible when resting upon the small white flowers of most crucifers.

THE TIGER SWALLOWTAIL
(Reduced)]

THE IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY
Caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterflies]

Most of the Orange-tip butterflies are found on the Pacific Slope, ranging from Alaska southward, several of them being especially abundant in the western mountain regions. About eight species are recognized as belonging to our fauna, some of which have several well-marked varieties.

_Synopsis of the Orange-tips_

_Falcate Orange-tip_ (_Synchloe genutia_, _Anthocaris genutia_ or _Euchloe genutia_). Expanse 1 2/5 inches. Tips of front wings projecting in a hooked angle. Orange blotch on upper surface near tip in male, absent in female.

_Olympian Orange-tip_ (_Synchloe olympia_, _Euchloe olympia_ or _Anthocaris olympia_). Expanse 1 1/2 inches. Wings white above in both sexes with greenish black markings at base of all wings and along front margin of front wings, especially at apex. No orange patch.

THE TRIBE OF THE YELLOWS

A large proportion of our most abundant and conspicuous butterflies belong to the Tribe of the Yellows. Sometimes it is called the Tribe of the Red-horns because the antennae of the living insects are so often red. These insects vary in size from the large Brimstones or Cloudless Sulphurs, expanding three inches, to the delicate little Dainty Sulphur, expanding scarcely an inch. The distinctive characteristics of the tribe are found in the very gradual enlargement of the joints of the antennae that form the club, and the stout palpi, the last joints of each of the latter being short.

=The Brimstone or Cloudless Sulphur=
_Callidrayas eubule_

Practically all northern butterflies are variously marked in different colors, while the butterflies of tropical regions are commonly tinted in monotone, though often showing a splendid iridescence. One with very little experience can tell the look of a tropical butterfly and would be likely to say at once that the Cloudless Sulphur is one of these. The upper surface of the wings of the male is a clear plain sulphur with merely the narrowest possible fringe of brown around the margin made only by the colored marginal scales. The under surface is lighter and sparsely dotted in brown. In the females the marginal brown takes on the shape of a series of small crescents and there is a single round brown eye-spot just in front of the middle of each front wing.

While the Cloudless Sulphur is without doubt essentially a tropical species it has an extraordinary geographical range. It is extremely abundant in Mexico, Cuba, and the tropical zone in South America. It extends south even to northern Patagonia and north to New England, Wisconsin, and Nebraska.

Presumably in the tropics this species breeds continuously, one generation following another in regular succession unless interrupted by drought or other natural phenomena. In our Southern states there is more or less interruption by the winter season, so that it is commonly considered to have only two broods, the butterflies hibernating. Farther north there is probably only one brood in summer, and perhaps not even that in the extreme limit of its range. For there is pretty good evidence that the specimens seen in the Northern states are migrants from the south, coming singly or in scattered flocks in early summer, and if they lay eggs the butterflies of the new generation return south in autumn. But the precise conditions are not well known and need careful observations in various localities.

The life-story of a generation of these butterflies is much like that of the other Yellows. The eggs are laid, one in a place, on the leaflets of various species of wild senna (_Cassia_) and soon hatch into cylindrical caterpillars that devour the tender leaflets. In a few weeks the caterpillars mature and change to curious and characteristic chrysalids. The head projects in the shape of a cone and the back is so concave as to give the side view of the chrysalis a very striking appearance.

Like so many of the Yellows this butterfly is sun-loving and social in its habits. Great numbers flock together, their large size and bright coloring rendering them very conspicuous. They often alight on the ground to sip moisture when they have been likened to beds of yellow crocuses. They also fly long distances in flocks that attract much attention. It is likely that the northward distribution takes place in summer through such migrating hosts.

_Other Sulphur Butterflies_

The Large Orange Sulphur is a closely related butterfly of about the same size, in which the coloring is uniformly orange-yellow instead of lemon-yellow. It also belongs to the tropics, occurring in our extreme Southern states and ranging occasionally as far north as Nebraska.

The Red-barred Sulphur is another splendid butterfly, somewhat larger than the Brimstone, which is easily distinguished by the broad reddish bar across the upper surface of the front wings. It is tropical but migrates rarely even as far north as Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin.

=The Dog's-head Butterfly=
_Meganostoma caesonia_

The Dog's-head butterfly furnishes one of the most remarkable examples of accidental resemblance in wing markings that can be found in the whole order of scale-winged insects. It is comparable with the skull and crossbones on the back of the death's-head moth. In the butterfly the middle of the front wings has a broad band of yellow against a black margin on each side and the yellow outlines make an excellent silhouette of the profile of a poodle with a large black eye-spot in exactly the proper place. The females are less brightly colored than the males but they still show the dog's-head silhouette.

This is a southern species, which occasionally strays as far north as New York City, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The larvae feed on species of Amorpha and are believed to be three-brooded in southern regions where the butterfly occurs.

The California Dog's-head is even more beautiful than the southern species. It is remarkable for its pink and purple iridescence--a characteristic which is not common in the butterflies of the Yellow and the White Tribes. The silhouette of the Dog's-head is less perfect than in the more eastern species, and the yellow color tones are more tinged with orange. The female is strikingly different, the wings being plain pale yellowish buff marked only with a round blackish eye-spot near the middle of each front wing and the barest suggestion of a dark line around the extreme margin.

=The Clouded Sulphur=
_Eurymus philodice_

It is an interesting fact that the butterfly which one is most likely to find in fields and along roadsides during practically all the weeks of summer has seldom if ever been noted as a destructive insect. The Clouded Sulphur is probably the commonest species in its group. There may be times when the White Cabbage butterfly or other forms are more abundant, but the Clouded Sulphur retains its place season after season, with comparatively little noticeable variation in its numbers. This is doubtless an illustration of an insect which has established such relations with its food plants and its various insect and other enemies that it remains in a fairly stable equilibrium--an example of what is often called the balance of nature.

The Clouded Sulphur is about the only medium-sized yellow butterfly generally found in the Northeastern states. The adults may be seen from spring until autumn. They lay eggs upon clover and other plants. These eggs hatch into small green caterpillars that feed upon the leaves and are protectively colored so they are comparatively seldom seen. When the food plant is disturbed they drop to the ground, crawling up again upon stems and leaves when the disturbance is over.

These caterpillars moult several times during their growth. When full grown they find such shelter as they are able and each spins a silken web over part of the surface. It then fastens its hind legs into this web and later spins a loop near the front end of the body. It pushes itself beneath this loop and waits for several hours before the skin breaks open along the back and is gradually shuffled off revealing the chrysalis in position. A week or two later the fully developed butterfly emerges from the chrysalis.

These yellow butterflies lend a distinctive charm to our summer landscapes. They are constantly to be seen fluttering from place to place, lightly visiting flowers of many kinds from which they suck the nectar, and gathering in great colonies by roadside pools where they seem to sip the moisture. There are many references to this insect in the writings of New England authors. It evidently was an especial favorite of James Russell Lowell who has often referred to it in passages like this:

"Those old days when the balancing of a yellow butterfly over a thistle bloom was spiritual food and lodging for a whole forenoon."

=The Orange Sulphur=
_Eurymus eurytheme_

Were one able to take a Clouded Sulphur butterfly and change the yellow to a deep orange color he could easily make a specimen that would pass for the present species. The resemblance is very remarkable and shows the close affinity between these two beautiful insects.

Like so many others of this group the Orange Sulphur is essentially a tropical species. In the eastern United States it is rarely found north of latitude forty degrees, but south of that it becomes increasingly abundant as one approaches the tropics. It occurs from the Carolinas to Texas, and over the great range in which it lives it takes on many different forms and habits. It is one of the most remarkable examples of variation in coloring exhibited by any of the butterflies. Nearly a dozen species names have been given to its various disguises, all of which are now recognized as synonyms. In the more northern regions where it is found, only one of these forms usually occurs, but in other places bright yellow and pale white varieties are found.

The life-history of this butterfly along latitude forty degrees is very similar to that of the Clouded Sulphur. There seem to be usually two broods and the caterpillars live upon leguminous plants, especially alfalfa, buffalo clovers, wild senna, and other species of Trifolium and Cassia. Apparently also it hibernates in both the caterpillar and the butterfly stages.

In the extreme Southwest--as on the plains of Texas--the vegetation dries up completely in summer so that there is no succulent leafage for the caterpillars to live upon. In such cases the insect must aestivate rather than hibernate. This species apparently succeeds in doing this by having the caterpillars go into a more or less lethargic condition in which they pass the summer. The adult butterflies utterly disappear in June and are not seen again until early in autumn when the autumn rains have started the growth of vegetation anew. The insects then make up for lost time and produce several broods in rapid succession.

In the Imperial Valley of California this butterfly is a serious pest to alfalfa growers. It continues to reproduce throughout a very long season, one brood following another from March until December, and in mild winters there seems sometimes to be practically no cessation of its activities. Mr. V. L. Wildermuth found that the development of a generation in breeding cages in this valley varied from twenty-two to forty-four days, the latter in cool, the former in hot weather. The stages in the first and the third broods in spring varied thus: Egg, first six days, third four days; larva, first thirty days, third twelve days; chrysalis, first eight days, third five days. In this case the first generation extended from March 15 to April 30 and the third from May 28 to June 20. After the fourth brood of butterflies there was such an overlapping of the various stages that it was impossible to distinguish the broods.

=The Pink-edged Sulphur=
_Eurymus interior_

This beautiful butterfly was first made known to the world of science by Louis Agassiz, the great naturalist who did so much to arouse a scientific interest among Americans. He found it on a famous expedition to the northern shores of Lake Superior, which not only served to bring to light many interesting phases of geological history but also laid the foundation for the copper mining industry which has since become so important in that region. The butterfly thus brought to light has been found to be a characteristic northern species, occupying a rather narrow belt nearly along the fiftieth degree of latitude and extending west almost to the Pacific Coast. The species is occasionally taken as far south as the White Mountains and there are indications that in this region there are two broods a year. The male butterflies are known at once by a beautiful pink edge on all the margins; they bear otherwise a close resemblance to our common Sulphur Yellow. The females are much lighter in color, often having no black markings on the upper surface of the hind wings.

=The Black-bordered Yellow=
_Eurema nicippe_

This is essentially a tropical butterfly which has spread out over most of our Southern states where it is abundant and widely distributed. It adds a distinct touch of color and life to many landscapes when the butterflies swarm by thousands upon clover blossoms and other low vegetation. The eggs are laid upon the leaves of clover and more especially upon some common species of Cassia, such as wild senna. Each egg soon hatches into a small greenish cylindrical worm, colored and striped in such a way that as it rests upon the leaf it is easily overlooked. This larva develops rapidly and soon becomes about an inch and a quarter long, being rather slender and fairly smooth. It now spins a bit of silk upon a twig or some similar support and also the frailest sort of a silken loop to pass around its back. It now entangles its hind feet in the bit of silk and soon casts off its last caterpillar skin, emerging as a curious looking chrysalis about three quarters of an inch long with a remarkable pointed projection on the front of the head. When seen through a hand lens this pointed projection and the well-developed characteristic wing sheaths give the chrysalis a remarkable resemblance to some of the twig hoppers or Membracids. The colors vary considerably with the surroundings but are commonly toned in various shades of green and yellow brown.

A little later each chrysalis breaks open to disclose one of the beautiful butterflies.

The conditions under which this butterfly lives at the limit of its northern range are not well determined. It is probable that many of those seen here have flown from considerably farther south, and that these migrants lay eggs from which a brood of butterflies develops, these native born appearing late in summer. Presumably the latter hibernate, but whether they can do this successfully under the rigorous conditions of our northern winters has never been determined. In fact, Scudder wrote some years ago that no caterpillars had ever been found in New England. Here is an interesting opportunity for some young observer to make a real contribution to science.

=The Little Sulphur=
_Eurema lisa_

Were one to imagine a Clouded Sulphur butterfly reduced to half its usual size and built with a corresponding delicacy of structure, one would have a pretty good idea of the beautiful little creature called by the above name. I well remember in my college days taking what was probably the first of these butterflies ever collected in the region of our Michigan college. It was a prize that very likely had wandered north from Indiana but which served to add much glory to the little collection in which I took such pride, for this is essentially a southern species. In many regions of the South it is so abundant that it can be taken by any one. It ranges from coast to coast and extends south into the tropics. In the eastern region it is found from southern Wisconsin to southern New England, occurring sparingly and locally in various places along the line thus indicated.

The food plant of the species is chiefly wild senna or other kinds of Cassia. The mother butterflies deposit the eggs singly on leaves or stems, generally on the small leaflets of the compound leaf. Less than a week later each egg hatches into a cylindrical greenish caterpillar that feeds upon the leaflets in a characteristic fashion. Instead of devouring the blade from the margin inward it gnaws narrow strips between the smaller veins. When not feeding, the caterpillars protect themselves from observation by birds or other enemies by resting motionless along the stem of the leaflet or else along the midrib on the under side. As is well known the leaflets of Cassia, like other leguminous plants, close at night. It is probably on this account that these caterpillars feed chiefly by day. The general green color of the skin and the straight stripe along the side help to make this caterpillar very inconspicuous when it is at rest.

When full grown the caterpillar reaches a length of three quarters of an inch. It now finds some bit of shelter on which it spins a bit of flat web and a silken loop to hold it in place as it becomes a chrysalis. It then changes and remains quiescent for ten days or more when it emerges as the dainty butterfly.

Notwithstanding its abundance and its successive broods its life-history is none too completely worked out. There is still opportunity for careful observations upon the way in which it passes the winter in various parts of its range. While in the South it apparently hibernates as an adult, this fact is not certain in the more northern localities.

Notwithstanding its diminutive size this butterfly has been known to swarm in such enormous numbers as to seem a veritable cloud. The most notable record of this has been quoted by Scudder in connection with a swarm that invaded the Bermuda Islands, in 1874, on the first day of October. It was described in these words:

"Early in the morning several persons living on the north side of the main island perceived, as they thought, a cloud coming over from the northwest, which drew nearer and nearer to the shore, on reaching which it divided into two parts, one of which went eastward and the other westward, gradually falling upon the land. They were not long in ascertaining that what they had taken for a cloud was an immense concourse of small yellow butterflies, which flitted about all the open grassy patches in a lazy manner, as if fatigued after their long voyage over the deep. Fishermen out near the reefs, some few miles to the north of the islands very early that morning, stated that numbers of these insects fell upon their boats, literally covering them."

As is the case with so many of the related yellow butterflies there is an albino variety of this species. It has been given the variety name _alba_ although it is really a pale yellow rather than a true albino form.

=The Dainty Sulphur=
_Nathalis iole_

While the Little Sulphur butterfly seems about as delicate a creature as one could ask to see, it loses that distinction when it is compared with the still smaller Dainty Sulphur. The latter expands scarcely an inch when its wings are stretched apart, and its slender body and antennae help to give the suggestion of extreme delicacy. There is more marking of black upon the sulphur-yellow wings than is the case with the larger form, the upper portion of the front wings showing only a broad yellow band upon a background of darker color. The under wings are nearly all yellow.

_Synopsis of the Yellows_

_Brimstone_ or _Cloudless Sulphur_ (_Callidryas eubule_ or _Catopsilia eubule_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Upper surface of male clear, light, sulphur yellow. Female with a brown spot in front of middle of each front wing and a narrow brown margin on all the wings. Under surface deeper yellow with sparsely scattered brownish dots.

_Red-barred Sulphur_ (_Callidryas philea_ or _Catopsilia philea_). Expanse 3 inches. Easily known by the reddish orange bars on the sulphur-yellow wings.

_Large Orange Sulphur_ (_Callidryas agarithe_ or _Catopsilia agarithe_). Expanse 2 1/2 inches. Distinguished at once by its uniform orange-yellow color.

_Dog's-head Butterfly_ (_Zerene caesonia_, _Colias caesonia_ or _Meganostoma caesonia_). Expanse 2 1/4 inches. Upper surface yellow with black inner and outer borders on front wings and black outer border on hind wings. The black and yellow of each front wing so combined as to make a distinct dog's head with black eye.

_Clouded Sulphur_ (_Eurymus philodice_ or _Colias philodice_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface sulphur yellow with blackish borders, the yellow brighter in the male than in the female. Male with line between yellow and black distinct, a black spot just in front of the middle of each front wing and an orange spot near the middle of each hind wing. Under surface of male deeper yellow, with spots as on the upper surface but without black margin, and with a row of sub-marginal brownish dots on each wing. Female with upper surface more generally suffused between marginal mark and the yellow part with more or less duskiness both above and below. Spots on each wing much as in male. In the white form of the female (_pallidice_) the yellow is replaced by white.

_Pink-edged Sulphur_ (_Eurymus interior_). At once distinguishable from _philodice_ by the narrow pink edge of all the wings, showing both from above and from below, slightly smaller as a rule.

_Orange Sulphur_ (_Eurymus eurytheme_ or _Colias eurytheme_). Expanse 2 1/4 inches. Much like Clouded Sulphur in markings except that prevailing color-tone is orange yellow.

_Black-bordered Sulphur_ (_Eurema nicippe_, _Xanthidia nicippe_ or _Terias nicippe_). Expanse 2 inches. Upper surface of wings bright orange with a small black dash in front of the middle of each front wing and a broad black border on all the wings. In the females the borders are interrupted at the rear. Under surface slightly brownish yellow, minutely striated and clouded when exposed when the butterfly alights.

_Little Sulphur_ (_Eurema euterpe_, _Eurema lisa_, _Xanthidia lisa_ or _Terias lisa_). Expanse 1 inch. Easily known by its small size and delicate structure. Upper surface of wings yellow with distinct black borders. Under surface yellow with indistinct spots.

_Dainty Sulphur_ (_Nathalis iole_). Expanse 1 inch. Easily known by its small size and narrow yellow wings with black bars across the outer angles and black bands across the back border of the front wings and the front border of the hind wings.

THE NYMPHS

FAMILY _Nymphalidae_

A large proportion of our most familiar butterflies belongs to this family. The Fritillaries, the Angle-wings, the Sovereigns, and the Emperors are tribes in which practically all the species are of medium or large size. The Crescent-spots include a few which are rather small.

The combinations of characters by which the Nymph family is distinguished are these: Front legs dwarfed into lappets; scaly antennae; veins of fore wings not swollen at base; wings of normal shape, not much longer than wide. Larvae cylindrical, but varying greatly in form, color, and skin coverings. Chrysalids angular in most species, in others rounded.

The stories of the lives of the many members of this family vary considerably, as one would expect from their variety and numbers. We may take, however, the life of the familiar Antiopa or Mourning Cloak as typical of the group. Briefly summarized, its story may thus be told:

During sunny days in spring one may often see a beautiful purple-back butterfly, having a cream-colored border along the outer margin of its wings, flying leisurely about, in the vicinity of woods and in the open fields. This insect is called the Antiopa or Mourning Cloak; it is represented natural size in plate opposite page 145. It has passed the winter in this adult condition, having found shelter in some retreat where it is not directly exposed to the storm and stress of the weather.

When the leaves of the elm, willow, and poplar trees are nearly expanded, these butterflies deposit their eggs upon the twigs. These eggs are laid in clusters encircling the twigs, there being twenty or more in each cluster. In the act of oviposition, the butterfly keeps her wings spread out, moving the body and abdomen about as the placing of the eggs necessitates.

About two weeks after the clusters of eggs are thus laid upon the twigs of the food plant, they hatch into small blackish caterpillars, each emerging from the egg shell through a small hole that it eats out of the upper surface. They thus enter upon the second stage in their life-history--the larva or caterpillar stage. As soon as hatched, they crawl to the nearest leaf upon which they range themselves side by side, with their heads toward the margin of the leaf. They feed in this position, nibbling at the green surface of the leaf-blade and leaving the network of veins untouched.

THE ZEBRA SWALLOWTAIL
Summer form: upper surface, above; under surface, below]

THE CLOUDED SULPHUR BUTTERFLY
Caterpillar and butterfly on red clover plant. (Reduced)]

ZEBRA SWALLOWTAILS
Visiting blossoming branches of the pawpaw tree. (Reduced)]

SOME OF THE TRIBE OF YELLOWS
upper surfaces at left; under surfaces at right

(1) The Black-bordered Yellow--male;
(2) the Clouded Sulphur--male;
(3) the Orange Sulphur--female;
(4) the Dog's-head--male]

These caterpillars continue to feed in this manner for about a week, remaining side by side when feeding, and marching in processions from one leaf to another as the food supply is exhausted. Wherever they go, each spins a silken thread on the surface traversed, so that the combination of all the threads makes a sort of carpet that serves as a foothold for the caterpillars. At the end of the week they moult or cast their skins, a process in which the skin of each larva splits open along the back, and the larva crawls out covered with a new skin that had been formed beneath the old one. This new skin stretches somewhat after the caterpillar emerges, so that the insect is able to increase considerably in size. At the period of moulting, the caterpillars remain quiet for a short time, but they soon become active again and begin feeding with increased voracity.

During the next three weeks, this moulting process is repeated three times, the caterpillars becoming larger each time, and leaving their cast skins upon the denuded twigs. They soon scatter more or less over neighboring leaves, but remain in closely associated colonies. As they increase in size, they eat more and more of the leaf substance; when half grown, they devour all but the midrib and the side veins; but when they get larger, only the midribs are left.

The carpet web that they form becomes more conspicuous as the caterpillars become full grown. They then leave the tree or shrub on which they have been feeding, and scatter about, seeking some sheltered situation. Having found this--perhaps beneath a stump or along the under side of a fence--each caterpillar spins a web of silk along the surface. It then entangles the hooked claws of its hind legs in the silken web, and lets its body hang vertically with the head end curved upward. It remains in this position some hours before the skin along the back just behind the head splits apart and is gradually wriggled upward, until finally it is all removed and there hangs in place of the caterpillar a peculiar object having no definite form. But it rapidly assumes a definite form--that of the chrysalis--which is grayish brown, different specimens varying somewhat in shade.

In this quiet chrysalis, the insect is apparently almost as inert as a mummy. If you touch it it will wriggle a little, but otherwise it hangs there mute and helpless. On the inside, however, the tissues are being made over in such a wonderful way that, in about two weeks, from the mummy case into which the caterpillar entered there comes a beautiful butterfly.

When this butterfly first breaks through the mummy shell, its wings are very small, although its body, antennae, and legs are well developed. By means of the latter, it clings to the empty chrysalis, while its wings expand. At first these wings are short, but as soon as the insect takes a position in which the wings hang downward, they begin to expand, and soon reach full length, but are more or less crumpled longitudinally, and the front wings are not so wide as the hind ones, hanging limply inside the latter.

After the butterfly has thus reached its full form and size, it crawls from the chrysalis to some neighboring support, where it rests quietly for half an hour or more. During the latter part of this time it exercises its unused muscles by slowly opening and closing its wings, until it finally flies away.

THE TRIBE OF THE FRITILLARIES

This is one of the most distinctive tribes of the family of Nymphs. The clubs of the antennae are about twice as long as broad and curiously spoon-shaped. The palpi are large and bushy, with the last joint very short. Most of the species are rather large and practically all are beautifully mottled in various tones of brown, red, black, and silvery gray. A large proportion of our midsummer butterflies are members of this tribe.

=The Gulf Fritillary=
_Agraulis vanillae_

In tropical America there is a genus of butterflies called Agraulis. These are fairly large insects, approximating the size of the Viceroy, which show most beautiful colors in the tropical sunshine. One member of this genus has come north to our Southern states, and is occasionally found as far up as Virginia and southern Illinois, extending below this from ocean to ocean. It reveals on its upper surface the most exquisite tints of iridescent purples and browns, suggesting by its form and color as thus seen a tropical species. The lower wing surface, when the wings are closed in their natural position, shows only a spangled effect of silver-white and brown, which is very suggestive of the under surface of our northern Spangled Fritillaries. So this beautiful species may fittingly be called the Gulf Fritillary, carrying over from the north some of its peculiar beauty and connecting with the equally distinctive beauty of the tropical south.

Like so many other southern butterflies the eggs of this species are laid upon the leaves of passion vines. The caterpillars develop very rapidly and when matured are yellowish or brownish yellow, striped with darker lines along the back and sides. There are black branching spines, arranged in rows beginning on the head and running backward on the body. The whole cycle of life from egg to butterfly may take place within the short period of a month and one brood succeeds another in so irregular and rapid a fashion that it is difficult to determine definitely the number of broods in a season.

=The Variegated Fritillary=
_Euptoieta claudia_

There is something in the appearance of the upper surface of this butterfly that suggests the other Fritillaries on the one hand and the Emperors on the other. The coloring and marking is a bit like the former and the shape of the wings like the latter. The general color is a golden brown with darker markings arranged in bands and eye-spots in a rather complicated pattern. The under surface, so far as it is exposed when the butterfly is at rest, is a beautiful marbled combination of gray and brown which is probably distinctly obliterative in the haunts of these insects. The front wings have the outer margin concave in the middle, giving a special prominence to the shape of each front outer angle.

This butterfly is a southern rather than a northern species, but it is found occasionally from Montana to Massachusetts and southward to Arizona, Mexico, and Florida. Even in northern Indiana it is very seldom found and is considered rare in the southern part of that state. Around Buffalo, New York, it is also rare and is not common in the vicinity of New York City. In the more Southern states, however, it is abundant and extends well through the continent of South America.

There is considerable evidence to indicate that this butterfly hibernates as an adult. In the more southern regions it probably also hibernates in other stages, especially the chrysalis and the larva. In regions where it is double-brooded, as it appears to be in the latitude of New York City, the seasonal history seems to run something like this: the partly grown caterpillars which have passed the winter in shelter at the surface of the soil feed upon the leaves of violets and certain other plants. They change to chrysalids, probably in May, and emerge as butterflies in June. These butterflies lay eggs for a summer brood of caterpillars which may feed upon the leaves of violets, May apples, portulaca, and stonecrop. They grow into cylindrical worms of a general reddish yellow color, marked by longitudinal stripes of brown upon the sides and a row of whitish dots upon the back. They become matured in time to disclose the butterflies of the second brood in August and September. Presumably these butterflies lay eggs that develop into caterpillars which hibernate when partially grown.

Farther south there are probably three broods a year and hibernation may take place in various stages. There is good opportunity for careful work in determining the life-history of the species in different latitudes. The butterfly is found in much the same situations as the other Fritillaries, flying over meadows and along the borders of woods.

=The Diana Fritillary=
_Argynnis diana_

This magnificent butterfly differs from the other Fritillaries in the fact that the females are so unlike the males that only a skilled naturalist would even guess that they are related. Both sexes are rather rare and are found only in a comparatively narrow range extending from West Virginia to Missouri, northward to Ohio and Indiana, and southward to Georgia and Arkansas.

This species was first described by Cramer a long time ago from specimens of the male sex. It was later described by Say and other writers all of whom saw only the males. The other sex was first recognized by William H. Edwards, whose account of its discovery as given in his splendid work on the Butterflies of North America is worth quoting:

"No mention is made of the female by any author," wrote Mr. Edwards, "and it seems to have been unknown till its discovery by me in 1864 in Kanawha County, West Virginia. On the 20th August, I saw, for the first time, a male hovering about the flowers of the iron-weed (_Vernonia fasciculata_), and succeeded in taking it. Two days afterwards, in same vicinity, while breaking my way through a dense thicket of the same weed, hoping to find another Diana, I came suddenly upon a large black and blue butterfly feeding so quietly as to allow me to stand near it some seconds and watch its motions. It seemed to be a new species of Limenitis, allied to Ursula, which it resembled in color. But on taking it, I saw it was a female Argynnis, and the general pattern of the under wing left little doubt of its affinity to the Diana male, despite its total difference in color and of upper surface. Subsequent captures confirmed this conjecture, and out of the large number that have since been taken the males have been of the known type and the females black, with no tendency in either to vary in the direction of the other.

"When my attention was called to the species I found it not very uncommon, always upon or near the iron-weed, which is very abundant and grows in rank luxuriance upon the rich bottom lands of the Kanawha River, frequently reaching a height from eight to ten feet and in August covered by heads of purple flowers that possess a remarkable attraction for most butterflies. Both sexes are conspicuous, the males from the strong contrast of color and the females from their great size and the habit of alighting on the topmost flower and resting with wings erect and motionless. It is an exceedingly alert and wary species, differing in this from our other Argynnids. At the slightest alarm it will fly high into the woods near which, upon the narrow bottoms or river slopes, it is invariably found. It is a true southern species, sensitive to cold, not to be looked for in the cooler part of the morning but flying down from the forest when the sun is well up. From eleven to three o'clock is its feeding time."

The life-history of this fine butterfly is similar to that of the lesser Fritillaries. The butterflies appear from midsummer onward, the males preceding the females, and the eggs are laid on or near violets in August or September. The larvae hibernate and mature early the following summer. As they approach the chrysalis stage they are rather large velvety black caterpillars with brown heads and rows of fleshy barbed spines that show an orange tint at their bases. There is thus but one generation each year.

=The Regal Fritillary=
_Argynnis idalia_