Chapter VII: Preface (7)

No. 4. Find the location of wall studs by dropping a line with weight on it (plumb) from the nails on picture moulding, or by bringing the weight in front of nails on base board. Make fine pencil marks on the wall where the studs have been located. Find the horizontal distance between the marks and at this distance drill holes in back of book rack and secure to the studs by screws. This brings all the strain on the back strips. If the rack has no back, square up two hard wood strips about 3/4 inch square and as long as the shelves. Drill screw holes in these strips and fasten to studs. Drill vertical holes at the back of each shelf 3/8 inch in from edge, fit the shelves over cleats and screw down into them from upper side of shelves.

The cleats should be finished in the same colour as the book rack. This method makes a very solid and permanent fastening.

The length of a wall rack should be limited ordinarily to three feet, as the weight of three feet of books will give considerable sag to the shelves, and a greater length will call for a vertical partition and corresponding bracket underneath for its support.

THE BOOKCASE

This piece of furniture is seen in so many forms that a volume would be necessary simply to catalogue them. The essential features are strong ends or sides, usually a solid back, a base, shelves, often adjustable as to spacing, a top more or less ornamental, and often glass doors.

Perhaps the most important point in the construction is strength. A wobbly bookcase is an abomination, and the weight to be carried is frequently enormous.

A typical case without doors will be taken up and this may be modified, used as a unit and doubled or trebled at the will of the young carpenter. (Fig. 193.)

If it is made to occupy a certain space in a permanent home, it may be built in and made solid with the wall, but this is not often desirable, particularly in America, where people move frequently. As a general rule, two small bookcases are better than one large one. They may be easily shifted, changed from room to room, and are more apt to fit between windows.

The uprights 4 feet 4 inches long, 8 inches wide and 7/8 inch thick, are rabbeted at the back so that the joint will not show from the side. The back is to be of 1/2-inch white wood stained the same colour as the sides. The under top piece and bottom are gained into the sides, both joints being hidden by the later construction. The 3-inch bevelled base is mitred at the corners and cut off square at the back, covering only three sides, as the back is to be flush from top to bottom. The top is to have a moulded edge on three sides, and to be fastened to under top piece by flat-head screws from the under side through countersunk holes.

The four solid shelves are made adjustable in their spacing by the old-fashioned method of sawtoothed strips in each corner. Strips 7/8 × 1/2 inch are made to fit in the toothed spaces, and the shelves rest on these strips, of which two must be provided for each shelf.

The four toothed strips should be laid out and cut together to insure the shelves being level. The dimensions for all these pieces are given in the detailed drawings.

The front edges are covered by 1/2-inch strips, beaded if desired, mitred at the top and cut to fit the bevelled base below. Nailed on with brads, these are set and the holes filled with putty, coloured to match the finish.

In the mission style, the shelves are frequently mortised through the sides and secured by pins or wedges. In this type of bookcase, a solid back is rarely used, and base and top are omitted. In a design of this kind, the top shelf becomes a book rack with ornamental ends. Often only the upper and lower shelves are mortised, the others being gained into the sides as described under wall racks. The lower part of the side is frequently modified to give a wider base and to make the case more stable. One objection to this is the amount of material wasted in cutting out, as the stock for the sides must be the full width of the base.

XL

THE MEDICINE CABINET

The wall cabinet for drugs and toilet articles, where the various household remedies may be found quickly, is illustrated in Fig. 194.

It calls for a panelled door, the construction and details of which are given in the drawing.

After squaring up the four pieces for styles and rails, plough a 1/4-inch groove 3/8 of an inch deep on the inner edge of all the pieces. This groove is to receive the panel which is planed down to fit. The two uprights are to be mortised at each end, as shown by dotted lines and edge view.

The tenons on the ends of the rails are cut with a shoulder. This closes the space made by the plough on the uprights, as shown in the top view.

The panel is squared up 3/4 inch larger each way than the open space between rails and styles and a long bevel is planed on each of the four sides, leaving the thickness of the edges just great enough to fit the bottom of the grooves of rails and styles.

Another method of making a panel is to use thin wood which will just fit the grooves, and to fill the joints with a simple moulding mitred at the corners.

The raised panel is not difficult to make, however, and there is little difference in the time consumed by the two methods.

When the five parts are ready for assembling, the mortise joints are glued, the panel slipped into place and left free to shrink in the grooves. The door is placed in hand screws or clamps over night.

As it is to fit a definite space, always make a door slightly larger than its finished dimensions, to allow for planing off and fitting.

While it is drying, proceed with the building of the cabinet. The back inner edges of the sides are to be rabbeted to receive the back, which may be made of 1/4 or 3/8 inch white wood. Material for the cabinet proper may be any hard wood, or even white wood.

The shelves may be 1/2 inch thick. Heavier material is not necessary, on account of the short span. They are to be gained into the sides to the depth of 3/8 or 1/2 inch. The spacing of the shelves should be adapted to the sizes of bottles to be accommodated, and the dimensions given in the drawing are merely suggestive.

The overhanging top may be made either with moulded edges on front and sides or be left square. It is secured by screws from the under side of the false top.

The sides are shown modified at the bottom to give a pleasing effect, and the back piece may either be brought down and cut to a curved outline, as indicated in the drawing, or stopped at the first shelf.

In assembling, first put the false top in place and nail it to the sides; next put the top on with screws, slip the shelves into their respective grooves, and glue. Put on the back, nailing securely to sides and shelves. To make the cabinet more rigid, drive 1-inch brads into the shelves from the outside set and fill the holes.

Last of all, fit the door, and fasten it with hinges and a catch. A lock may be used, but that is hardly advisable, as in case of an emergency the key may be lost at the critical moment. Stain and polish.

The method of fastening is by screws through the back into the wall studs.

Cabinets for various purposes can be designed along the lines just described, but in each case the method of construction is similar. A stronger cabinet would result if the top and bottom shelves were mortised through the sides in the mission style. The only objection to this is that if the horizontal space be limited, the projecting tenon may be in the way.

The filing cabinet for papers shown in Fig. 195 is of radically different construction. As it is designed to stand on a desk, or independent shelf, the base may be very simple or omitted entirely, as in the drawing.

It is divided into twelve compartments, with a clear space in each of 12-1/2 × 5-1/2 × 3-1/2 inches, these being the outside dimensions of the drawers.

It is important in building up these compartments to use lumber that is well seasoned and free from warp. Gain the shelves into outside uprights, stopping the groove half an inch from the front.

Before sliding the shelves into the grooves, lay out on the four pieces the grooves for the three vertical partitions. It will be much easier to cut these grooves clear through from front to back, but a better appearance from the front can be obtained by stopping the grooves half an inch back, as on the sides.

Each vertical partition will then consist of three separate pieces slipped in from the back. A cross section of the cabinet will appear, as _a_. The quarter-inch back is to be gained into the sides as shown in the top view.

The construction of the drawer is shown at _c_, the sides being cut away toward the back. Otherwise the drawer is simply an open box made of 3/8-inch pine or white wood, with 1/4-inch bottom put together with brads.

The false front, made of the same material as top and sides, gives a suitable finish, and practically covers all joints; it is secured by flat-head screws from the inside.

In assembling the drawer, it should be made about 1/16 inch smaller than the compartment it is to fit, to prevent binding in damp weather.

Bay wood, a light-coloured mahogany, is very appropriate for this piece of office furniture, the edges of partitions being stained to match. A brass drawer-pull, with a space left for a printed label, is to be put on after the polishing is done.

Filing cabinets made by this method may, of course, be made with drawers of different proportions and with any number of compartments, but this size is designed to hold long envelopes, letters, bills, etc.

XLI

MISSION FURNITURE

The library table (Fig. 196) is a good example of solid and permanent furniture construction. It represents the main principles of the mission style--solidity, strength, simplicity, straight lines, mortise and tenon joints, etc.

To a boy who has worked carefully up to this point it is entirely possible.

As the top is the only part to be glued up, this should be done first. Three boards of 7/8-inch quartered oak 10 inches wide, or an equivalent that will aggregate a trifle over 30 inches, and 4 feet long, should be jointed and prepared for dowelling. The method of doing this is shown at _a_, where two jointed pieces are clamped together. The distance between dowels lengthwise should be measured, and lines squared across the edges with knife and try square. Two pencil lines, as at _b_, should be made across the joint. Set the marking gauge at 7/16 inch. Remove the boards from vise or clamp, and from the faces touched by pencil lines, gauge lines cutting across the three knife lines on each edge.

Where these lines cross, bore 3/8-inch holes with a dowel bit to the depth of at least 1 inch. Lay out the other dowelled joint in the same manner. Saw six pieces of 3/8-inch dowel 2 inches long, and glue ends of each dowel in the holes prepared in the middle board, as shown at _c_.

Put a thin layer of glue on the joints with a brush and clamp the three pieces together. While the glue is hardening, proceed with the frame. This consists of four legs, four top rails, the lower cross rails, a shelf, and four wedges.

The sizes are as follows:

Top rails 2 42 × 3 × 7/8
Top rails 2 24 × 3 × 7/8
Cross rails 2 26-1/2 × 3 × 7/8
Shelf 1 44-3/4 × 12 × 3/4 or 7/8
Wedges 4 2-1/2 × 7/8 × 3/4

The construction of the top rails is shown at _d_ in the detail drawing. The only point calling for special attention is to see that the tenons are flush with outside of rail, being cut on only three sides, and the mitre at the end of each. The necessity for this mitre is shown in the drawing of the top of leg at _e_, where the two tenons are shown meeting in the blind mortises. The short rails are identical with those shown at _d_, except in length.

The detailed drawing of the legs is shown at _f_, and to make sure that the four are uniform, they should be laid out in pairs, the two at one end together, then the second pair; and finally the two pairs must be compared to discover any possible inaccuracies. The cutting of the mortises may be hastened by boring several holes inside the lines from each side.

The drawing at _g_ shows the layout of the lower rails, with tenons at the ends, and mortises on flat sides to receive the tenons on ends of the shelf. As in previous cases, these two pieces should be laid out together.

The most difficult work up to this point is the cutting of the two blind mortises at the top of each leg to receive the mitred tenons. This operation could be simplified, by replacing the mortise and tenon at that point by a dowel joint, but it would no longer be genuine mission furniture, and a much weaker form of construction.

The drawing of the long shelf explains itself, two tenons being cut at each end and a rectangular hole cut through each tenon for the wedge. The tenons are shown with a slight bevel, which is cut with a chisel when all other work is finished.

Before proceeding further, it will be wise to try and fit all the joints. Number or letter the two parts of each joint, as it is finished, to assist in the final assembling. This process of fitting should take some time, for it cannot be hurried safely. When it is finished, the way to fasten the top to the frame should be considered.

Several methods are in use, and two are shown at _h_ and _i_. At _h_ a hole is bored at an angle in the rail. As it goes only part way through, it provides a shoulder for the screw head, and the screw is driven through a hole drilled for the purpose into the solid top.

If this method is used, at least ten screws would be needed for a table of this size, three on each side and two on each end.

The method shown at _i_ is probably the better of the two. Blocks of wood of the shape and size given in the drawing are made and fitted into a groove ploughed in the rails.

This groove may be ploughed the full length of rail, or cut out for an inch or two with a chisel. The tongue and groove should fit snugly, and the block be securely fastened to the top with screws. Two blocks on each side and one on each end will be sufficient.

A simple method is to fasten top and frame by angle irons 2 inches long, on the inside.

This question having been decided, take the glued-up top from clamps and dress down to size. The under side should be trued up enough to fit neatly over tops of legs and rails, and the upper side should be planed, scraped, and sand-papered.

The final assembling should be done in this order:

Assemble the two ends separately. Each end consists of two legs, a top and a bottom rail. The mortise and tenon joints should be glued, and a clamp used at top and bottom. Test for squareness. When dry, remove clamps, insert shelf tenons and those of top rails in their mortises, and clamp lengthwise. Drive a wire brad through each tenon, from the side of leg least conspicuous, and set with nail punch.

Put on the top, and level bottom of legs where necessary. Remove all traces of glue, and fill brad holes with putty, coloured same as stain to be used.

Place wedges in mortises provided, and fasten each one with a small brad driven through the side of shelf tenons. Stain and polish.

THE TEA TABLE

This table is made low purposely, the legs being exactly two feet in length. The construction consists of four legs, two sets of cross rails, and a circular top two feet in diameter. As this top is too wide to be cut from one board, joint two pieces of 7/8-inch stock, glue together, and place in clamp. The joint may be strengthened with dowels, as in previous cases. (Fig. 197.)

By proceeding in this order--gluing up first--no time need be lost in waiting. Square up the four legs and lay out the eight mortises, placing the four pieces in a vise or clamp to insure uniformity. Cut the mortises and lay the legs one side. The two sets of cross rails are to be halved at the centre, and may be straight or slightly curved, as shown. The curve improves the appearance without reducing the strength seriously, but if this form is decided on, the curve must be cut before laying out the halved joint.

After finishing the joint, the two rails of each set are clamped together and tenons laid out. Remove from clamp or vise and cut tenons. Test each set to make sure the halved joint at centre is satisfactory, and insert tenons in the mortises. Draw bore and fasten with round pins of the same material as the legs.

Before fastening the top rails in position, drill and countersink two holes in each piece for the screws, in the position shown in drawing. The bevels on end of tenons should be cut with the chisel before the final fastening.

The two boards composing the top when removed from clamps should be dressed flat on both sides, tested with a straight edge, and circle laid out with steel dividers set at a radius of twelve inches.

Saw close to this line with turning saw, chisel to line, and smooth with spokeshave and sand-paper block--a piece of pine 3 × 2 × 7/8 inches, with the sand-paper tacked on the 7/8-inch edge. Scrape and sand-paper top.

To fasten this top to the frame, lay the top upside down on the floor, and set the frame, inverted, on it. Measure carefully to locate the frame in proper position, and fasten with four 2-1/2 or 2-3/4 inch flat head screws. Assuming that all parts of the frame have been scraped and sand-papered before assembling, the table is ready for polishing.

Oak is the wood commonly used for this piece of furniture, but if well seasoned, chestnut is lighter in weight and just as satisfactory as to grain and finish. (See staining and polishing.)

Sometimes in mission furniture the legs of the table are allowed to come up through the top. This design is shown at Fig. 198. The diameter of the top is 24 inches, but the height is increased, as this is designed as a centre or reading table. On account of the support furnished by the shoulder at the top of legs, the top set of rails is omitted, and the fastening made by four angle irons securely screwed to the top and legs.

This table, on account of the greater span between the legs, is as stable as the previous design. The cross rails are halved, and may be straight or curved on under side. If desired, a commodious shelf may be had by fastening a circular piece 19 inches or less in diameter to the top of cross rails. This will need to be glued up and cut like top piece.

The square tenon at the top of legs is shown in the detailed drawing, and care should be taken in laying out to insure the distance from the shoulder to bottom of leg being alike on all four, if the top is to be level.

After gluing up and dressing down the top, lay out circle and two-inch square openings for the tenons. Test these squares carefully before cutting, to make sure they are equally spaced, saw out circle, and finish as in previous table. Saw out the squares close to line and finish with chisel. In putting on angle irons, screw them to the top first and press it tightly down on the shoulders before fastening to legs. A strong cleat 18 or 20 inches long fastened to under side of top across the grain with four or five screws will help to prevent warping, but is not absolutely necessary. If the circular shelf is added, it is to be fastened to cross rails by screws from the under side through drilled holes.

DESIGNING MISSION FURNITURE

Boys who have followed the preceding instructions will be able to plan and construct the following designs without detailed explanations.

The two drawings for plant stands are in the nature of suggestions, and although taken from pieces actually made they show the great difference in form that is possible in meeting the same conditions.

Fig. 199 is thoroughly representative of the so-called mission style with its mortise and tenon joints and straight square legs.

The shelf for holding the jardinière is indicated by dotted lines, and it is held by cleats fastened to the sides by flat-head screws.

A dark finish, antique or rich brown, is appropriate for either design. Fig. 200 shows a radically different form. The shelf is octagonal or square with the corners cut at 45 degrees to fit the legs.

The detail view shows the arrangement of lower rails meeting the legs at the same angle. The ends of rails are mitred and secured by wire nails set below the surface and holes filled. The fastening between upper shelf and legs may be either round-head blue screws or dowel pins of the same material as the legs, with the outer ends slightly rounded.

The shape of the legs makes this design weaker than Fig. 199, but their spread results in a more stable base and makes this stand less liable to upset.

The foot rest (Fig. 201) is to be provided with a cushion covered with leather nailed on with large-head craftsman nails.

The cushion may be filled with hair, excelsior, or even fine shavings, securely sewed in a cover of ticking and held in place by the leather cover. The leather must be brought down and nailed to the lower edge of the cross rails. Fasten the top to cleats screwed on inside of ends.

Fig. 202 shows the same problem worked out in straight lines, the leather being nailed to all four top rails.

Each of these pieces of furniture suggests a new one, and chairs, settees, umbrella stands, writing desks, etc., may be made along the same general lines.

The plant stand (Fig. 199) suggests the umbrella rack. The shelf is simply shifted from the top to bottom and provided with a brass tray to catch the water. Valuable suggestions for such furniture may be obtained by consulting catalogues of furniture, and by constant observations of well-made pieces.

These designs should never be copied, but used only as aids to the working out of original ideas.

The typical writing desk shown at Fig. 203 illustrates this point. While fairly well proportioned, the legs could well be heavier. The drawer is also faulty. Its position makes it necessary to move away from the desk in order to open it. The lower cross rail will be a nuisance when sitting close enough to write and other features might be criticised. Whether your design will be a success or not depends on the clearness with which all these details are thought out. Fig. 204 shows several of the above defects corrected.

XLII

THE CHEST

This is one of the most convenient and substantial pieces of furniture about the house. For the storage of linen, furs, or clothing it is invaluable. It may be placed in a corner, and with a liberal supply of sofa cushions makes an ideal cosey corner and seat.

The construction is purposely strong and heavy, and calls for good material like quartered oak, chestnut, walnut, or cedar. The latter wood, especially _red_ cedar, is light in weight, but attractive in colour, and has the further advantage of being moth proof.

Fig. 205 _a_ shows a well-proportioned chest of quartered oak. The horizontal rails are mortised into the heavy legs, and the panels may be arranged as shown in the detail.

A rabbet is cut on the inner edge of the rails, and a corresponding groove ploughed in the legs. The panel may be of one piece, set into the rabbet and grooves. Its large expanse may be carved, raised, or simply polished plain, allowing the natural grain to furnish the ornamentation.

The legs may be plain, as shown, or curved slightly at the bottom, as suggested in the detail. The top is too large to be made in one piece, and it should be built up like a table top, and hinged to upper back rail by strong iron or brass ornamental hinges.

If finished in a dark colour with dull surface, the metal corner plates and escutcheon will greatly enhance its appearance.

These may be made out of sheet brass. First lay out the design on paper. Cut out to the outline, and trace upon the surface of the sheet metal. A metal-cutting saw blade obtained from the hardware store can be fitted into the frame of the coping saw.

With this tool, saw on the lines exactly as in thin wood, and file the edges smooth. The holes for the heavy nails are drilled. If suitable big-headed nails cannot be found, brass screws may be used, and when in position, the heads filed to any desired shape.

An ancient green effect can be produced on such brass ornaments by painting with ammonia.

The cover of a large chest like this will need to be reinforced by strong cleats on the under side across the grain. They should be 3 × 7/8 inches, just long enough to allow the cover to close readily, and should be secured by five or six screws on each cleat.

The bottom may be pine or white wood, secured by nails or screws to 7/8-inch square cleats screwed on the inside of ends and sides. A chest of better proportion, but slightly more complicated in construction, is shown at _b_. Here the front is broken up into three panels, and a better space arrangement secured. The whole front in this case may be put together with mortise and tenon joints, as in panel door construction, or the simpler method just described may be used. The mortise and tenon form is the better way, and as usual takes more time.

Carved panels suggest a very rich and valuable piece of furniture, but they are not necessary, as a good flat polish showing the natural grain of the wood is very satisfactory.

XLIII

THE DRAWING OUTFIT

An equipment for mechanical drawing, except the instruments, can be easily made in the shop by any boy who has had some practice with tools.

The drawing board is the first thing needed, and several makes are in use, the object of all of them being to insure a true flat surface by overcoming the natural tendency of wood to warp.

Shrinkage will take place in spite of all precautions, but this is not a serious matter, and does not affect the usefulness of the board.

All boards, it is conceded, should be "built up," rather than consist of one piece. The idea is that the warping of one piece is somewhat counteracted by that of the adjoining pieces in other directions.

Fig. 206 shows three forms in common use. At _a_ the ends are united to wide cleats by a tongue and groove joint.

In shrinking and expanding with weather changes, the board is free to slide along the joint, being glued only at the centre.

At _b_ two dovetail-shaped strips are inserted on the under side across the grain. This is more difficult cult to make on account of the shape of the groove, but it is otherwise satisfactory. At _c_ two strong cleats are fastened across the under side by screws. This is the easiest and least satisfactory method, as the cleats are often in the way, making the board clumsy, and furthermore it does not allow for shrinkage, unless the screws are secured in grooves instead of in plain holes.

A good proportion for a small board is 24 × 18 inches. If the first method of construction is decided on, glue up four or five strips of well seasoned white pine, 7/8 inch thick, of the width desired, and four inches shorter than the final length of board. Place in clamps for twenty-four hours, and when dry dress down perfectly true to a thickness of 3/4 inch. Test for warp and wind, and square the ends.

Square up two pieces of stock 2-1/2 inches wide, with a length equal to width of board. For the tongue and groove joint, a set of tongue and grooving planes will be necessary. Two cutters for this purpose come with the modern universal plane, and if available this may be used. In either case, set the depth gauge at half an inch, and plow a groove on one edge of each strip 1/4 inch wide to the full depth, as shown at _d_. On both ends of the board, plane the tongue same size as groove at _e_. Coat the tongue at each end of board with glue for a distance of six or eight inches at the centre, fit the end strips in position, and place in clamps over night. When dry, give the surface a final truing up, and also the ends, as the clamps may have made a slight change.

Go all over the surface with a sand-paper block, using 00 sand-paper, and shellac the board all over. When dry rub flat with the sand-paper block. Make a final test for any possible inaccuracy, and the board is ready for use.

T square and triangles may be made, but as rubber or celluloid triangles are better in some ways than wood, the former are recommended.

The T square is a very pretty little problem in woodwork, and may be made as follows:

The design for the head may be either _a_ or _b_ (Fig. 207), a being simply a rectangular piece of hard wood, with two rounded corners; _b_ is laid out as shown, sawed near the line and curved side finished with spokeshave. The straight side should be _perfectly_ straight, as any variation will give horizontal lines out of parallel.

The blade may be of one piece, or built up. A very satisfactory combination is to make the head of black walnut, and the blade of hard maple, with black walnut edges. It will pay to make a special shooting board for this work, and to make several T squares at the same time. This shooting board should be slightly longer than the blade. (See Fig. 206.)

Gauge a line at a distance _x_ from the edge, equal to the width of 2 inches, and tack a straight strip of wood up to this line as a guide. When the blade has been planed to its thickness of 1/8 inch, it is to be placed in space _x_ and planed to width.

To plane a piece of hard wood down to an eighth of an inch, tack it to a pine board with three 1-inch brads. The location of these brads can be such that only one hole will be left in the blade to be filled up afterward. One should be in the position of the central screw over the head, the second at the point where hole _h_ is to be bored, the third at about the centre of the blade. Set these brads slightly below the surface, and dress down smooth.

When tested and found true, lift the blade by inserting a knife blade under it, again fasten to the board with unfinished side up, and again dress down. Before removing from the board, lay out the curved end to correspond with the curve of the head, and cut to line with a chisel.

Remove from board, finish curved end with sand-paper block. Bore hole _h_ for hanging up, locate holes for screws, and drill just large enough to allow 1/2-inch round-head brass or blued screws to pass through. In attaching the head, make sure that the two parts are at right angles, and use thin copper burrs or washers under the screw heads.

If the blade is to have edges of a different colour, joint the maple on shooting board, and glue the strips to it, before planing to thickness. This should be done on a flat board, with paper between it and the blade. Glue the three pieces together, and drive 1-1/4-inch brads up close to and touching the outside strips, at intervals of four inches. By bending these slightly over the blade, considerable pressure will be obtained, tending to keep the pieces together while glue is hardening.

Then proceed to dress down, and true up as before. When the process is once learned, considerable pin money may be made by disposing of the squares, and that will help to buy material for other things.

Triangles made from single pieces of wood are absolutely unreliable. Referring to Fig. 207, the 45-degree triangle shows the grain running up and down. As shrinkage takes place _m_ will not change, but _n_ will, and this will alter the angles; and besides a piece of thin wood this size will warp and make the triangle useless for mechanical drawing.

The 30-60 triangle illustrates the usual method of constructing a wooden triangle.

Aside from bisecting the 90, 60, and 30 degree angles to get the mitres, these joints, if simply glued, will be too weak for practical use. The edge view and dotted lines indicate a thin feather of wood glued into a saw cut made through the edge of each corner, the usual method of strengthening. It is a delicate operation, and is only recommended to boys who are fond of fine work.

A very serviceable section liner may be made from a wooden triangle by carefully cutting out of one side a rectangular opening, as shown in the detail. Make a piece of thin wood to fit this space, but 1/8-inch shorter, and fitted so as to move freely. By moving this block and the triangle, alternately, vertical or oblique lines can be drawn for sectioning, and they will be equally spaced. Other blocks varying in length will give a variety of spacings.

It is possibly one of the cheapest section liners, and the most satisfactory within the means of any one. Irregular or French curves may be made in thin wood. They should be drawn on the surface, sawed out with the coping saw, and sand-papered smooth. As their thickness should be but a trifle over 1/16 inch, they are very frail and easily broken. These curves can be easily made in sheet aluminum, and they will be much more satisfactory. This metal is handled similarly to thin wood, except that the saw must be a metal cutting blade.

Triangles may be made of the same material. Lay out the form with a sharp steel point or scriber, saw as close to lines as possible, and with a fine file finish to line. Then smooth the curves with fine emery paper wrapped around a lead pencil. To make straight edges, as on triangles, lay a sheet of emery cloth on bench, and rub triangle back and forth.

THE PANTAGRAPH

For copying designs, for reducing or enlarging, this old-fashioned instrument may be easily constructed. Fig. 208 shows it made of four strips of thin wood of equal length. Either pine or white wood will answer. The pieces have to be squared, twenty-five inches long, three quarters of an inch wide, and a quarter inch thick.

Bore or drill through the four pieces held in a vise, and space the holes shown in drawing three inches apart, 1/8 inch in size.

When put together, _a_, _b_ and _c_ should be in line. Point _a_ is to remain fixed, the pantagraph being free to move around it as a pivot. To accomplish this, cut out a block, as shown at _x_, with a hole drilled at the centre for pivot, and two others for screwing to the drawing table or board.

The pin for this pivot may be a thick flat-head wire nail, screw, or even a screw eye. The joints _d_, _e_, and _f_ are also pivots moving with the pantagraph. They may consist of thumb screws, and nuts, or screw eyes, and must move freely, yet without play.

Points _b_ and _c_ are to be interchangeable, one having a tracing point, the other a pencil.

The tracing point may be a wire nail, rivet, or screw, with the point filed sharp, and then slightly rounded. The pencil point should be a piece of lead pencil, whittled down to such a size as to pass through the hole at _b_ and _c_, and make a snug fit.

To enlarge a design, place tracing point at _b_, and fasten original design under it to drawing board with thumb tacks.

Under _c_ fasten a sheet of drawing paper. With the right hand at _b_, trace the design by carefully sliding tracing point along the lines. At the same time, with the left hand keep pencil point at _c_ sufficiently in contact with the paper to make a clear line.

To reduce a drawing, reverse _b_ and _c_, bringing pencil point and paper to _b_, and original to _c_. Pass tracer over design at _c_, and the reduced design will be traced at _b_. Different proportions between original and reproduction may be obtained by shifting the position of pivots _e_ and _f_.

Fig. 208 shows pivot e shifted to position _h_. As distance _c e_ should always equal distance _d f_, it now becomes necessary to move pivot _f_ to point _g_. By remembering this rule, and placing pivots in various positions, a wide range of proportions is possible.

THE DRAWING TABLE

A table to hold the drawing board should be not less than 3 feet 2 inches high, as much of the work is performed standing up. A stool with revolving seat should be provided for the draughtsman to sit on occasionally.

The table top may be made slanting, but it is better practice to have a heavy flat top of pine, which may be used as a large drawing board itself, and to provide for the slant by using a triangular block under the farther end of drawing board. Two or three blocks may be made, about two feet long and of different sizes, to give different degrees of slant.

Tables for this purpose are often made with tops, which may be adjusted at different angles, and the young designer may try his inventive talent in this large field, but any arrangement which will bring an element of instability is to be studiously avoided. The drawing table should be as solid and rigid as possible.

The design in Fig. 209 was made by our boys, and has proved very satisfactory. It has much of the mission style about it, with its square legs and mortised joints.

After the description of mission furniture construction in previous chapters, only a few points in the construction need be mentioned.

The board _a_, used as a foot rest, is necessary when sitting at the table on account of its height, and it also ties the frame together in the front. The cross rail _b_ acts in the same capacity at the back.

The heavy pine top is "built up" like a drawing board of several pieces, and supported by two cleats 3 × 1/8 inches across the grain underneath. It may be attached to the frame by any one of the methods described under mission furniture, and its left-hand edge should be as true as that of the drawing board.

If an especially accurate edge is desired, a piece of iron 1 × 1/4 inch, planed straight by a machinist, may be let into this edge, as shown in the drawing, and secured by flat-head screws through holes drilled and countersunk. This arrangement is seldom seen, but it is well worth the added cost.

The table shown is provided with a generous-sized drawer. This may be omitted, but is a great convenience for keeping plans and sketches. Its construction is shown in detail. The sides and front have a 1/4-inch groove, ploughed to receive the bottom, and at the back end a vertical groove is cut to hold the back piece which is dadoed to fit.

At the top of each side is nailed a strip 5/16 inch square. These cleats are to retain the strips _s_. Make these strips _s_ of hard wood, preferably ash, and about 1/16 inch longer than the width of drawer, measured inside.

By placing the strips on top of drawings obliquely, and then straightening them across the drawer, they bind against the sides, and keep drawings down flat. The cleats at top of drawer prevent them from escaping at the top, especially when it becomes nearly full.

The extra front on the drawer with rounded edges covers up the joints around front of box, and is a purely ornamental feature. If this is used, secure to real front by flat-head screws from the inside.

The box which holds the drawers is to be secured to the legs by screws countersunk. Many modifications of this table will occur to the woodworker, such as additional drawers, but it must be kept in mind that comfortable knee room is essential, and the space on under side of the top is largely to be reserved for this important purpose.

A box for holding instruments has been described in another chapter, and triangles, rules, etc., may be kept in it.

The T square should be hung on a hook at either end of table, to overcome any tendency the thin blade may have to twist or warp, the weight of the head helping to draw it out straight.

All drawings should have a neat title, and a number. To work out a system of numbering so that any drawing may be found quickly is a good job for a rainy day.

A good filing cabinet for plans is suggested in Fig. 210. Dimensions are not given, as they will depend on the size of drawing paper used. A uniform-sized sheet should be adopted at the start, and the drawings scaled to accommodate this size of paper.

The shelves should be 1/4 inch thick, and gained into sides as shown. A clear space of 1-1/2 inches between the shelves will be ample, and a semicircular curve should be cut in the front. The depth of cabinet should not be over half an inch more than the width of the sheets.

A top and mitred base are shown, and the space between should be closed by a panelled door to keep out dust.

A cabinet of this style should not be less than thirty inches high, and if the whole space is not required for drawings, the lower part may be changed and fitted with drawers for models, specimens, and other treasures.

For boys who are interested in collecting, whether minerals, butterflies, or other things, such a cabinet may be made entirely of drawers, and the panelled door omitted.

For the safe keeping of butterflies, moths, and other insects, an eminent scientist has recommended a drawer construction as shown at Fig. 211. This detail shows a section at the front, with the bottom piece gained into a groove. The bottom of the drawer is covered with a layer of sheet cork, and over it oiled paper. The upper part of box is not fastened, but is slipped down inside strips _s_, which have rounded tops, and extend around the four sides.

The upper half is grooved to receive a sheet of glass, which is held in place by a small cleat. By this method the drawer is covered while the specimens are visible, and dampness is kept out. The cork bottom is to receive the pins, and the specimens may be reached by simply taking out the top. The dimensions recommended for the drawer are 22 × 16 × 2 inches, outside measurements, and if a number are to be used, the spaces between the shelves of the cabinet should correspond with these figures.

A quaint conceit sometimes used by enthusiastic collectors is to make their boxes in the form of books, as shown at _a_ (Fig. 212).

The outside has the shape of a book, the two halves being fitted by tongue and groove joint. This keeps out moisture, the great enemy of dried specimens, and when a number of these boxes, properly coloured and labelled, are piled on a shelf, they have the appearance of so many large volumes.

This unique idea may be used in other ways. A very pretty illustration is a stamp box for the writing desk, made up in the form of a book, which apparently has a silk ribbon for a book mark. This ribbon is the handle of a little drawer, which pulls out, disclosing the contents. The arrangement is shown at _b_. The idea may be carried still farther by having half a dozen of these small volumes in a book rack, the labels reading--"rubber bands," "pens," "stamps," etc. All should be stained a uniform colour, and the illusion may be carried still farther by gilding the parts which represent the edges of the leaves.

XLIV

WOODWORK FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS

THE TENNIS COURT

The young woodworker is especially well fitted for the preparation of a tennis court. He has learned the value of accurate measurements, and is accustomed to make a neat and finished job. While the making of a court seems a simple proposition, it may be a very expensive one, if help has to be hired, and all the equipment bought ready for use.

The first step is to select the exact location, which should either be level or practically so. Any discussion as to the merits of dirt or sod courts must be left to the reader. The court proper is 78 × 36 feet, the posts for the tennis net being three feet outside on either side, and the space at the ends between the court and stop nets fifteen to twenty feet more, making a total length of 118 feet.

The following method of laying out the court is recommended:

Make sure that the long way is exactly north and south, and drive in the ground a wooden stake at northeast corner A (Fig. 213). At B, directly west, drive stake 36 feet from A. A steel tape measure is by far the best thing to use for laying out, as cord stretches and leads to inaccuracies, and two tapes are better than one.

At the centre of each stake drive a strong nail. From B measure 78 feet south, and place a temporary stake. To insure the angle being 90 degrees, apply this test: From B along the line laid out last, measure 48 feet: slip the ring of the tape measure over the nail at A, and measure to this new point. If the angle is 90 degrees, this diagonal measurement should be 60 feet. If this measurement does not come right, shift the stake C, until this oblique line is exactly 60 feet, then lines A-B and B-C are at right angles. Having fixed this angle, again measure from B to C, and drive stake C at 78 feet from B.

Locate stake D 78 feet from A, and 36 feet from C. A final test should now be made by measuring the diagonals B-D and A-C. They should be exactly alike. These corner stakes may now be driven in flush with the surface, and they should be allowed to remain, to avoid the necessity of doing the work all over again later in the season when the lines become obscure. Measure in from each stake 4-1/2 feet for the alleys and drive stakes in flush.

Next measure from stakes _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_ 18 feet along outside lines, and again drive in stakes _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_. By passing a cord from _a_ to _b_, and from _c_ to _d_, the service lines are laid out, omitting alleys. Find centre of service lines, and connect points _e_ and _f_. The net crosses the centre of court from east to west, extending three feet beyond on each side. At these two points _x_ and _y_, set the posts in the ground. By this method, the only stakes left in the ground are on the outside lines, and they must be driven in so that under no circumstances will a player stumble over them. They can always be found after a rain storm, and new lines laid out.

The posts for the net should be seven feet long and four inches square. Plane them off smooth, and coat the end which is to be in the ground with creosote or coal tar.

This coating should extend three feet six inches from the bottom, and as the post is to be three feet in the ground, this coating will extend six inches above. Decay takes place at the point of contact with the ground, and the creosote will prolong the life of the posts for many years, if the wood is well seasoned. Many posts for tennis nets are not sunk fully three feet in the ground, and consequently require guy ropes or wires to keep them upright. The time spent in digging the holes and tamping the dirt around posts is well spent, as the pull on them is severe, and they must stand upright.

Six inches from the top, bore a hole 3/4 inch in diameter, east and west. The net must be three feet high at its centre, and three feet six inches at the posts. Pass the rope through these holes, and make fast to a cleat. These cleats may be of iron or wood, a sketch of a wooden cleat being shown at Fig. 215. They should be of oak or other hard wood, put on with two strong screws through holes which have been bored and countersunk. On the side of post toward the net, three strong screw eyes should be put about a foot apart, the lower one six inches from the ground. The net is to be fastened to these screw eyes to keep it in position. When everything is ready, paint the posts two coats of dark or bronze green.

The position of the tall poles for the back stop are shown in Fig. 213. Fifteen feet is none too far from the court for the stop net, and twenty would be better. Purchase twelve foot four by fours, and plane smooth, or have them dressed at the mill when ordering. This will reduce them to 3-3/4 × 3-3/4 inches. The method of enclosing the whole court by wire netting is seldom resorted to, unless the space available is very limited. The method here suggested of bringing the ends about at an angle of 45 degrees has been found very satisfactory in stopping swift service. Locate the post holes 12 feet apart, and dig them three feet deep. After treating the lower ends of posts for three and a half feet with creosote or tar, place in the ground, plumb each one while filling in, and tamp the earth about them firmly.

Strips 1 × 3 inches and 12 feet long must be used to join the posts at the top, else the pull necessary to straighten the wire will bring them out of plumb. These strips are to be nailed at the extreme top by eight-penny wire nails. When the structure is finished, except for the wire, paint with two coats of the same colour as the net posts.

The wire netting is chicken wire, inch and a half mesh, and three feet wide. Three of these strips will cover the space from the ground to the top. It is put on with staples nailed to the posts, stretched taut, and the joints where the strips touch wired together at intervals of three feet with soft iron wire.

If arranged as shown in the drawing, it will take six strips sixty feet long by three wide for the back stop, or 1080 square feet, and will cost $9 or $10.

Cheap cotton back stops are sold, but they are not very satisfactory, as they tighten in damp and sag in dry weather. For a permanent court belonging to a club the galvanized wire is well worth the difference in cost.