Chapter XXX: Recent Development of Canada

In the ordinary course of events this history of the Dominion should have closed with an account of the old French Province of Quebec, its people, their characteristics and their progress. But so much has happened in the second decade of the twentieth century that the impress of France is slowly being obliterated by a Canadianism which is peculiar to itself. Of course this does not mean that the French language is disappearing or that all the customs of the old régime are giving way to new. But _autres temps, autres moeurs_. For this the Great War has been largely responsible. Previous to it, the average French Canadian had been too prone to dwell on the ties which bound him to La Belle France. But a part in the world-conflict convinced him that in the hundred and fifty years he had been disassociated from the country of his birthright, he had worked out his destiny along lines essentially Canadian. This view is likewise affecting and influencing the standpoint of those who have settled in the Great Northwest. The result is a stronger feeling of Canadian nationality in that association {458} of nations which we are pleased to term the British Empire.

After the tragic death of Sir John Thompson in 1892 Canada struggled along politically under several Conservative Premiers which undoubtedly prepared the way for Sir Wilfrid Laurier's great victory four years afterwards. Then, surrounded by the men who had been so many years in opposition with him, he evolved those practical principles of Liberalism which kept his party firmly in power until he advocated free trade in 1911. Since that time both Liberals and Conservatives have come to the conclusion that a protective policy is the one best suited for Canada's growing needs and future prospects. It is interesting to recall, however, that in the dying days of Conservative rule, Nicholas Flood Davin, a prominent member on the Government benches, introduced a Bill for Woman's Suffrage, a reform which was not realised in the Dominion until 1917. As for Quebec it has adhered steadily to manhood franchise, although there is a decided possibility that women will receive the vote in 1922. Some three years afterwards, or, to be exact, September 29, 1898, a Prohibition plebiscite was carried in Canada, but it was fully twenty years before it was put into effect by the various provinces, always with the same exception--that of Quebec, It will therefore be seen that in some respects the old province of Lower Canada does not adopt innovations lightly, or, at least, until they have been first tried and found to be worthy of some measure of support.

When the outbreak of the Boers startled Canada and roused in her the dormant desire to respond {460} to the call of the Motherland, it was Sir Wilfrid Laurier who took up the challenge of non-intervention or neutrality.

We acted in the full independence of our sovereign power. What we did we did of our own free will. . . . If it should be the will of the people of Canada at any future stage to take part in any war of England, the people of Canada will have to have their way. . . . The work of union and harmony between the chief races of this country is not yet complete. . . . But there is no bond of union so strong as the bond created by common dangers faced in common.[1]

What a prophecy. How well was it realised fourteen years afterwards. But at the time the Canadians, believing that war would not pass their way again, erected monuments in all the leading cities to commemorate their losses, little thinking that the courage and traditions achieved would be perpetuated at the second battle of Ypres, Vimy Ridge, and the Somme.

The general election of 1900 sustained Sir Wilfrid, and from that time until 1911 he gave to his country a vision and a courage worthy of the great statesman who had preceded him in the premiership during many years. Possibly the visit of the Duke and Duchess of York the following year also opened up new vistas to him of the Empire upon which the sun never sets. At any rate life flowed on evenly enough for him and the Canadian people until there came one of those imperial acts of negotiation which sorely, perhaps unwarrantably, tried the loyalty and patience of everyone in the Dominion, irrespective of race, party, or creed. As a result of it {461} any future Dominion Government would be very brave indeed if it agreed to an arbitration affecting common Canadian and American interests where the negotiators were not of themselves. However, if the Alaska Boundary Award 1903 gave the United States command of the ports leading to the Klondike it also gave to the Canadians a very clear lead as to what they should do when treaties affecting their own interests came up for consideration. Happily both Motherland and Dominion now see eye to eye in this regard, and no greater evidence of the solidarity resulting can be seen than in the signing of the recent Treaty of Versailles by the Overseas delegates.

Deep as was the chagrin at the time, internal expansion and growing wants diverted the attention of most of the settlers to the new problem being worked out in the West. Immigrants were pouring in ceaselessly. A charter for a Grand Trunk Pacific Railway had just been given by the Dominion House. Everyone was ambitious. All these reasons created a desire upon the part of the people for full provincial organisation instead of the territorial system which could not possibly satisfy the demands of a virile Northwest. The Autonomy Bills of Saskatchewan and Alberta were soon presented by the Dominion Government, and on September 1, 1905 two provinces were formally constituted from the old territories.

There were many in the Eastern Provinces who viewed these evidences of expansion not without certain misgivings. Most of the newly arrived settlers were intelligent Americans of considerable {462} means. They had brought their household furniture, agricultural implements, and herds of horses and cattle with them. All this, however, was desirable and praiseworthy. But what worried the older settlers of the west and particularly the residents in the east was, did they intend to disseminate their previous Republican ideas? In justice to them it must be affirmed that they did not. On the contrary, they settled down as resident Canadians, loyally supporting existing institutions and the Crown. Many of them, however, were Canadians by birth, returning to their native land, or the children of Canadians. But whether Canadian by parentage or naturalisation they are a splendid asset to the west. And their knowledge of modern farming methods is by no means the least important of their accomplishments. In their train, there has also arrived a large number of skilled and unskilled European labourers.

When the House of Commons on May 22, 1919, adopted a recommendation of an address to the King not to grant further titles to Canadians, it was asserted by some that it was primarily caused by this western invasion. But it can be rightly maintained that such action was caused by conditions existing at the time entirely independent of this influence. It may be that in the future the resolution will be withdrawn. Resolutions in Canada are not as fixed as the ancient laws of the Medes and the Persians.

Side by side with this agricultural expansion there has been an era of discovery in the Dominion unequalled even by the golden age of '49. Alexander {463} Macdonald, a Scotchman from New Brunswick, found a fortune in the great Klondike rush of 1894-8 and other Canadians did the same at Cobalt, Ontario, in 1903, where a member of a railway construction gang picked up a silver nugget by accident, thereby disclosing to an eager continent the famous Cobalt silver fields. Canada has, as a result, one of the greatest gold and silver-mining centres in the world.

As if to keep pace with this unexpected development, Dr. Charles E. Saunders, of the Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, announced his successful evolution of Marquis wheat. The Doctor had been experimenting with mid-European Red Fife and Red Calcutta ever since 1903. By successfully crossing the two, an early ripening, hard red spring wheat with excellent milling and baking qualities was evolved. Marquis wheat, as it was named, is now the dominant spring wheat throughout America. Over three hundred million bushels are produced annually, and it was largely owing to Canadian Marquis that the Allies were able to overcome the food crisis in 1918. The wealth of the world has thus been increased enormously by it.

In 1911 Sir Wilfrid, who had been attending the Imperial Conference in London during May and June of that year, returned home determined to place himself again in the hands of the electorate. Unfortunately he had either not profited by the lesson of 1891 or he now believed that the Dominion was ripe for reciprocity with the United States. The contest resulted in the overwhelming defeat of his ministry. For fifteen years he had enjoyed the same confidence of the people as was extended to {464} Sir John A. Macdonald, and the story of his premiership was practically the political history of Canada for that period.

The Hon. Sir Robert Borden, who had led the Conservative party after Sir Charles Tupper had resigned in 1901, now succeeded, and a new era opened in Canadian politics. Throughout the ten years of his two terms of office he invariably viewed the questions and problems before him from a judicial standpoint. At the end of his term of office he carried into his semi-retirement the respect and honour of the Canadian people. If he lacked the personality and the fire of Sir John A. and Sir Wilfrid, on the hustings and in the House, he made up for it by a mind well balanced in statesmanship. Never was this seen to greater advantage than on those occasions when he participated in the Imperial Conferences and at the Peace negotiations ir Versailles.

Early in the winter of 1913, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, an Icelander from Manitoba, set out on one of his explorations of the Arctic regions of Canada. Public opinion had been so roused and excited over Admiral Peary reaching the North Pole on April 6, 1909, that the Canadian Government felt that they owed it to the Empire to make some attempt at charting the northern regions for the Dominion. Under Government organisation and supervision the enterprise lasted for five years. Thousands of square miles were added to Canadian territory within the Arctic Circle, many of which, contrary to popular conception, are green and habitable. The geography of certain lands and seas was amplified and corrected, interesting and useful {465} scientific material was obtained, and much light thrown on general conditions prevailing in those latitudes which had escaped the observation of Roald Amundsen when he accomplished the navigation of the Northwest Passage during 1903-6.

The opening years of the second decade of the twentieth century, however, had not been without their toll of the Empire makers in Canada. Just before the Great War broke on an unsuspecting Dominion, Lord Strathcona passed away in his 94th year. From an apprentice clerk in Hudson's Bay Company he had passed from honour to honour until his death, when he was High Commissioner for Canada in London. Not many months later he was followed by the last surviving Father of Confederation, Sir Charles Tupper, who had preceded him in the office. Both of these pioneers in Canadian life wielded an influence very far reaching in the interests of the British Empire.

At the outbreak of the war similar losses in Canadian public life passed without much notice in the stress and strain of the struggle to which Canada was to devote herself during the ensuing years.

The prompt action of Sir Sam Hughes, the Minister of Militia, the sending of 400,000 men overseas to fight the great fight, the seemingly never-ending battles of Ypres, St. Julien, Festubert, Givenchy, St. Eloi, Sanctuary Wood, Vimy Ridge, Loos, Hill 70, Courcelette, Passchendaele, and the Somme, under General Lord Byng and General Sir Arthur Currie, appear too vivid in the mind as yet to be regarded as history.

{466}

Something of the spirit of the Canadians in sharing the common sacrifice is reflected in the beautiful though poignant lines of Colonel Macrae of the Canadian Army Medical Corps, who himself made the supreme sacrifice in one of the early engagements of 1915:

In Flanders fields the poppies blow
Beneath the crosses, row on row
That mark our place, and in the sky
The larks, still bravely singing, fly,
Scarce heard amid the guns below.

We are the dead. Short days ago
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
Loved, and were loved, and now we lie
In Flanders fields.

Take up our quarrel with the foe;
To you, from falling hands, we throw
The torch. Be yours to lift it high!
If ye break faith with us who die,
We shall not sleep, though poppies blow
In Flanders fields.

As for those at home, now that the war has passed into the ages-long annals of the Empire, no words can express their thoughts better than those of Laurence Binyon at the entrance of the British Museum in London, England:

They shall grow not old
As we that are left grow old.
Age shall not weary them
Nor the years condemn,
At the going down of the sun
And in the morning
We will remember them.

But the years 1914-20 were constructive ones for Canada. Hitherto she had been content to be {467} regarded as a Dominion with a definite place in the Empire, proud of her position in that Association of Nations but not unmindful of her shortcomings. The world-conflict, however, caused her to realise her own constructive ability and possibilities only limited by population. Under the Imperial Munitions Board factories were converted into munition works, old plants were enlarged, and new machinery installed, so that the country is industrially equipped to supply a population considerably larger than it is to-day. Not only was wooden ship building revived, but also steel ship building plants were laid down. As a result there is a Government Merchant Marine arranged in conjunction with the Government railways, sailing the high seas to wherever Canadian produce can find a market. Closer international relationships are being fostered instead of considered as outside of the Dominion's power and her desire. These cords of commerce will undoubtedly strengthen British hegemony in the years to come.

The General Election of December 1917, passed quietly, making no change in the political situation, although there was a strong feeling in Quebec against conscription, which was the dominant issue in that province. On that question the Hon. W. L. Mackenzie King supported Sir Wilfrid Laurier in his opposition to compulsory service, being one of the few English Canadian Liberals to do so. In fact several of them had already joined Sir Robert Borden so that a Coalition Government could be formed. It was largely owing to Mr. King's support of Sir Wilfrid on this issue that the former was chosen to {468} succeed the latter as leader of the Liberal Party in the Convention held at Ottawa August 5-7, 1919. The country, however, was too intent on the struggle before it to worry about politics. If it did anything it placed Sir Robert Borden more firmly in power to carry on the task before him, especially endorsing the Military Service Act (Conscription) which had been passed on August 29, previously.

It is true that the people were stunned by the disasters which occurred in 1916 and 1917 when the Parliament Building at Ottawa was burned and Halifax was almost razed to the ground by the explosion resulting from the ramming of an ammunition ship. But outside of the great toll of life these losses could be repaired and were speedily made up in the erection of new Parliament Buildings and the creation of a more modern city of Halifax to dominate the entrance of the great highway from the East.

Early in the autumn of 1914, the Bank of England, realizing that it would be impossible for American firms to ship gold to London in payment of maturing indebtedness there, announced that deposits of gold by such firms with the Receiver-General at Ottawa would be regarded as if received by the Bank at London. Under this arrangement many million dollars of the precious metal were shipped to the Dominion Capital, where a Branch of the Royal Mint had already been established in January, 1908. The amount in the vaults at Ottawa during the war became almost twice the total amount held by British financial institutions in 1913. As part of it was raw gold, the Ottawa Branch of the Royal Mint {469} had to construct a new refinery in 1917 which had a refining capacity of one million ounces of fine gold per month. The Branch Mint had thus a larger capacity than any other Mint or gold refinery in the world. Shilling blanks were also produced for the Royal Mint in London as well as silver and bronze pieces for Newfoundland and nickel-copper pieces for Jamaica.

Later on the gold was returned to the United States when the British exchange became unfavourable owing to the huge purchases made in that country. Many Canadian business men at this time advocated a moratorium, but the Government steadfastly resisted such a suggestion until ultimately it was found unnecessary.

Financially, the Canadian people from 1915 to 1919 were not unmindful of their national obligations. Six domestic loans were issued during the war period amounting to 2,203 million dollars, while War Savings Certificates accounted for another 12 1/2 millions.

On the announcement of the Armistice in November, 1918, the Government with the same energy and foresight which characterised their entrance into the conflict, began to demobilise the army which they had sent overseas. Within six months the bulk of the men were back in their homes. The opportunity was then taken of offering to the returned men land grants and loans for the purchase of farming implements. Up to the end of 1920, over 3 1/2 million acres had been disposed of in this way. In the Western Provinces alone about one million acres of it are under cultivation {470} by returned men. As a result of this action, new careers have been provided for men whose love of outdoor life was stimulated by their military experience. It has at the same time opened up from virgin soil fresh tracts of rich, arable land. As for pensions, up to February, 1921, the Dominion has paid out 82 million dollars and her annual pension bill now represents over 33 million dollars. Truly Canada is a country "fit for heroes to live in."

All this, however, has been accomplished not without some internal difficulty. At Winnipeg in May, 1919, some thousands of workmen came out on strike for more pay, shorter hours, and the principle of collective bargaining. Rioting took place among some of the more disorderly elements. But after negotiation by the Hon. Arthur Meighen and a fellow minister, aided by strong measures on the part of the Mayor and ex-Service men, the rioters returned to work.

But the great work of construction and restoration has progressed. In September, 1917, the Quebec Cantilever Bridge, one of the engineering triumphs of the world, even larger than the famous Forth Bridge, was completed at a cost of 15 million dollars. The special importance of this structure is, that by connecting the Government railway lines on the south of the River St. Lawrence with those on the north, it shortens the distance between Halifax and Winnipeg by two hundred miles. The necessity for good roads has not been overlooked. Parliament authorised under the Canada Highways Act of 1919, a grant of 20 million dollars, {472} for the purpose of road construction and improvement. This sum allotted to the various provinces is granted on condition that the amount should be supplemented by the provinces themselves. The 250,000 miles of public highways will therefore be extended gradually but effectively in the future.

In the same year, there occurred the death at Ottawa of one whom Canada could ill afford to lose; a statesman whose prestige at home and abroad stood out on the pages of the Dominion's history. Nominally the leader of the Liberal Party, Sir Wilfrid Laurier was more than that. He was a great national figure. As a statesman of broad imperialistic views, as an orator of brilliant gifts, as a zealous guardian of all that he considered to be for Canada's best interest, he will rank high among the makers of the Empire.

Fortunately the visit of the Prince of Wales came at a time when the Dominion badly needed royal encouragement. Arriving in the late summer of 1919, he was enthusiastically received. As the Quebec Bridge had just been completed he formally opened it for traffic, and later on, as a good Mason, laid the foundation stone of the tower of the new Parliament Buildings at Ottawa. Becoming enamoured with the possibilities of the two new provinces in the Northwest, he purchased a ranch of 1,600 acres in Alberta, under the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, proceeded to stock it with horses and cattle of the best English pedigree, and engaged a number of ex-Service men to manage the property. If there had been any doubt in the minds of the western settlers about His Royal {473} Highness, this removed it. To-day east and west vie in acclaiming the present Heir-Apparent to the British throne with an affection as genuine as it is evident.

When the Dominion Government, owing to the exigencies of war, began to impose restriction on the manufacture, importation and sale of intoxicating liquors in Canada, the old question of Prohibition came to the fore again. It was remembered that a plebiscite in favour of it had been carried on September 29, 1898, but never taken advantage of by the Federal authorities; Temperance organizations throughout the country took it up, and in order to meet the popular clamour the various provincial Assemblies passed some form of legislation which resulted in the country going "dry." Quebec, however, has only agreed to an amendment of the Canada Temperance Act by which the Dominion Government can prohibit the importation of intoxicants, but cannot prevent the province from making and selling under Government control such wine, spirits or beer as the people may desire. British Columbia afterwards voted for Government control in October, 1920.

In July, 1920, after nine years of power laden with some of the heaviest responsibilities ever imposed upon a Canadian statesman, Sir Robert Borden was compelled to resign the premiership through ill health. His efforts for the autonomy of the Dominion, consistent with Empire unity, culminating in her inclusion as a separate and equal nation at the Peace Conference in Paris, 1919, and the right to appoint her own Minister at Washington {474} will make for him a prominent place in the history of Canada.

The leadership of the Coalition Government which was elected in 1917 passed to the Hon. Arthur Meighen, who was Minister of the Interior in the Borden administration.

A year afterwards, having completed the full tenure of office, His Excellency the Governor-General, the Duke of Devonshire, returned to England, and was succeeded by General Lord Byng of Vimy, the hero of the Canadian soldiers in the war.

When the Annual Imperial Conference was called in July, 1921, the acting Premier, the Hon. Mr. Meighen, repaired to London to gain some insight into the many intricate problems which came before the Council. On his return home he decided that the political situation demanded a general election. In this, no doubt, he was influenced by the rise of a Progressive Party, or as it is better known, the United Farmers' Organisation.

Starting as a purely agrarian movement the U.F.O. became a co-operative society, finally growing into a strong political party in provincial and federal politics. Ontario and Alberta soon fell to their prowess, and it was thought that the same result would happen in the Dominion arena. The ideas advocated by the new third party were a more modified protection to home industries as opposed to the decidedly protectionist policy of the Coalition Government; opposition to the return of the Government controlled railways to {475} private ownership; stimulation of immigration along definite lines; and the creation of means whereby capital for production could be supplied to settlers on safe and sound lines.

Whether the Progressive party will continue to be a factor in Canadian politics is for the future to decide. The net result of the general election of 1921 was the almost complete disappearance of the Coalition party and the meagre election of the out and out Liberals under the Hon. William Lyon Mackenzie King, who had been a minister in Sir Wilfrid's cabinet some ten years previously. The number of Progressives elected did not come up to the general expectation, but they represent a considerable number, in fact being second in strength to the party called upon to form the Government. Their leader, the Hon. T. A. Crerar, who had resigned from the Coalition Cabinet of Sir Robert Borden two years previously, is a leader of some force and ability. But Mr. King has surrounded himself with a cabinet of considerable Parliamentary experience, so there is every reason to expect that the Liberal Party will be in power for the usual life of a Parliamentary term.

Perhaps the most outstanding event of the year in which Canada was interested, was the Disarmament Conference at Washington, where she was represented by Sir Robert Borden. If it did anything, it certainly paved the way for saving billions of dollars by restricting the construction of capital ships, and in this Canada was no mean factor.

But before all, it is domestic problems which concern the Dominion particularly. No country {476} realises better than she does that it is coal and comfort which will attract settlers from the Motherland to till her fields, build up her factories and engage in the trade which makes a nation truly great. As Ontario, Quebec and Manitoba have no coal mines, "white coal" is a vital necessity. Not long ago the Dominion Water Power Branch took a census, and found that Canada has available nineteen million horse-power. Of this practically 90 per cent. of the Central Station power is derived from water power, 95 per cent. being in the above-named provinces, which have to import their coal supplies from other provinces and the United States. As far back as 1911 the Province of Ontario realised this, and began to arrange for the building of the Chippawa-Queenston Power Canal and plant, which represents an investment of almost a hundred million dollars. The plant will have a capacity of 650,000 horse-power, which will be distributed throughout Canada and possibly the neighbouring States, and will be an important addition to the Ontario Hydro-Electric Power Transmission System which was inaugurated at Kitchener, Ontario, in October, 1911.

Elsewhere in the Dominion the fuel problem is being met by fresh discoveries. In the Mackenzie River district gushers of oil have been struck, in one case producing a flow at the rate of 1,000 barrels a day. Already several large companies are operating in that district.

As for comfort, not only Canada but also the world realises that the day of hand power is past. Without agricultural implement machinery driven {477} by motor force, it would be impossible for the great Northwest to yield the harvests which she does without a labour to which new settlers would be unaccustomed. By means of the hydro-electric commission homes are warmed in winter, lighted all the year round, as indeed are the cities, towns and villages, and cooking for the family accomplished with a modicum of trouble. Electric railways connect communities and settlements. The telephone is in almost everyone's home. So that with the pianola, the gramophone, and other means of diversion, the winter nights are not what they were to the people in the years of the nineteenth century.

In railroad facilities Canada, if anything, is fifty years ahead of her time, so well are they developed. The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, from Monckton, New Brunswick to Winnipeg and thence to Prince Rupert, B.C., which was commenced in 1905, and finished in 1915, was leased on its completion to the Grand Trunk Railway Company for fifty years. Owing to the war, and the financial difficulties in which the constructing company found itself, the system of 22,000 miles of line was taken over by the Government in 1921, after an arbitration which excited much comment on both sides of the Atlantic. The decision regarding it was given by the Canadian Grand Trunk Arbitration Board at Montreal, headed by Sir Walter Cassels, and one of the members of the Board was no less a person than ex-President Taft, now Chief Justice of the United States. As a conspicuous result of political action the {478} construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway is still more the subject of politics than of history, and it is quite likely to remain in that phase for some time.

The year 1921 will also be memorable for the work of the joint American-Canadian Commission appointed to investigate the possibility of the proposed Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Waterways. It was estimated that the initial cost of canalising the St. Lawrence River, constructing six dams in the rapids and improving the St. Claire and Detroit Rivers will be 253 million dollars, the up-keep requiring 2 1/2 million dollars annually. Fortunately considerable revenue can be made through the sale of the five million horse-power obtained from the dams which will pay a large part of the carrying charges. The great value of such a public work is in the relief from congestion on the railways, particularly the American, at crop-moving time. One of the most important results will be that Port Arthur, Ontario will virtually become a seaport.

In all this work of expansion and progress the women of Canada have taken their place. This was recognised when the War Committee of the Borden Cabinet called a Conference of representatives of women's organisations in February, 1918. The initiative was rewarded by a closer co-operation on the part of these societies with the Government, especially in connection with the conservation of food, the compilation of a National Register and the increased production in industrial occupations. Later in 1918, an Act was passed by which Canadian {479} women received the Federal electoral vote on the same basis as men. In addition to electing a woman as member of the provincial legislature, the British Columbia Assembly had the honour first of choosing one of the fair sex for Speaker which, however, was declined, Mrs. Mary E. Smith, the Labour candidate-elect, maintaining that she could be more useful as a private member than either as Speaker or a member in the Government. When Mrs. Irene Parlby was similarly successful in Lacombe, Alberta, she was not so modest when Premier Greenfield offered her a position without portfolio in the United Farmers' Cabinet. To those who have the feminine movement at heart, these instances will certainly be a source of much encouragement.

But, perhaps, the west of Canada is more willing to depart from the established order than the east. Then, again, the conditions are different. The maritime provinces have been living in peace and amity with their neighbours for many years. The immigration problem, carrying with it different races, conflicting ideas and unsatisfied ambitions, does not present itself in the same way. Halifax and Quebec, where immigration is concerned, are mainly ports of entrance, and intending settlers are generally Europeans.

It is not the same at Victoria and Vancouver. This was recognised in 1907, when the Hon. Rodolphe Lemieux was sent by the Dominion Government to Tokio to make representations to the Japanese Government regarding the restriction of its nationals from emigrating to Canada which was resulting in {480} racial riots. The Nippon Cabinet received the _démarche_ in the right spirit, and so any cause for misunderstanding was removed. That was why the Dominion of Canada adhered to the Anglo-Japanese Treaty when it was renewed in 1913, and why the Japanese battleship _Asama_, after grounding on the coast of Lower California, was refitted at Esquimault. At that naval station in 1914 Canada had only one small cruiser of 3,600 tons, the _Rainbow_, used more for revenue purposes than for any idea of defence or offence. The new Canadian Air Board, by the introduction of aircraft on the Pacific Coast to assist in preventing opium smuggling, has almost removed the reason for retaining even that vessel. But it is still equipped as a training ship for the Royal Canadian Navy which, after the close of the war, was strengthened by the addition of three cruisers, the _Aurora_, _Patriot_ and _Patricia_.

Fortunately the naval treaty between the British Empire, the United States and Japan, signed in February, 1922, will at least remove any doubt about Canada's pacific intentions in her developments of the west. By that agreement the above nations will respect the _status quo_ in regard to fortifications and naval bases on their coast territories. No new ones are to be established. Moreover, no measures shall be taken to increase the existing naval facilities for the repair or maintenance of naval forces.

Thus with prosperity at home, and peace with those abroad, people of the land of the Maple Leaf and the Beaver will look upon the twentieth century {481} as peculiarly their own. But in doing so it will not be without a wrench to see old institutions alter and in some cases pass away. One of these is the Royal Northwest Mounted Police, which in November, 1919, became the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, provision being made for the absorption of the Dominion Police which during the Great War acted as a secret service to counteract enemy plots against the country. Recently the force has been bitterly opposed by Labour, on the ground that its real purpose is to break strikes, an objection originating in the force's very efficient action during the Winnipeg riots. Otherwise there would be no grounds for its disbandonment except economy, before which even history and tradition must bow.

The growth of labour organisations in Canada, however, ranks _pari passu_ with that of the large cities. To gauge the extent one has only to mention that in 1911 there were 133,132 members in the labour unions, but in 1920 there were 373,842, or almost three times as many. Of the definite groups the railway employees stand first, representing 23.45 per cent. This explains why the railway situation in Canada is always a matter of no small interest to the people. As most of the organised workers are members of international unions, which cover the whole of the United States and Canada, their electoral power may be readily estimated. In justice to them, it must be said that labour, as compared with that in other countries, is remarkably safe and sane. During the war, trade union restrictions were subordinated to the country's {482} need, and now that it is over the one desire in the ranks is to keep industry on its feet, so that there may be a busy and contented Dominion. If at times there is a louder outcry against immigration, it is largely owing to the idea that the new-comers cannot be assimilated under existing conditions. But every Canadian, irrespective of class or calling, recognises that if the premier Dominion is to maintain its position and prestige in the Empire--and for that matter in the world--there must be more population.

In these days some people are inclined to speak of the near disappearance of free land in Canada. If by free land it is meant that there is no longer the liberty to settle at random without any qualifications for so doing, then there is truth in such a statement. But the history of Canada during the past two decades proves that if the Dominion is to prosper, there must be settlers who either have the necessary farming knowledge or the ability to acquire it. In either case the Government or the Railways will grant land as near free land as it can be made.

To train young farmers in the science and practice of agriculture, colleges and experimental farms have been established, and both Canadians and new-comers have taken advantage of them. For instance, in 1874 there were twenty-eight students at the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. To-day the total enrolment is about 2,400. It can be seen, then, that there is a real desire upon the part of the rising generation for a scientific knowledge of farming, without which even virgin {483} soil cannot yield indefinitely. It is admitted that there may be more comfortable conditions in other countries, but Canada still remains the land of opportunity towards which the people always extend a beckoning hand.

When the grain is on the stalk, and the fields of wheat extend as far as the eye can see, the glowing red sun sinks beneath a golden horizon at the end of a summer's day. But, like young Canada, it rises again the next to breathe life on the land and destiny of the Empire's Great Dominion.

[1] Speech, House of Commons, March 13, 1900.

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INDEX.

Abbott, Sir J. J. C., 415
Abenakis, 114; allies of French, 212
Abercromby, General, defeated by Montcalm, 245
Acadia, meaning; of, 5; its modern divisions, 5; occupied by
De Monts, 50-54; history of, as French possession, 92-109, 203,
206-208; ceded to England; 208; French inhabitants of, 218;
their unhappy fate, 231-236
Acadians, expulsion of, 231-236
Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of, 219
_À la clair fontaine_, French Canadian ballad, 452
Alaska, discovery of gold in, 430
Alaskan boundary award, 430, 461
_Alcide_ and _Lys_, French frigates, captured by English, 229
Alexander, Sir W. (Lord Stirling), receives rights in Acadia,
and names Nova Scotia, 89
Alfonce, Captain Jehan, French pilot, 47
Algonquin Indians, 114; tribal divisions of, 114, 115; customs
of, 123-128; illustration of, 111
Alverstone, Lord, Chief Justice of England, 430
American Canadian Waterways Commission, 478
American Revolution, War of, attitude of French Canadians during,
282; Canada invaded, 283, 284; Montreal taken, 283; Quebec
besieged, 285-287; death of Montgomery, 285; American troops
retire from Canada, 286, 287; defeat of Cornwallis, 288;
peace, _ib._
Amherst, General, 242, 245
Amundsen, Roald, 465
Andastes, 82, 83
Anglo-Japanese Treaty, 480
Annapolis (Port Royal), valley of, 51, 52; old capital of Nova
Scotia, 206. _See_ Port Royal
_Anse-an-Foulon_ (Wolfe's Cove), Wolfe ascends Quebec heights
from, 254-256; Montgomery's march from, 285
Antillia, 21
Archibald, Adams, first Governor of Manitoba, 392
Arctic Exploration, 464
Argall, Samuel, destroys St. Sauveur and Port Royal in
Acadia, 64, 65
Arms of the Dominion. _See_ cover of this volume [Transcriber's
note: missing from book]
Armistice, 469
Arnold, General Benedict, his expedition against Quebec, 284-286;
raises siege, 286
Arthur, Sir George, Canadian Governor, 355
Ashburton Treaty, 375
Assembly, Legislative, first at Halifax, 302; at Quebec, 306;
in other provinces, 302, 303. _See_ Legislatures, House of
Commons
Assiniboia. _See_ Red River
Association of Nations, 457, 467
Astrolabe, lost by Champlain, 79
Atlantis, island of, 12
Ayleswurth, Mr. A. B., 430
Autonomy Bills, 461

Baie Verte, Fort at, 229, 230
Baldwin, Robert, Canadian reformer, 342, 350, 364; portrait of, 365
Ballads of French Canada, 450-453
Bank of England, 468
Barre, La, Canadian Governor, 195
Batoche, fight at (in 1885), 397
Battles, 460, 465
Beaujeu, Captain de, defeats Braddock, 230
Beauséjour, Fort, 229; captured by English, 230
Bedard, French Canadian journalist, 313, 314
Bering Sea question, 324
Biard, Father, Jesuit missionary, 61, 64
Biencourt, son of Baron de Poutrincourt, 60; his Acadian career,
60-65, 94; death of, 94
Bienville, father of Louisiana, 225
Big Bear, Indian chief, 395, 398
Bigot, Canadian Intendant, his crimes, 249; punishment of, 267
Binyon, Laurence, 466
Bishop's Palace, 305, 307
Borden, Sir Robert, 464, 468, 473, 475
Boston, City of, founded, 100
Bougainville, siege of Quebec, 253, 254, 256; his later career, 253
Boundaries of Canada under Quebec Act, 266, 277; treaty of peace
of 1783, 289; in 1842 (Ashburton treaty), 375; in 1856 (Oregon),
375; after confederation in 1867, 380; in 1896, 4, 5
Bourgeoys, Margaret, founder of Congregation de Notre-Dame in
Canada, 136
Bourgoyne, General, defeated at Saratoga, 288
Bourlamaque, General, 248, 254
Bowell, Mackenzie, Canadian premier, 394, 415
Braddock, General, defeated at Monongahela, 230
Brant, Joseph ("Thayendanegea"), Mohawk chief, 298-300; autograph
and portrait of, 299
Brantford, named after Indian chief, 300. _See_ Brant
Brebeuf, Jean de, Jesuit Missionary, 86; his heroism and death,
142; relic of, 143
Bressani, Jesuit Missionary, 138
Brion, Seigneur de, French Admiral, 32
British Columbia, scenery of, 16, 17; history of, 404, 405; enters
Canadian confederation, 406; Indians of, 402
British North America Act of 1867, unites Canadian provinces,
374, 428
British troops and warships withdrawn, 433
Brock, Major-General, during war of 1812; defeats Hull, 322; dies
at battle of Queenston Heights, _ib._; portrait of, 323;
monument to, 336
Brockville, city of, 324
Brodeur, Hon. Mr. L. P., 433
Brown, George, Canadian journalist and statesman, 372; political
career, 372, 406-408; his part in confederation, 372, 410, 412;
autograph and portrait of, 409; monument to, 413
Bruce, John, at Red River (1869), 388
Brulé, Etienne, Indian interpreter, 81, 84, 85
Bullion, Madam de, founder of Montreal Hôtel de Dieu, 134
Byng, Lord, 465, 474

Cabot, John, discovers North American Continent, 21-23
Calèche in French Canada, 443
Callières, Canadian governor, 204; makes peace with Iroquois, _ib._
Campbell, Sir Colin, Governor of Nova Scotia, 362
Campbell, W. Wilfred, Canadian poet, 181
Canada, divisions of, 1-18; name of, 7; discovery of, 34, 35;
river of, 35; Quebec, ancient capital of, 70; government of,
under France, 156-167; ceded to England, 263; military régime
of, 268; political state from 1763-1867, 338-379; confederation
of, 370-374, 391, 392, 404; railway building, 416; canals and
waterways, 418; growth of manufacturing industries, 419, 420;
bounty system, 419; population of, in 1908, 424, 425; French
population of, 425; intellectual progress of, 425-429; revenue
and expenditure, 425; government of, 426-429, relations with
England, 428-429; awakening of national consciousness, 432;
treaty-making power still withheld from, 433; map of (1643), 44;
(1745), 221; (1896), opposite p. 1. _See_ French Canadians
Canadian Air Board, 480
Canadian Manufacturers' Association, 422
Canadian Pacific Railway, 392, 396, 414, 417
Canals of Canada, 358
Cape Breton, Island of; discovered, 23-26; named Île Royale, 210;
ceded to England, 215; restored to France, 219; ceded again
to England, 264; government of, under France, 210, 211; part
of Nova Scotia, 303. _See_ Louisbourg
Card money of French Canada, 162
Carignan-Salières regiment, 152, 166
Carleton, General (Sir Guy), at siege of Quebec, 250; Canadian
Governor, 277; saves Canada, 280, 283-287; becomes Lord
Dorchester and again Governor, 301
_Caroline_, burning of steamer, 354
Caron, Sir Adolphe, 396
Cartier, Jacques, his voyages, 30-46; autograph and portrait
of, 31; discovers Canada, 34; first map of his discoveries, 44;
death of, 46
Cartier, Sir George, Canadian statesman, 372; his character and
services to Canada, 408-412; autograph and portrait of, 411;
monument to, 413
Cartwright, Sir Richard, Canadian statesman, 298
Cascade Mountains, 17
Cataraqui (Kingston), 184
Cayngas, division of Iroquois Confederacy, 118. _See_ Iroquois
Celéron, in the Ohio Valley, 223
Chaleur, Bay of, discovered, 32
Champlain, Helen, wife of Samuel Champlain, 77
Champlain, Lake, name of, 73
Champlain, Samuel, 48; first autograph and portrait of, 69;
founds Quebec, 70; battles with the Iroquois, 72-75, 81-85;
first visit to the Ottawa region, 78-80: his lost astrolabe,
79; discovers Lake Huron (_mer douce_), 82; surrenders Quebec
to Kirk, 88; returns to Canada, 89; death of, 90; his services
to Canada, 91; visit to Canada, 149
_Chansons_ of French Canada. _See_ Ballads
Charlottetown, city of, founded, 311
Chartres, Fort, on the Illinois, 224
Chateau St. Louis, history of, destroyed by fire, _see frontispiece_
Chateauguay, battle of, 328; monument of, 337
_Cheveux Relévés_, 116
Chippawa-Queenston Canal, 476
Chrystler's Farm, battle of. _See_ War of 1812
Clergy Reserves, 346; settled, 367
Coal, 423, 424
Coalition Government, 467, 475
Cobalt, 463
Colbert, French Minister of State, 152-156
Colborne, Sir John, Commander-in-Chief during Canadian rebellion
of 1838-39, 352-357
Commons. _See_ House of Commons
_Compagnie des Cents Associés_, 86; charter revoked, 152
Confederation of Canada, 370-374, 380, 391, 392, 404, 406
_Congregation de Notre Dame_, founded, 136
Conscription, 467
Constitutional Act of 1791, 303-305; operation of, 309-315, 338-358
Constitution of Dominion of Canada, 426-429
Constitution of Provinces of Canada, 426, 427
Convents in Canada, founded, 130 _et seq._
Cortereal, Caspar and Miguel, Portuguese voyagers, 24
Cosa, Juan de la, Spanish pilot, his map of 1500, 23, 25
Costabelle, M. de, first governor of Cape Breton, 210
_Côtes_, 166
Coudres, Isle de, named, 35
Courcelles, M. de, Canadian governor, 153
_Coureurs-de-bois_, 170-176
Craig, Sir James, Canadian governor, 312-314
Crerar, Hon. T. A., 475
Crévecour, Fort, on the Illinois, 186
Crowfoot, Indian chief, 397
Carrie, General Sir Arthur, 465
Cut-Knife Creek, fight at (in 1885), 397

Dairying, 423
Daniel, Father, Jesuit missionary and martyr, 142
D'Anville, Duke, 217, 218
D'Aunay, Chevalier, 98; his feud with Charles de la Tour, 99-105;
death of, 105; marriage of his widow, 106
Dauphin map (1543), 44
D'Avaugour, Baron, Canadian governor, 160
Davin, Nicholas F., 458
Dawson, Dr. G. M., Canadian scientist, 401
"Découverte, La Nouvelle," by Father Hennepin, 187
Demobilization, 469
Demons, Isle of, 46
Denonville, Marquis de, Canadian governor, 195
Denys, Nicholas, in Acadia, 97, 106
Déserts, Isle of, 54, 64
Detroit, history of, 207, 223, 270-272, 274
Devonshire, Duke of, 474
Diamond, Cape, 44
Diamond Jubilee, 423
Dieskau, Baron, defeated by Johnson, 231
Dingley Act, 431
Disarmament Conference, 475
Dollard, Sieur des Ormeaux, his heroism, 151
Dominion Police, 481
Dominion of Canada. _See_ Canada.
Donnacona, Indian King of Stadacona, 36, 42, 43
Dorchester. _See_ Carleton
Doukhobors, 425
Druillètes, Gabriel, Jesuit missionary, 139, 140
Drummond, General, wins battle of Lundy's Lane, 331
Dufferin, Lord, Canadian governor, 380, 394
Duhaut, La Salle's murderer, 190
Duluth, Daniel Greysolon, 176, 187
Dumont, Gabriel, half-breed leader in second Red River Rebellion,
395, 397
Duquesne, Canadian governor, 223
Duquesne, Fort, 224, 226
Durham, Lord, Canadian governor, 355; his report on Canadian
affairs, 340, 356, 361

Earthquake of 1663 in Canada, 151
_Eboulements_, Les, 151
Education in Canada, 358, 359, 368, 425-428
Edward (Lyman), Fort, 222
Elections, 1900, 1911, 1917, 1921, 460, 463, 467, 475
Elgin, Lord, Canadian Governor, 363
England and Canada, relations between, 428-429
Eries ("Racoons"), 117
Etchemins ("Canoemen"), 114

Falkland, Lord, Nova Scotian Governor, 362
"Family Compact," 344; broken up, 355
Farming, the most important industry, 422-423
Fenian Raids, 378
Fielding, Mr. W. S., 433
Fish Creek, fight at (in 1855), 396; monument to dead, 400
Fisheries of Canada, 324, 335, 375, 424
Fitzgibbon. _See_ War of 1812
Five Nations. _See_ Iroquois
Forbes, General, 243; in Ohio Valley, 246
Foster, George A., Canadian statesman, 298
Fraser River, 16, 17, 383
Fréchette, Louis, French Canadian poet, 181; his portrait, 449
Frederic (Crown Point), Fort, 222
Free Land, 482
Free libraries, 426
French Canada. _See_ French Canadians
French Canadians, language of, 435-438; villages of, 439-442;
attachment of, to Roman Catholic religion, 438-440, 447;
habits of, 446; literature of, 448; feelings of, towards
England, and confederation, 454-456
Frog Lake Massacre (in 1885), 395
Frontenac, Count, Canadian Governor, 194-204; character of, 193;
repulses Phipps at Quebec, 199-201; humbles Onondagas, 203;
death of, 204; autograph and statue of, 193
Frontenac, Fort, 184, 195, 196, 246; destroyed, 247
Fruit-growing, 423

Galissonnière, Canadian Governor, 222, 223
Galt, Sir Alexander, Canadian statesman, 372
Gannentaha, Onandaga French Mission, 148, 149
Garmeau, F. X., French Canadian historian, 449
Garry, Fort, 385, 388, 391; view of, 389
Gaspé, Cape, 8, 33
George, Lake, 137; battle of, 231
Germain, Lord George (Sackville), 287
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 43
Gold, discovery of, in the Yukon and in Alaska, 430
Gomez, Estevan, 27
Gosford, Lord, Canadian Governor, 342, 352
Gourlay, Robert, Canadian reformer, 344; his ill-treatment, 345
Government of Dominion of Canada, 426, 429
Governor-General of Canada, 428
Grand Trunk Railway, 416; Pacific Railway, sections, 418;
Government subsidy granted, 418; arbitration, 477
Grasett, Colonel, in Riel's second rebellion (1885), 397
Great Northern, 418
Greenfield, Premier, 479
Griffin, Le Salle's vessel, 186
Grosseilliers, Sieur de, 170
Guarantee Act, 416
Guerchéville, Mme. de, 61
Guyart, Marie (Mere de l'Incarnation), Superior of Ursulines, 132;
portrait of, 131

_Habitants_, of French Canada, 163-167, 442-447
Haldimand, General, Canadian governor, 287, 290, 301
Hale, Horatio, on Indian legends, 113, 119
Haliburton, Judge ("Sam Slick"), 360; portrait of, 359
Halifax, City of, founded, 222; razed, 468
Hampton, General, defeated at Chateauguay, 328
Harvey, Colonel (Sir John), at Stoney Creek, 325; in Nova
Scotia, 363
Head, Sir Francis Bond, 350-353, 355
Hébert, French Canadian sculptor, 193, 449
Helluland of the Norsemen, 20
High Commission created, 430
Hincks, Sir Francis, Canadian statesman, 367
Hennepin, Father, his voyages, 187
Hève, La, in Acadia, 98
Hey, Chief Justice, 278
Highways Act, 470
Historians of Canada. _See_ Bibliographical note at beginning
of volume
Hochelaga (Montreal), Indian village of, 37-41; inhabitants of, 112
Holbourne, Admiral, 240
Hospitals in Canada, 130
Hôtel Dieu of Montreal, 134
Hôtel Dieu of Quebec, 130
House of Commons of Canada, 428
Howe, Joseph, Canadian statesman and father of responsible
government, 362, 364; portrait of, 363; action of, with respect
to union, 412, 413
Howe, Lord, death of, 245
Hudson's Bay, English trading posts at, attacked by French, 195,
203, 205; Company of, 381-388; Railway, 418
Hughes, Sir Sam, 465
Huron Indians, 115; habits of, 116; habitations of, 82, 116;
conquered by Iroquois, 141-143; dispersion of, 143-145

Iberville, Chevalier d', 198, 203, 207, 208; portrait of, 209
_Ile Royale_. _See_ Cape Breton
Imperial Conference, 463, 474
Imperial Munitions Board, 467
Indians of Canada, tribal divisions of, 114, 115; customs of,
115-117, 123-128; English policy towards, 275; present population
and development of, 402, 403
Intercolonial Railway, 417
International Commission, 431
Iroquois, or Five Nations, 111, 114; tribal divisions and
habitations of, 118, 119; habits and institutions of, 118-123;
plan of long-houses of, 119; Canadian raids of, 137, 138, 146,
150; attacks of, on Hurons, 141-143; attacks on Western Indians,
195; French expeditions against, 74, 153, 154, 196, 203; joined
by Tuscaroras and become Six Nations, 121

Japanese Government, 479
Jesuits in Acadia, 61; in Canada, 85, 86, 89; first Canadian
martyr, 139; their heroism, 139-143; _Relations_, 113, 114, 127
Jette, Sir Louis, 430
Jogues, Isaac, first Jesuit martyr, 139
Johnson, Sir W., 227; defeats French at Lake George, 231
Johnston, J. W., Canadian statesman, 362
Jolliet, Louis, discovers Mississippi, 179, 180
Jonquière, Marquis de la, Canadian governor, 218
Journalism, 426
Judiciary of Canada, 428

King, Hon. W. L. Mackenzie, 467, 468, 475
King's College in Nova Scotia, 360
Kingsford, William, Canadian author. _See_ Bibliographical Note
at the beginning of this volume
Kirk, Admiral, captures Quebec, 88
Klondyke rush, 463

Labour organizations, 481
La Chine, origin of name, 184; massacre at, 196
Lacolle Mill, American defeat at, 331
Lafontaine, Sir L. H., Canadian statesman, 364; portrait of, 369
La Hontan, 195
Lalemant, Charles, Jesuit superior, 86
Lalemant, Gabriel, Jesuit missionary, his heroic death, 142
La Mothe-Cadillac, founder of Detroit, 207
La Tour, Charles de, in Acadia, 93-109
La Tour, Claude de, in Acadia, 93-97
La Tour, Madame de, her heroism, 102-104
Laurentides, 6; their antiquity, _ib._ _See_ View of Cape
Trinity, 9
Laurier, Wilfrid, Canadian premier, 414, 429, 432, 433, 439, 454,
460, 463, 467, 472
Laval, Mgr., first Canadian bishop, 157; character of, 158-160;
portrait of, 159
Lawrence, Fort, 228
Lawrence, Governor, his part in expulsion of Acadians, 235
Law, systems of, in Canada, 428
Le Borgne, in Acadia, 106
Le Caron, Father, first western missionary, 82
Legislative Council, made elective in Canada, 367
Legislatures, Provincial, constitution of (in 1774), 278; (1792),
302-304; (1840), 357; (1867), 426
Leif Ericson, Norse voyager in America, 19, 20
Le Loutre, French priest in Acadia, 229, 230
Lemieux, Hon. Rodolphe, 479
L'Escarbot, in Acadia, 55, 56
Le Moyne, Simon, Jesuit missionary, 147
Lévis, Chevalier de, 248; Canadian town named after, 2; at battle
of St. Foy, 262
Liberal Convention, 468
Liotot, murderer of La Salle, 190
Liquors, sale of, 160
Livius, Chief Justice, 304
Loans, domestic, 469
Local government in French Canada, 164; in English Canada. _See_
Municipal Institutions
Lodge, Mr. Henry C., 430
Long Sault, heroic incident at, 150
Lorette, Hurons of, 144
_L'Ordre de bon temps_, at Port Royal, 57
Loudoun, Earl, 237
Louisbourg, 211; taken by New England expedition, 215-217; by
Amherst and Boscawen, 242, 243; destroyed, 243; present aspect
of, _ib._; view of, in 1731, 210
Louisiana, 208, 224, 225, 436
Louis XIV., his interest in Canada, 152, 156
Lount, Samuel, Canadian Reformer, 353, 355
Loyalists, United Empire, 297; their trials, 292, 293, 294;
famous names among, 295; their influence on Canada, 292, 296
Lundy's Lane, battle of, 331; monument at, 333, 337

Macdonald, Alexander, 463
Macdonald, Sir John Alexander, Canadian statesman and premier,
political, career of, 372, 394, 398, 408-413; one of founders
of Confederation 372; autograph and portrait of, 405; his
tenure, as premier, 408; character of, 408, 410; monuments
to, 413
Macdonnell, Bishop, 310
Mackenzie, Alexander, Canadian premier, 408
Mackenzie River, 383
Mackenzie, W. Lyon, Canadian Reformer, 348; career of, 348-351,
343-355, 368; autograph and portrait of, 349
Mackinac or Michillimackinac, 174, 175, 187, 203, 207, 223, 272
(Pontiac's War); 322, 332 (War of 1812)
McDonell, Colonel, attorney-general, killed at Queenston, 322
McDonnell, Colonel, captures Ogdensburgh, 324; at Chateauguay, 328
McDougall, William, Canadian statesman, 373; in the Northwest,
387-390
McLeod affair with the United States, 374, 375
McNab, Colonel (Sir Allan), 353, 354
Macrae, Colonel, 466
Magdalen Islands, 32
Maisonneuve, Sieur de, founder of _Ville-Marie_ (Montreal),
133-136; portrait of, 135
Mance, Jeanne, 134-136
Manitoba, province of, 391, 392. _See_ Winnipeg
Manufactures in Canada, 419-421
Markland, Norse discovery, 20
Marquette, Father, 178; discovers Mississippi, 179, 180; his
death, 182, 183
Marquis wheat, 463
Masères, Attorney-General, 278
Mason and Slidell difficulty, 377
Massé, Father, Jesuit missionary, in Acadia, 61; in Canada, 80
Matagorda Bay, La Salle at, 190
Matthews, Peter, Canadian Reformer, 355
Meighen, Hon. Arthur, 470, 474
Membertou, Micmac chief, 58, 59, 60, 62
Membré, Father, French missionary, 187, 188
Merchant Marine, 467
Metcalfe, Lord, Canadian Governor, 362
_Mêtis_ or half-breeds of Canada, 11, 386; rebellions of (1869),
386-391; (1885), 393-400. _See_ Riel
Micmacs (Souriquois), 114, 115
Middleton, General, commands Canadian forces in second Red River
Rebellion (1885), 396
Military Service, 468
Mining an important industry, 423
Mississippi, discovery of, 179, 180, 181, 188; France in valley
of, 224, 225, 434
Mohawks, division of Iroquois Confederation, 118; settle in
Canada, 300, 402. _See_ Iroquois
Monckton, General, 230; at siege of Quebec, 250, 257
Money in French Canada, 161, 162
Monongahela, battle of. _See_ Braddock
Montagnais Indians, 115
Montcalm, Marquis de, 238; victories of, 237, 238; defeat of,
by Wolfe, 256; death of, 257; character of, 260; monument
to, 259, 261
Montgomery, General, in Canada, 284; death of, 285
Montgomery's Tavern, near Toronto, Canadian rebels defeated
at (1836), 353
Montmagny, Charles Hault de, Canadian governor, 129, 133;
called "Onontio," 153
Montreal, city of, founded as _Ville-Marie_, 134-136; view of,
in 1760, 265
Monts, Sieur de, in Acadia, 50-59, 68-75
Morgan, Lewis H., on the Iroquois, 119
Morrison, Colonel, defeats Americans at Chrystler's Farm, 328
Mounted Police of the Northwest, 401
Municipal Institutions in Canada, 367, 368, 426
Murray, General, at siege of Quebec, 250; defeated by Lévis, 262;
Canadian governor, 275-277; character of, 276

National Policy Tariff, 414
Naval Treaty, 480
Necessity, Fort, 224
Neilson, John, Canadian journalist, 338, 339
Nelson, Wolfred, Canadian reformer, 330, 352, 356, 357, 368
Neutral Nation (Attiwandaronks), 117
Newark (Niagara), 306; burned by American troops, 330
New Brunswick, province of, 5, 6; separated from Nova Scotia,
302; enters Confederation, 373, 374, 412
Newspapers, 426
Niagara, falls of, 186
Niagara, Fort, 231, 247, 253, 426
Nicolet, Jean, 168, 169
Nipissing Lake, 81, 82; Indians of, _ib._, 115
Non-intervention, 460
Norse voyages to America, 19, 20
Northwest Company, 382-385
Northwest of Canada, 10, 11; history of, 381-401; resources and
progress of, 11, 392; mounted police of, 401, 481; Indians of,
rebellions in, 387-402; monuments to victims of, 400; government
of, 428
Northwest Passage, 465
Norumbega, 28, 54; memorials of, _ib._
Nova Scotia, 5, 6; named, 96; first assembly of, 302; enters
Confederation, 373, 374, 413

Ocean steamships. _See Royal William_
Ohio, valley of the, contest for, 223, 229, 230, 242; Indian raids
in (Pontiac's War), 273
Oil discoveries, 476
Oneidas, division of Iroquois Confederation, 118. _See_ Iroquois
Onondagas, division of Iroquois Confederation, 118. _See_ Iroquois
Onontio. _See_ Montmagny
Ontario, province of, 10; name of, _ib._, 374; first known as
Upper or Western Canada, 303; enters Confederation, 374;
Hydro-Electric Commission, 476; Agricultural College, 482
Oregon boundary question, 375
Orleans, Island of, 36
Oswego (Choueguën), Fort, 222, 227
Ottawa River, 78
Otter, Colonel, 397
Ouigoudi (St. John's River, N.B.), 53

Papineau, Louis J., Canadian Reformer, 339; career of, 339, 351,
352, 357, 368; portrait of, 341
Paris, Treaty of, 264, 265
Parlby, Irene, 479
Parliament, House at Quebec, in 1792, 305; at Newark, 306, 307;
burned at Montreal in 1849, 370; view of, at Ottawa, 427;
constitution of Canadian, 428; at Ottawa burned, 468;
rebuilt, 472
Peary, Admiral, 464
Peltrie, Madame de la, 131, 132
Pemaquid, Fort, 213
Pension Bill, 470
Pepperrell, General, 215, 216
Perrot, Nicholas, 176, 177
Phipps, Admiral, attacks Quebec, 199-201
Pitt (Chatham), 240, 241
Poets of French Canada, 450
Pontgravé, 43, 49
Pontiac, Ottawa chief, 270, 271; his war against English, 271-274;
death of, 274
Population of Canada; (in 1757), 225; (1792), 303; (1812), 320;
(1838), 358; (1861), 366; French population, 358, 425
Port Arthur, 478
Port Royal, founded, 52, 54; destroyed by Argall, 64; restored, 99;
taken by Nicholson, 206; called Annapolis Royal, _ib._; its
present aspect, 52
Postage reform, 432
Pouchot, 247
Poundmaker, Indian chief, 395, 398
Poutrincourt, Baron de, founds Port Royal, 54; career of, in
America, 53-61; death of, 66
Prescott Gate, 305, 307
Presqu'isle (Erie), 223, 247
Prevost, General, Canadian governor, military incapacity of,
325, 332
Prince of Wales, 472
Prince Edward Island (St. Jean), 5, 243, 244; separated from Nova
Scotia, 302; enters Confederation, 403. _See_ Charlottetown
Privy Council. _See_ Judicial Committee
Proclamation of 1763, 274, 275
Procter, General, 324, 327
Progressive Party, 474
Prohibition, 458, 473
Protective policy, 458

Quebec Act of 1774, 276-279
Quebec Bridge, 470
Quebec, city of, 1-3; named, 70; founded, 70; taken by Kirk, 88;
besieged by Phipps, 199-201; by Wolfe, 248-257; plan of siege
of 1759, 251; surrender of, 258; besieged by Lévis, 262; by
Arnold and Montgomery, 284-286; view of, in 1760, 270; in 1896,
434. _See_ Château St. Louis
Quebec Conference of 1864, Confederation proposed, 372
Quebec, province of, 8, 9; enters Confederation, 374
Queylus, Abbé, 157, 158

Radisson, Sieur, 17
Railways in Canada, 366, 367
Rale, Sebastian, missionary in Acadia, 212
Ramesay, M. de, in Acadia, 219; surrenders Quebec, 258
Razilly, Isaac de, in Acadia, 97-99
Rebellion Losses, Riots of 1849, 369, 370
Rebellions in Canada; of 1837-38, in Lower Canada, 338-343, 351,
353-357; in Upper Canada, 344-351, 353-355; in the Northwest
(1869), 387-392; (1885), 393-400
Reciprocity Treaty, 376
Recollets or Franciscans, 80, 81, 89
Red River settlement (Assiniboia), 384-387; insurrection at
(1869-70), 387-392. _See_ Riel
Republican ideas, 462
Responsible Government in Canada, 361-365; in Nova Scotia, 362-364;
in New Brunswick, 364; in P. E. Island, _ib._; in British
Columbia, 405; famous advocates of, 364, 365
Revenue and Expenditure of Canada, 425
Revolution, American. _See_ American Revolution
Richardson, Major, Canadian author, 271
Richelieu, Cardinal, 86
Richelieu River, 72, 73
Riel, Louis, rebels against Canada in 1869-70, 388; in 1885,
393-400; execution of, 379
Roberval, Jean François de la Roque, 45, 46
Robinson, Chief Justice, 344
Robinson, Christopher, 298
Roche, Marquis de la, 47
Rogers, Major Robert, 269
Rolph, Dr. John, Canadian Reformer, 353
Roman Catholics of Canada, freed from civil disabilities, 278
Root, Mr. Elihu, 430
Royal Mint, 468
_Royal William_, first steamship to cross Atlantic, 358
Rupert's Land, 381; history of, under fur traders, 381-386;
part of Dominion, 387. _See_ Northwest of Canada
Ryerson, Egerton, 350, 368
Ryswick, Treaty of, 204

St. Alban's Bank, raid on, 377
Saint-Castin, Baron de, in Acadia, 171, 172
St. Croix, Island of, in Acadia, 53, 54
St. Croix River, 36
St. Foy, Battle of, 262
St. Ignace, mission of, attacked by Iroquois, 142
St. John River, 53; La Tour's fort on, 99, 103
St. Joseph, mission of, attacked by Iroquois, 142
St. Lawrence River, discovery of, 34, 35; valley of, 8;
mountains of, _ib._
St. Lawrence, deepening of canals, 418, 419
St. Louis, Château. _See_ Château St. Louis
Saint-Lusson, Sieur, in the West, 177
St. Pierre and Miquelon, Isles of, 266
St. Sacrément, Lac du (Lake George), 137
Ste. Anne de Beaupré, Canadian Lourdes, 439, 440; view of church
at, 441
Ste. Marie, Jesuit mission, 141, 143, 145
Saguenay River, 35
Salaberry, Colonel de, at Chateaugay, 328; portrait of, 329
Salle, Sieur de la, in the West, 183-188; on the Mississippi, 188,
189; assassination of, 190; autograph and portrait of, 185
"Sam Slick." _See_ Haliburton
San Juan difficulty, 375
Saskatchewan River, Riel's rebellion in district of, 393-400;
monument on, 400
Sault-au-Matelot, 286
Sault Ste. Marie, 177, 223
Saunders, Dr. Chas. E., 463
Schools. _See_ Education
Schultz, Dr., at Red River, 390
Scott, Thomas, murdered by Riel, 390, 391
Secord, Laura, her courage, 326
Seigniorial Tenure, 87, 165; abolition of, 367
Selkirk, Lord, on the Red River, 384; death of, 385
Selkirk Range, 16, 17
Senate of Canada, 428
Senecas, division of the Iroquois Confederation, 118. _See_
Iroquois
Shipbuilding, 421
Shirley, General, 231
Sillery, 133
Simcoe, General, lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, 306, 309-311;
portrait of, 311
Six Nations. _See_ Iroquois
Smith, Sir Donald, at Red River, 390
Smith, Mary E., 479
Souriquois. _See_ Micmacs
South African War, 432-433
Stadacona (Quebec), 36
"Starved Rock" on the Illinois, 189
Stoney Creek, battle of, 325
Strachan, Bishop, 342, 347; portrait of, _ib._
Strathcona, Lord, 465
Strange, Colonel, 397
Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, 464
Sulpicians in Canada, 133, 136, 157, 158
Sulte, Benjamin, French Canadian author, 448
Sydenham, Lord. _See_ Thomson, Poulett

Taché, Archbishop, 390, 391
Talbot, Thomas, 310
Talon, J. Baptiste, Canadian Intendant, 157, 168
Tariff, revision of, 415; war with Germany, 415; British
preference, 415, 416; commercial treaty with France, 416
Tecumseh, Indian Chief, 322, 327
Temple, Sir Thomas, in Acadia, 108
Thayendanegea. _See_ Brant, Joseph
Thompson, Sir John, Canadian premier, 324, 415, 458
Thomson, Poulett (Lord Sydenham), Canadian governor, 361, 362
Ticonderoga (Carillon), Fort, 222, 248, 434
Tilley, Sir Leonard, Canadian statesman a founder of
confederation, 412
Titles, 462
Tobacco Nation (Tionotates), 117, 144
Touty, Henry de (of the copper hand), 186, 188, 208
Toronto (Fort Rouillé), 222, 247; first known as York, 309;
University of, 347
Tracy, Marquis de, Canadian viceroy, 152, 155
Trapper, Canadian, 173
Trinity, Cape, 9
Trinity College at Toronto, founded, 347
Tupper, Sir Charles, Canadian statesman, 298, 368; a founder of
confederation, 373, 412, 415, 464, 465
Turner, Mr. George, 430
Tuscaroras. _See_ Iroquois.

Union Act of 1840, 361-368
United Farmers' Organization, 474
United States, population of, in 1812, 316; relations of Canada
with, from 1840 to 1867, 379; present relations, 429
Universities, 347
Upper Canada. _See_ Ontario.
_Upper Canada Gazette_, first Upper Canadian newspaper, 315
Ursulines, convent of, 131
Utrecht, Treaty of, 208

Varennes, 202
Vaudreuil, Marquis de, Canadian governor, 229; at siege of Quebec,
248, 252, 256; capitulates at Montreal, 264; death of, 268
Verchères, Magdeleine de, her heroism, 202
Vérendryes, the, in the West, 381; reach Rockies, 382; on the
Red and Assiniboine Rivers, 384
Verrazano, Giovanni da, 26, 27
Versailles, Peace of, 461, 464
Victoria Bridge, 367
_Victories, Notre-Dame des_, at Quebec, 2, 201, 207
Vignau, Nicholas, deceives Champlain, 77, 98
_Ville-Marie_. _See_ Montreal
Vinland, Norse discovery, 20
Von Egmond, Colonel, during rebellion of 1836, 353, 354

Walker, Admiral Hovenden, 207
War of 1812-15, causes of, 316, 320; patriotism of Canadians
during, 320-322; capitulation of Hull, 322; Battle of Queenston
Heights, _ib._; Procter's victory over Winchester, 324; taking
of York (Toronto), _ib._; American successes on Niagara frontier
in 1813, 325; Stoney Creek, _ib._; Mrs. Secord's exploit, 326;
Fitzgibbon's success at De Ceu's, 326; English defeat on Lake
Erie, 327; Procter's defeat at Moraviantown, _ib._; Chrystler's
farm, 328; Chateauguay, 328; American outrage at Niagara, 330;
English retaliate, 330, 335; Riall's defeat, 331; Lundy's Lane,
_ib._; Prevost's defeat on Lake Champlain, and retreat from
Plattsburg, 332; naval fights, 334; peace, 335; effect of, on
Canada, 335, 336; conspicuous Canadian actors during, 336, 337;
monuments of, 333, 336, 337
War Savings Certificates, 469
Washington, George, at Fort Necessity, 224
Washington, Treaty of, 1871, 324; Minister at, 473
Water-power, 476
Whelan, Edward, Canadian journalist, 406
Willcocks, Joseph, Canadian agitator, 314, 320
William Henry, Fort, 222, 238
Williams, Colonel, his gallantry at Batoche (1885) 397; death
of, _ib._; portrait of, 309
Wilmot, Lemuel A., Canadian statesman, 364; portrait of, 371
Winnipeg, 14, 315, 382, 392; riots, 470
Wolfe, General James, 242; at Louisbourg, 242; at Quebec, 250-256;
wins Canada for England, 256, 257; death of, 257; character of,
260; monuments to, 259, 261; portrait of, 249
Wolseley, Lord, leads British forces against Riel in 1870, 391
Women's Conference, 478
Women's Suffrage, 458, 479
Wyandots (Hurons), 144

York, Duke and Duchess of, 460
York. _See_ Toronto
Yukon, the, discovery of gold in, 430