Chapter V: Preface (5)

The distance between the lines at _a_ and _b_ must be equal to the width of the hinge, and the wood between these lines removed to a depth equal to half the thickness of the hinge at its joint when closed. If too much is removed, the box will be "hinge bound" and will not close in front. If too little is taken out, it will close in front and have an open joint at the back. In the former case, a thickness or two of paper placed under the hinge will often be enough to make it close in front. In the latter case, of course more material must be cut out. It is a delicate operation, as the depth of these cuts for 1-inch hinges is only about 1/16 inch. It is a question of accuracy, pure and simple.

Holes for the screws can be made with a brad awl.

The boys made several boxes of various sizes and styles, some plain, some decorated with carving. Pyrography, or burnt work, is frequently used for decoration, and the best wood for this purpose is basswood, because of its white color, softness, and freedom from pitch.

Other woods may be burnt, but pine, which has veins of pitchy sap, is not suitable.

A box for drawing instruments is shown in Fig. 150. Its outside dimensions are 9 × 5-1/4 × 2-1/2 inches. Our boys made theirs of gum wood because of the beauty of its colouring and its suitability for carving. The joints used and the method of construction were the same as in the handkerchief box, but it was provided with a tray for the instruments. This was one inch deep over all, and rested on two thin strips fastened to the ends inside. These strips were 4-1/4 × 1 × 1/4 inches, and, by raising the tray one inch from the bottom, left a space convenient for holding triangles, protractors, pencils, etc. The cover was decorated with a border and centre piece in chip carving.

The making of dovetailed boxes is taken up in Chapter XXXV.

XXVIII

BRACKETS AND BOOK RACKS

Brackets are often required about the house for many purposes, and their size, shape, and decoration are infinite. There is even more fun in designing them than in making them. Tastes differ in this respect, as in everything else, and, given the problem, no two people will bring out the same design unless they simply copy something they have seen, which is not designing.

When our boys started to make brackets in response to urgent demands from the family, Ralph blocked out the sketch shown in Fig. 151 at _a_.

"There is a bracket," he said; "it consists of three pieces, and properly put together it will hold what it is designed to hold. It is not a thing of beauty, and we must improve it. How? By changing its outline without impairing its strength. In other words, we must '_design_' a bracket constructed of three pieces of wood put together at right angles. There's your problem; now take paper and pencil and let us see what you can do."

"What size?" asked Harry.

"Oh, in this case, I'll leave it to your judgment."

For fully an hour, no sound was heard in the shop but that of two lead pencils. Harry was getting experience.

"Let me give you a pointer," said Ralph. "Don't try to draw both sides alike, as it is very difficult where you have free-hand lines. Draw a vertical line representing the centre. Sketch one half of the design, and when you have it about right, fold the paper on this centre line and trace the other half."

Harry went to work again and at the end of another hour produced the sketches shown in Fig. 151.

Ralph criticised them all rather severely, and as Harry was tired, this treatment made him sulky.

"Don't get mad," said Ralph kindly; "you know designing is hard work and the only way you can learn is to have me help you by pointing out your weak spots. Artists are obliged to pay for criticism; you know I'm not finding fault."

"All right," said Harry, brightening up, "which one shall I make?"

"I think the one marked _x_ is the best. Work it up more carefully, design the shelf and bracket and put on all the dimensions."

"The bracket? Why, what is this I have drawn?"

"That's the back piece that goes against the wall; the bracket piece supports the shelf, and remember when you make it in wood, the grain must always run the long way of each piece."

"Why?"

"I'll show you," said Ralph.

He cut out two pieces of wood about 8 × 1 × 1/2 inches, one with the grain running lengthwise and on the other the grain running the one-inch way. Handing the first piece to Harry, he said, "Let me see you break it with your hands."

The boy tried and failed. Handing him the second piece he said, "Now try this."

It broke so readily that Harry was astonished.

"That's why," said Ralph, "and that's all."

The three pieces as finally drawn are shown in Fig. 151 at _x_. They were all cut out of gum wood with a coping saw, finished to the lines with chisel, spokeshave and sand-paper block, and put together with 3/4-inch brads. The nails were driven through the back into the bracket, the latter piece being held in the vise in a horizontal position. It was then shifted to a vertical position with the back piece to the left of the vise and the shelf nailed to the bracket. Two brads were also driven through the back into the shelf.

Brackets may be ornamented in many ways; by chip carving, pyrography, or by staining, but the decoration should be put on before assembling.

Another form is shown at _b_ in which the back piece is not carried above the shelf, the latter piece resting on the top of the back. From a constructive standpoint this is a stronger form than the other, as part of the weight is carried by the back instead of by the brads alone.

Corner brackets are sometimes used and may be made in the form shown at _c_. Here we have two wall pieces and a V-shaped shelf, the V being a right angle. Again, the form may be so long as to require two brackets and it may then be considered a shelf.

In fastening any of these forms to a plastered wall, considerable care must be taken in placing the nails or screws so that they will engage in a stud instead of just in the plaster. The location of the studs can be found by tapping on the wall with the knuckle or lightly with a hammer. A surer way, however, is to find the nails in the picture moulding or base board and plumb from either of these places with a small weight--such as a nail--on a string.

The designing and making of book racks offer an almost endless field for the imagination. The rack may have a fixed length or be adjustable and either of these forms may have fixed or folding ends, and again the shapes of the ends may be varied in form and decorated in several ways.

Perhaps one of the simplest forms of folding book rack is shown in Fig. 152, at _a_. The ends are sawed out of the bottom piece, pivoted with two 1/4-inch dowels and when stood upright the lower part strikes against a cleat, which acts as a rest for the rack and a stop for the end piece.

The weakness of most book racks lies in the gradual weakening of the ends at the joint so that the weight of the books makes them lean outward. This should be considered carefully in working up the design. One of the weakest forms perhaps is shown at _b_. Theoretically, this is all right, but in practice the ends soon bend or lean out. A skeleton form, making use of the halved joint, is shown at _c_.

The two long sides and two short ends are squared up and halved as shown. All the ends are bevelled. Holes are bored for the pivots--1/4-inch dowels--a distance from the cross pieces equal to half the thickness of the folding ends. This is to insure the ends standing perfectly upright against cross pieces. If this distance is greater than half the thickness, the ends will lean out, and if less than half, the ends cannot be gotten in place. The bottom of the ends must be rounded, or they will not fold over.

The construction is very simple, and requires little material. Another very ordinary method is shown at _d_. It is as common and simple as it is weak and unsatisfactory. The ends are placed on the bottom piece and hinged. If a cheap and quick method is desired, it would be better to place the hinges as shown at _e_, because then the tendency to tilt out is prevented by the pressure against the bottom piece as long as the screws hold.

A far better method is to mortise the shelf through the end pieces and fasten it with a good, healthy pin or wedge, as shown at _f_; and a still better plan is to have two mortises and two wedges, as shown at _g_.

In constructive design, nothing is lost by honesty. The ends in this case are held in place by pins, so instead of hiding the fact, emphasize it by making these pins big and strong enough to do their work. The rack may be further strengthened by adding corner brackets at _h_.

Having decided on the construction, the form of the ends may be taken up. This is affected somewhat by the construction, but some of the outlines tried by our boys and suggestive to other boys are shown at 1, 2, 3.

They used two distinct kinds. One was characterized by straight lines. These they decorated with chip carving. The other style was distinguished by curved outlines, and decorated by outlines made with the veining tool, and by staining the figures in various colours.

The stains they used were oil colours thinned with turpentine so as to bring out the grain of the wood, rather than to hide it, as in painting, and care was taken to tone down these colours to dull reds, browns, greens, and grays. For staining and polishing, turn to Chapter XLIX.

XXIX

CONSTRUCTION

The study of construction includes many items such as strength, proportion, joints, etc. If we look at the roof timbers shown in outline at _a_ (Fig. 153), the interesting parts of the construction are the three spaces enclosed by circles. The straight lines between these circles do not interest us very much, but the parts enclosed do. Immediately the question arises, how are the timbers fastened at these places? In other words, what kind of joint is used? The joint then is the critical part, or we might say the cream of the construction.

A very large number of joints are in use, but many of them are rare. Our grandfathers, who built their houses and barns from oak timbers hewn out with the axe, commonly used the mortise and tenon, fastened with a generous hard wood pin, and many of them are still standing after a century or two of hard usage. The fact that the beams were rough hewn, instead of sawed, did not in any way affect their strength, because they made good, strong joints.

Some of the more common joints are shown in the accompanying illustrations, and may be used for reference.

No. 1. A butt joint in which the two pieces are fastened together, end to end, by means of glue and dowels. It should be used only in cases where there is little strain in the direction of the two pieces.

No. 2. A dowel joint joining two pieces at right angles. One form of it is shown at No. 3 applied to the leg of a table.

No. 4. Shows two pieces fastened edge to edge by dowels. This joint is often made without the dowels; the two strips, after jointing or fitting, being glued and rubbed together--sometimes called a rubbed joint.

No. 5. A butt joint fastened by nails, brads, or screws, common in box construction.

No. 6. A butt joint where the pieces are not at right angles, owing to the slant. This is called the hopper joint and it is fastened with nails or brads.

No. 7. End lap. A joint much used in house framing.

No. 8. Shows the lap joint used for splicing two pieces lengthwise. It needs to be nailed or bolted to prevent pulling apart.

No. 9. A middle lap joint.

No. 10. Dovetail lap or lap dovetail. This form resists pulling apart and is a combination of lap and dovetail joints.

No. 11. Shows a modification of the same, only one side being dovetailed.

No. 12. Halved joint. Both pieces are cut out to half their thickness, and a width equal to that of the other piece. The pieces may be at right angles or some other angle, as shown at No. 13.

No. 13. Halved joint at 45 degrees.

No. 14. Lock joint. This is a form of lap joint rarely used. It resists pulling apart, but should be glued on account of shrinkage.

No. 15. Notched joint; used where two pieces cross, and where full halving is not desirable, as in the sketch of pergola.

No. 16. Rabbeted or gained joint.

No. 17. Dado joint.

No. 18. Gained or housed joint.

No. 19. Through mortise and tenon, used in furniture construction and building.

Note--16, 17, 18 are often confused, and are named differently by mechanics. They are used in boxes, and cabinet work.

No. 20. Blind mortise and tenon, same as No. 19, except that the tenon does not go through and is invisible. These two joints may be fastened with glue, and are often strengthened by passing a dowel through at right angles to the tenon. Another method is to make two or more saw cuts in the tenon, and drive wedges into the cuts.

In door construction, where the rails meet the stiles, the tenon is often divided, as shown by the dotted line. The two parts fitted into separate mortises give the appearance of two distinct tenons on the edge of the door.

No. 21. Relished mortise and tenon or door joint, a form used at the corners of doors.

No. 22. End mortise and tenon. The tenon is seen on two sides. Used for frames of various kinds.

No. 23. The mitre joint, used in picture frames, picture moulding, interior finish of houses, etc.

No. 24. Lap mitre joint; a combination of end lap and mitre; rarely used.

No. 25. Stretcher joint; a combination of end lap, mitre, and end mortise and tenon; used by artists for frames on which their canvas is fastened. The stretching is done by driving wedges from the inside.

No. 26. Dovetail; used as a splice.

No. 27. Single open dovetail for two pieces at right angles. When two or more are cut in the same place, we have the open or box dovetail.

No. 28. Box dovetail; used in cabinet work and boxes.

No. 29. Half-blind dovetail. The dovetails are seen from only one side; used in cabinet work, especially in drawer construction.

No. 30. Blind dovetail. When the two pieces are together, the dovetails are invisible. This joint calls for very accurate work. It is used in special cases, where strength is required, and yet it is desirable to hide the form of construction.

No. 31. Trick dovetail; not used in construction, and only of interest as a curiosity. The four sides of this trick combination are apparently exactly alike. It seems impossible for them to have been put together, and to bring out the effect it is well to have one piece in light-coloured wood, the other dark. The method of laying out and cutting is shown in the illustration. The dovetails that appear on the surface are only oblique sections of dovetailed-shaped tongues and grooves running diagonally from face to face.

No. 32. Another trick. This at first sight appears like a lap dovetail, but the end view shows another dovetail, making it apparently impossible to put together. The construction is shown clearly in the drawing. It is of no value in constructive work.

No. 33. Splice or scarf joint; used in framing, occasionally; of little value to boys.

No. 34. Tongue and groove joint; used in flooring and for sheathing.

Scores of other joints might be shown, but they are seldom used, and are of no value to amateur mechanics.

XXX

THE USE OF THE GOUGE

"There is one tool you have not learned to use," said Ralph, one day, "and I think that it is about time you tried it."

"What tool is that?" asked Harry.

"The gouge ground or bevelled on the outside." (Fig. 155.)

"What is it used for?"

"For cutting concave curves, especially those below the surface. Suppose you practise on a piece of white wood."

A piece of white wood was squared up, a foot long and 1-1/2 inches square. The lines shown in the figure were laid out with the pencil. The marking gauge is not suitable for this work, as it makes a sharp cut in the surface just where the edge is to come, so that after the gouge work is finished, it would show this edge split by the gauge mark. (Fig. 156.)

The two grooves from end to end were first cut, removing a quarter circle, the curve being drawn on the ends by a pair of compasses or dividers. This gave excellent practice in freehand work, calling for good control over the hands, and a constant watching of the grain to prevent splitting.

The other two grooves or coves were next tried. Extra care had to be exercised here to prevent taking off the ends.

To give the boy further practice, the simple pen tray shown in Fig. 157 was sketched out, and the stock squared up.

The gouge work in this exercise was entirely beneath the surface, and to make the tool work true to the drawing, a depth gauge was made as shown at _a_. This was simply a straight piece of waste wood with a brad driven into it, carefully, until the head was the same distance above the surface as the depth of the groove called for in the drawing.

By inverting the gauge and running the brad head along the bottom of the groove, the depth could be gauged accurately. The wooden strip must rest on the surface at both sides of the groove, and the brad head just touches the bottom at the same time.

After the gouge work had been carried as far as possible, the groove was finished by sand-papering, first with No. 1-1/2 and then with No. 0 sand-paper.

In laying out bevelled edges on a piece of this character, the same objection to the marking gauge holds as for gouged grooves. Ralph showed the boy a simple method of making a gauge for pencil lines to overcome this difficulty. He cut out a piece of white pine shaped as shown at _b_. The distance from the shoulder to the point of the V was equal to the width of the desired bevel or chamfer. The stock must be held in the vise, as both hands are required in the drawing of the lines. To make the width of the bevel greater, simply cut the shoulder further back with a knife, and to reduce the size, cut the V further in toward the shoulder. This is a very convenient and inexpensive device, quickly made.

A more pretentious project was tried next (Fig. 158, _a_), which provides for a round ink bottle, and demands some nice chisel work. In the first pen tray the bevels had been all planed. On this second one, only three could be cut that way, as the one on the back had to be chiselled. The successive steps in the construction were as follows:

1. Square up stock.

2. Lay out the drawing on the wood.

3. Bore the hole for ink well half way through the wood with extension bit.

4. Smooth the bottom of the hole with chisel, holding it bevel down.

5. Gouge out the groove and gauge the depth.

6. Sand-paper the groove.

7. Cut out the outline of the back with the back saw and chisel.

8. Cut all the bevels, doing the back part--the most difficult--first.

9. Draw chip carving design.

10. Do the carving.

11. Rub down with wax dissolved in turpentine.

12. Insert ink well.

Design No. 3, shown at _b_ (Fig. 158), called for molded edges, places for two square ink wells, and a simple carved design in the flat space between them. The process in this case was as follows:

1. Square up.

2. Lay out the work from drawing.

3. Cut out squares 1/4 inch deep with socket chisel and mallet.

4. Gouge groove.

5. Make moulded edges by first gouging the quarter circle shown in detail drawing, and doing the long sides with the grain first. Next remove the rest of the wood outside the curved outline with smoothing plane on long sides, block plane on ends. Sand-paper the groove and moulded edges.

6. Lay out and execute carving.

7. Rub down with wax or raw linseed oil.

8. Insert ink wells.

In place of carving this inkstand, an inlaid design could have been used, and the whole piece highly polished, but our boy had not yet had any practice in inlaying or polishing, so he used sweet gum wood and a chip carving design. Later on he made others out of black walnut and mahogany, and gave them a high polish. See Chapter XXXV for inlaying and XLIX for polishing.

A very nice little problem in gouge work is shown in Fig. 159, a pen tray pure and simple, with no provision for ink wells.

The only new feature is the under cutting of the outside. The steps for this are:

1. Square up.

2. Lay out from a centre line, drawn completely around the block lengthwise, and draw with compasses and rule both top and bottom.

3. Gouge groove.

4. Plane the long sides to outline of top and bottom lines.

5. Cut ends with back saw and chisel to semicircles on top and bottom.

6. Round upper edge with spokeshave, chisel and knife.

7. Sand-paper with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper.

8. Polish or wax finish.

Perhaps the most severe test for gouge work is the pin tray shown at Fig. 160. This is something which could be made more cheaply and in less time from metal, but a skilful and careful boy can do it successfully in a hard wood, such as maple. The process is similar to the pen tray. The drawing is laid out on the squared stock, and the bowl cut out with the gouge.

The outside is best executed with a template, or better, two--one for the lengthwise section and one for the width. A template is a form cut out of thin wood or metal; in this case 1/8-inch wood should be used. By frequently holding these templates to the work, it may be quickly seen where the material is to be removed.

When the outside of the tray fits the templates, it is ready for sand-papering, and not before. To make the tray perfect, an inside template can be used. This template method is used in forming boat models.

XXXI

COAT HANGER AND TOWEL ROLLERS

The coat hanger is a convenient thing in every household, and also a good example of spokeshave work.

A soft wood, like pine, or white wood, is suitable, and after squaring up two faces and one edge, the design may be drawn on one or both of the faces with a sharp pencil. Cut close to the lines with a turning saw, and finish to lines with spokeshave.

The upper edge is next rounded with the spokeshave (Fig. 161), and finished with sand-paper to the cross section shown in the drawing. Bore a hole for the hook with a gimlet bit, and make the hook from strong brass wire, shaped by bending with a pair of pliers. For finishing, two coats of shellac can be used. The first coat after hardening is sand-papered flat with No. 00 sand-paper; the second may be treated in the same way, or rubbed down with ground pumice stone and linseed oil. (See polishing chapter.)

For the kitchen, the towel roller is still used to some extent, especially in the country and suburbs. It consists of four pieces, a back, two brackets, and the roller. These essential parts are shown in Fig. 162 and the back and brackets may be modified and improved as shown at _b_ and _c_.

Carving can be used in a simple form on the ends, as shown at _c_. The back and ends are cut out with the usual tools, but it is wise, in cutting the outline of the ends, to glue them together with a piece of paper between, cutting both at the same time. This insures their being exactly alike, and when finished they may be easily separated by inserting the blade of a knife between them. The paper will split, half coming off on each piece.

After the paper and glue have been planed off, a hole is bored half way through each end from the inside. On one end it is necessary to cut a groove of the same width and depth as the hole, clear up to the top, so that the roller can be inserted after assembling, and a towel be put over it. The ends are fastened with two flat-head screws each, by boring through the back, and countersinking.

Two holes should also be bored through the back for fastening it to the wall.

The roller may be turned on a lathe or made at the bench by the following method:

1. Square up the stock to the diameter of the roller called for in the drawing.

2. Find the exact centre of each end by drawing the diagonals with a pencil.

3. Draw a circle on each end from these centres of full diameter.

4. Bore a hole at each of these centres 3/8-inch diameter, and about an inch deep.

5. Plane off the four corners down to the circle to produce an octagonal form.

6. Plane off the eight corners, using as a stop a small piece of wood fastened in the vise. Hold the roller against this stop, and allow the stock to rest over the open space in the vise. Continue to plane off the edges as long as they are large enough to see or feel.

7. Sand-paper with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper.

8. Glue into the holes in the ends pieces of dowel long enough to project out about half an inch.

9. Allow the glue to harden over night, and saw off the dowels next day to the proper length. Cut a slight bevel on the end of each dowel with the knife.

If any carving is to be done on the ends, it must be cut before they are screwed to the back piece.

This method of producing a cylinder without a turning lathe can be used in a number of ways. For example, boys living in the city, where a pull-up bar has to be located in the house, can easily make one in this way, and fasten it between the door jambs at a convenient height.

The blocks for supporting it can be made, as shown in Fig. 163, three inches each way and 1/2 inch thick. Oak is the best wood for this purpose. It is strong enough, and can be stained to match the door frame.

Bore and countersink four holes for 1-1/4-inch flat-head screws.

To prevent the bar turning, after it has been planed round and about 1/8 inch shorter than the space between the jambs, lay out a one-inch square on each end. Cut out with a back saw, and chisel until it just fits the square opening in the blocks. This bar can be taken out and stored in a closet, when not in use, and the blocks will never be in the way.

If the bar is so loose in the blocks that it has a tendency to spring out when you jump for it, a flat piece of oak can be screwed across the top, as shown in the illustration.

This is an excellent, if limited, gymnasium for those who get little exercise and whose time and space are limited. Every boy ought to be able to "chin the bar" at least six or seven times without letting go.

Round objects with a taper, such as pointers and musicians' batons, can be made by this method, always getting the taper in the square form first, then planing off corners, etc. It is really work for a turning lathe, but one must work with such tools as he can afford to purchase.

Many useful articles of oval or elliptical cross section can be made at a bench which could not be made on an ordinary lathe. The hatchet handle shown in Fig. 164 is a good example. The wood used should be strong and tough, such as hickory or maple. After squaring up the stock to the over all dimensions, the outline is drawn on both flat faces, and sawed close to the lines with turning saw, finished with drawing knife and spokeshave. The oval or elliptical forms are then drawn on the ends, the corners rounded with spokeshave to these curves, and the whole finished with sand-paper.

The hammer handle (Fig. 165) is made in the same manner.

The woodworkers of Northern Europe make many household utensils in this way. The sugar scoop and the wooden ladle, shown in Figs. 166 and 166 _a_, are familiar examples. In these two cases, the bowl is work for the gouge, while in rounding, some of the surfaces are done with the file. On general principles, it is not wise to get into the habit of using a file on wood, except in rare cases where the material is very hard, such as maple, beech, and similar woods.

The towel rack shown in Fig. 167 is suitable for the bath or bed room, and can readily be made by any boy.

The back piece is made with plane and chisel. The straight bevels are cut with the smoothing plane, and the curves with the chisel. The two openings or mortises should be laid out and cut before the ends are rounded. The wood is removed by boring several small holes within the lines, and finishing to line with a chisel and mallet. The two supports, or brackets, involve nothing new, and after being finished are glued into mortises.

The towel sticks may be ten inches or more in length, squared up to 7/8 inch × 1/2 inch. The taper begins two inches from the bored end, and from this point is planed in a straight line to 3/8 inch square at the small end. The rounding is done in the same manner as in the towel roller, the tips rounded with a knife, and the whole piece sand-papered smooth.

The three sticks are held between the two supports and a 3/8-inch dowel passed through the five holes, which should of course be in line.

The ends of this dowel can be split before they are placed, and then in the final position small thin wedges can be driven in with a little glue.

XXXII

CLOCK CASES

Among small articles for household use the clock case is a popular model, and the designs range from the mission style, characterized by straight lines and plain surfaces, up to elaborate attempts at imitating in miniature the old-fashioned tall "grandfather's clock."

While an ordinary alarm clock may be used for the clock proper, the small size nickeled clock, 2-1/4 inches outside diameter, is more satisfactory and very reliable. It costs about seventy-five cents.

In designing the frame, or case, structural items must be considered first. The clock needs a platform to stand on, there must be a circular opening just large enough for the face to fit, and the structure requires an opening in the back, so that the clock may be wound or removed.

With these facts as a basis, the form can be sketched out.

Fig. 168 shows, perhaps, the simplest style, on the mission order. The design of the front becomes a matter of proportion, and the dimensions given are only suggestions which the young designer can modify to meet his own ideas, keeping in mind that on horizontal members, if there is any difference in size, the upper ones should be the smaller.

Simple as this design appears, if put together by mortise and tenon, with provision made for the panelled front and sides, it will call for fine work. As there is no great question of strength involved, the following method will do for making this case. It will be called heretical by expert woodworkers, but is practicable and easy from the boy's point of view.

Square up a piece of 1/4-inch stock 4 inches wide and 13 inches long. Saw out two pieces for the panels 2-1/2 inches long.

Clamp the front piece to a strip of scrap wood as a backing, and bore a hole for the clock face with an expansive bit. Fasten the front to the end pieces by 3/4-inch brads, as shown in _a_. In the same manner nail the top and bottom pieces to the front and ends, making a box of 1/4-inch wood, with the back open.

The legs, made 3/4 inch square with a 1/4-inch rabbet cut out as shown at _a_, may now be glued on and fastened with two 1-inch brads driven in from the ends. The horizontal rails are cut and fitted to the front and ends and glued in position.

If brads are used, they must be set, and the holes filled with putty, coloured to correspond with the wood used. If the legs of the clock are too short to rest on the bottom, add a shelf, or glue on a block of pine thick enough to bring the clock to the proper level.

If the case is made of hard wood, polish it to a dead flat finish. This design, however, gives a splendid opportunity to ornament ends and front with chip carving, for which gum wood will be suitable.

A clock case which can be easily upset is to be avoided, and therefore these long low designs are to be recommended, when the clock is to stand on a mantel, shelf, or bureau. If the clock is to hang on the wall the designs immediately change. The cuckoo clock is a familiar example.

Our boys wrestled with the problem of a wall clock, and their efforts to create something new brought forth considerable mental perspiration. It is always an easy matter to copy something one has seen, but that is not designing.

The result of Harry's efforts is shown in Fig. 169. After drawing the circles with a pair of compasses, the rest of the figure was sketched out free-hand about a centre line.

When it was fairly satisfactory, the two sides of the lower half were equalized and traced for the upper half. It was then measured, and the main dimensions added to the drawing.

This drawing represented only the front. The back, or wall piece, had to be a duplicate of it as far as outline was concerned, and a plain box of 1/4-inch wood, to hold the clock, joined these two parts, as in previous models.

This is the order of construction:

Saw out stock for front and back pieces 15 × 4-3/4 × 1/4 inches. Draw two centre lines, one the 4-inch way, the other the 15-inch way. At the point where they cross, bore the hole for the clock face, after drawing all the circles with the compasses.

Draw outline, or trace it from original drawing, upon the surface of the wood. Saw out close to outside lines, and finish to lines with spokeshave, chisel and sand-paper block.

Bevel the clock opening 1/8 inch with knife, and smooth with sand-paper. The curved lines inside of the outer edge are worked out with a veining tool.

The back piece is made in the same way, but the central opening is bored larger than the front one, to allow the clock to be withdrawn or wound. The square box, joined to these two main pieces by means of cleats, completes the structure. On account of the long overhang of the front beyond the box, two cylindrical supports of the same material as the case can be glued between front and back, to add strength.

Owing to the symmetry of the design, this case can be hung horizontally or vertically according to the wall space it is to occupy. The method of fastening should be a screw eye at the top of the case and screw hook or nail in the wall, as it will be necessary to remove the clock each time it is wound. If placed horizontally two hooks and eyes will be needed, one at each end. Fig. 170 shows another wall design in which the clock forms the centre of the pendulum and rests in a box of hexagon shape. This is made from a strip two inches wide, the pieces cut on a 60-degree mitre box with back saw, each piece 1-1/4 inches long on the short side.

It will just hold a clock 2-1/8 inches in its largest diameter. When the face of this clock frame is bored, and the outline finished in the usual way, it is fastened to the hexagonal box by cleats.

In order to do this accurately, turn the face upside down on the bench, place the box in position, and mark with a pencil all around the hexagon. The cleats must be fastened on the back, close up to the pencil line, with glue and brads, so carefully that the brads shall not be long enough to come through to the surface in front. When dry, insert the box between the cleats, and make fast with glue and brads. The long part of the pendulum can be either carved or polished plain. The 3/8-inch hole bored in the upper part fits over a screw hook, which should project at least an inch from the wall. To have the clock hang perfectly plumb, this hook should project 2-3/8 inches.

Another form of mantel clock is suggested in Fig. 171. It is radically different from the others, and is characterized by a long, low, and massive base cut from a solid piece of wood 1-3/4 inches thick or built up of two 7/8-inch pieces of red gum, black walnut, or mahogany. The outline having been drawn on the planed surface, one must saw as close to the line as possible, and finish the line with chisel, gouge, file, and sand-paper. The circular piece, which is to enclose the clock, is cut from a block of the same material, two inches thick. Draw the two circles, and bore the inner one with an extension bit, unless a turning lathe is available. In that case the circular block can be turned with great accuracy. The outline can be cut with the chisel after being sawed close to the line, and finished in the same way as the base.

Glue this block in position, resting it in the semicircular opening provided in the base, and making it project 1/8 or 1/4 of an inch beyond the front surface of the base. Polish to a dead, flat finish.

As the clock is to fit snugly into the opening, the legs, and the handle at the top, must be removed.

THE GRANDFATHERS' CLOCK

One of the most interesting problems in clock case designing is a miniature of the tall clock of colonial times, commonly known as the grandfathers' clock. It is a simple and satisfactory form, but it is very important to have good proportions.

The dimensions used by our boys are given in the drawing. (Fig. 172). As in all the other designs, it is based or built up around the ordinary nickel-plated clock, whose outside diameter is 2-1/4 inches. With a circle of this diameter as a starter, the other sizes work out as given in the drawing.

About the only fault likely to be found with this form is top heaviness, as the clock is some fifteen inches above its base. This can be counteracted by boring a hole in the back, two or three inches above the bottom, and pouring in about a pound of shot or other heavy material.

The method of construction is as follows:

All the material is 1/4 inch thick, except the base and mouldings, which require 1/2-inch wood. Red gum is very satisfactory, but more expensive woods, such as mahogany, can be used, especially if the front panel, which in full-sized clocks is a door, is to be inlaid.

If gum wood is used, this panel can be decorated with chip carving or simply outlined with a veining tool. If an especially elaborate result is desired, it can be accomplished by a raised panel with moulded edges made of 1/4-inch wood, fastened to the front with glue and small brads.

Bill of material:

Base 8-1/2 × 4 × 1/2 Moulding 18 × 3/8 × 3/8
Box 2 sides 17-1/2 × 1-3/4 × 1/4 Face 4-3/4 × 4 × 1/4
1 front 14-1/2 × 3 × 1/4 Sides of top, 2 pcs.
1 back 14-1/2 × 2-1/2 × 1/4 3-1/2 × 2-1/4 × 1/4
Partitions 2--2-1/2 × 2-1/4 × 1/4
1--2-1/2 × 1-1/2 × 1/4

After getting out the material construct the long box which makes the body of the design. This will be 17-1/2 inches long, 3 inches wide by 2 inches deep, and the method of putting together is shown at _a_. This allows only one joint to show on each side, and the back piece may be of cheap material, such as white wood.

The smallest partition, 2-1/2 × 1-1/2 × 1/4, of white wood, is inserted in the bottom, pushed up 1/8 inch, and fastened with 3/4-inch brads from the outside. This size of brad will not split 1/4-inch gum wood, unless driven in nearer the edge than 1/8 inch.

One of the remaining partitions is placed in the upper end, as in a box, one edge flush with the back. The entire back of the case must be in a straight line. The end just inserted will project out in front a quarter of an inch. Place the remaining partition 3-1/8 inches down from the extreme top of the box. This will bring it to rest against the front, which is only 14-1/2 inches high.

The compartment for holding the clock is now complete, open front and back.

The base may next be prepared, taking care to have the grain running up and down. The front piece of the base is 4 × 4 × 1/2 inches. Side pieces of base are 4 × 2 × 1/2. These three pieces are to be put together with a butt joint, as shown in the bottom view, and fastened with one-inch brads and a little glue. Four 3/4-inch brads can be used on each of the three sides to hold the base to the box. It is very important that the bottom be perfectly square. It should be tested and, if necessary, squared with a block plane.

The cove moulding for upper and lower parts may now be prepared. Square up one piece of stock 18 inches or 20 × 3/8 inches square. Draw a quarter circle with a radius of 5/16-inch on each end, and remove the wood in this space with a gouge. Finish with sand-paper. This moulding is fitted around the three sides at top of base with a back saw and mitre box. Put it in place with 3/4-inch brads and glue, and carefully remove any trace of glue that may appear, before it hardens.

The moulding for the upper part cannot be placed until the top is finished.

After squaring up the face, draw the outline directly on the wood. The curves at the top should be first laid out carefully on stiff paper, cut out with scissors, and traced on the wood.

The opening for the clock, 2-1/4 inches diameter, must be bored first. Either a sharp centre bit or an extension bit should be used. If the latter, an 1/8-inch hole must be bored at the centre, otherwise the tapering spur of the extension bit will surely split the thin wood. This is the most delicate operation in the whole process, and the circular opening will need smoothing with a sand-paper block.

Having succeeded in getting a satisfactory opening, the outline is sawed close to the lines with a coping saw and finished with sand-paper.

The supplementary pieces _s s_, 3-1/2 × 2-1/4 × 1/4 inches, are next fastened to the sides at the top. They are flush with the top of the box and with the bottom of the face piece just described. It is to these that the front is mainly fastened. Test the bottom edges of these pieces across both the front and back with a try square. Fasten the front to these and to the top of the box with brads, and add the moulding, as shown in drawing. If the front panel is to be carved, that should be done before either the base or the top is put on; and if it is to be inlaid, the front should be increased in thickness to 3/8 inches, reducing the sides to 1-5/8 inches in place of 1-3/4 inches.

After the assembling is finished, set all the brads, and fill the holes with putty, coloured to match the wood. Either an oil or wax finish can be used, but a high polish is not advisable. All lines on the front, which are not edges, can be cut with a veining tool.

Several modifications of this method can be adopted. The front panel may be made a real door, put on with small ornamental hinges. This will increase the work, make it more realistic, but result in little real gain.

The door in large clocks was necessary for getting at the weights and pendulum, but as these parts are missing in our model, the door is not necessary, except possibly for hiding things from burglars. It is the last spot they would be likely to think of as a hiding place for treasures.

As in previous designs, the ring at the top of the clock can be removed, if it prevents fitting into the opening provided.

The drawing shows a curve in the front of the base. It is not essential, but may be cut at any convenient stage of the construction with the coping saw, and sand-papered.

By comparing this design with some real old six-foot clocks, the young designer will see that we have taken some liberties for the purpose of simplifying the work. Highly ornamental tops were sometimes used, with metal and carved ornaments. It is never difficult to make elaborate designs, and the young woodworker can go as far as he likes in that direction. It is, however, sometimes difficult to simplify designs, and this we believe is at present highly desirable.

XXXIII

FOOTSTOOLS

The making of household furniture is a fascinating employment, and as there are varying styles and fashions in nearly all things which pertain to our homes, it will always be an interesting study. The savage knows nothing of furniture, for the ground is his chair, bed, and table. As we go up in the scale of civilization, we find the characteristics of a people reflected in the details of their home life.

In Japan, the house and its equipment are characterized by directness, simplicity, and subtle beauty.

In America, we find a bewildering display of ever-changing devices, styles, forms, and schemes of decoration, in keeping with our rapidly changing and, we believe, rapidly improving taste in the intimate things of life.

This condition is reflected in our furniture as much as in our clothes and in the pictures we buy. The black walnut furniture, with its hard horsehair upholstering, has been followed by antique oak, fumed oak, golden oak, forest green oak, mahogany, bird's-eye maple, French walnut, etc., and in a very few years we shall probably be using some of the beautiful but almost unknown woods of the Philippines, because fashions in woods are very materially affected by the lumber supply.

Gilt chairs--not made to sit on--have been followed by the more sensible mission style, bringing a much needed simplicity, directness, and strength, together with an unfortunate addition of weight for the housewife to move around when cleaning. There seems to be no great gain without some loss. Modern office furniture, with its simple and strong chairs, tables, and desks, can hardly be improved upon, and it is almost a pity that some of these excellencies cannot be introduced into the home, which is often overloaded, overdecorated, and encumbered with unnecessary articles.

Miss Louise Brigham gives us a fragrant breath of fresh air along this line in her interesting book on furniture made from boxes. What is needed is clear thinking. Never design nor make a piece of furniture without asking, "What is this to be used for? What will be required of it?" etc.

This is the gist of what Ralph said to Harry one day when they were about to launch out into the making of footstools, tabourettes and other small pieces of furniture. Harry would have liked very much to start with a dining-room table, but Ralph suggested diplomatically that it might be a good scheme to try several smaller pieces first.

They decided on a footstool, and this is the catechism Ralph put Harry through as they worked out their drawing:

"What is a footstool for?"

"To rest your feet on."

"Is that all?"

"What else could it be used for?"

"Never answer a question by asking another! I should say that a footstool might have to stand hard usage. For instance, suppose you wanted to reach a shelf high up in a closet. If the stool was handy, you would probably stand on it. Others would do the same, and it is easily possible that somebody weighing over two hundred pounds might some day stand on it. So I should say, that the first requisite of a footstool was strength, and the second that it should not be easily upset.

"When designing furniture, just ask yourself such questions, and you will find that your designs will be affected by them. Now I believe that most footstools are too high and too easily upset."

The first design tried is shown in Fig. 173. The material used was 1/2-inch chestnut. After squaring up the top, the two grooves were cut to receive the upper ends of the legs. For grooves of this character, after cutting the lines as deep as possible with the knife, followed by the chisel, the router may be used. The cutter can be adjusted by means of the set screw, and a more uniform depth secured than with the chisel.

There was considerable work on the legs because of the mortise for the shelf, and the two openings above. These were cut out close to the line with the turning saw after a hole had been bored in each space, as in scroll saw work.

The outline of the legs was obtained with the same tool, and finished with the gouge, spokeshave, and sand-paper. Where hard wood, such as oak, is used, the wood file may be applied to curved edges.

To overcome the tendency to spread, the legs were made rigid by cutting the tenons shown on the drawing of the shelf. In each tenon was cut the square hole for the wedges. This shelf, when securely wedged, bound the whole structure rigidly. When the question of securing the legs to the top came up, the boys were inclined to use round-head blue screws from the top, but after considering that they would be in end grain, it looked as if this would be the weakest part of the stool. The solution was an heroic one. Four angle irons were made out of strap iron taken from a packing case, and cut with a cold chisel into pieces 2-1/2 inches long. Each had two holes drilled in it to receive the screws, and was then bent into shape in an iron vise. A monkey wrench can be used as a vise for work as light as this. The screws used were 3/8 inch long, one fastened in the top, the other in the leg, for each of the four angle irons.

Chestnut has a very open grain, and takes a stain very well. Our boys bought a small can of paste filler, coloured it with burnt umber, thinned it with turpentine to the consistency of cream, and put it on with a brush. The surfaces were rubbed down with cotton waste, and then it was left over night, to be ready for polishing in the morning.