Chapter I: Part 1

CASSELL'S BOOK OF BIRDS.

(_about four fifths Life size_)]

CASSELL'S

BOOK OF BIRDS.

_FROM THE TEXT OF DR. BREHM._

BY
THOMAS RYMER JONES, F.R.S.,
PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN
KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.

WITH UPWARDS OF
Four Hundred Engravings, and a Series of Coloured Plates.

_IN FOUR VOLUMES._

VOL. I.

LONDON:
CASSELL, PETTER, AND GALPIN;
AND NEW YORK.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 1-22
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS 23

CRACKERS (_Enucleatores_).

PARROTS (_Psittacini_). The TRUE PARROT (_Psittacinæ_):--The
Jako--The Amazon Parrot--The Maitakka--The Crested Hawk Parrot
24-43

THE DWARF PARROTS (_Psittacula_):--Swinder's Love Bird--The
Sparrow Parrot--The Siskin Parrot 43-45

COCKATOOS (_Plyctolophus_):--The Lemon-crested
Cockatoo--Leadbeater's Cockatoo--The Helmet Cockatoo--The
Nose Cockatoo--The Nestor Cockatoo--The Eagle Cockatoo--The
Casmalos--Banks's Raven Cockatoo--The Kakapo, or Night Parrot of
New Zealand 45-57

THE ARARAS (_Aræ_): The Scarlet Macaw--The Soldier Arara--The
Anakan--The Ararauna--The Hyacinth-coloured Arara. The PARRAKEETS,
or CONICAL-TAILED PARROTS (_Conurus_):--The Garuba--The
Tiriba--The Carolina Parrakeet--The Choroy 58-66

THE LONG-TAILED PARROTS, OR PARRAKEETS (_Palæornithes_):--The
Collared, or Rose-ringed Parrot--The Bettet. The SUPERB
PARROTS (_Polytelis_):--The Scarlet-crested Superb Parrot--The
Black-tailed Superb Parrot. The GRASS PARROTS (_Platycerci_):--The
Rosella--The Variegated Parrot--The Waved Parrot--The Corella--The
Ground Parrakeet 66-79

THE LORIES (_Lorii_):--The Purple-capped Lory--The Dappled
Lorikeet--Swainson's Lorikeet--The Maiden Lorikeet--The Papuan
Lory--The Blue-striped Lory 79-82

PASSERINE BIRDS (_Passeres_).

THE CROSS-BILLS (_Loxiæ_):--The Large-beaked Cross-bill--The
Pine-tree Cross-bill--The Banded Cross-bill--The Parrot Greenfinch
85-92

THE BULLFINCHES (_Pyrrhulæ_):--The Parrot Bullfinch--The Pine
Grosbeak--The Carmine Grosbeak--The Rose Bullfinch--The Carmine
Bullfinch--The Siberian Bullfinch--The Vinous Grosbeak, or Desert
Trumpeter--The Bullfinch--The Girlitz--The Canary 92-114

THE FINCHES (_Fringillæ_):--The Chaffinch--The Mountain Finch--The
Snow Finch--The Winter Finch. The LINNETS (_Cannabinæ_)--The Brown
Linnet--The Mountain or Grey Linnet--The Birch-tree Siskin--The
Common Siskin--The Goldfinch--The Golden Thistle Finch 114-130

THE SPARROWS PROPER (_Passeres_):--The Common Sparrow--The Spanish
Sparrow--The Field or Tree Sparrow--The Plain Sparrow--The Golden
Sparrow--The Rock Sparrow. The HAWFINCHES (_Coccothraustæ_):--The
Green Grosbeak--The Hawfinch--The Evening Cherry Hawfinch--The
Large-beaked Hawfinch. The PARROT FINCHES (_Pityli_):--The
Rose-breasted Hawfinch--The Cardinal Grosbeak--The Dominican
Finch--The Tiny Finch--The Diadem Grosbeak--The Ashy-blue Parrot
Finch--The Masked Parrot Finch 131-148

THE HABIAS (_Saltator_):--The Capi. The PLANT CUTTERS
(_Phytotoma_): The Rarita. The TANGARAS PROPER:--The Ornate
Tangara. FIRE TANGARAS (_Pyranga_):--The Flax Bird--The Fire
Tangara. The CALLISTES (_Calliste_):--The Red-necked Calliste.
The CALLOUS-BEAKED TANGARAS (_Ramphocelus_):--The Tapiranga. The
BUTCHER-BIRD TANGARAS (_Lanio_):--The Black-headed Butcher-bird
Tangara. The ORGANIST TANGARAS (_Euphone_):--The Violet Organist.
The BRIGHT-COATED FINCHES (_Amadinæ_):--The Band Bird. The
HOODED FINCHES (_Spermestes_):--The Magpie Finch. AUSTRALIAN
FINCHES:--The REED FINCHES (_Donacola_):--The Chestnut Reed Finch.
The Double-banded Reed Finch. The GRASS FINCHES (_Poëphila_).
CHAFF-FINCHES (_Chloëbia_):--The Admirable Chaff-finch--The Rice
Bird--The Little Goldbreast--The Blood Finch--The Variegated
Finch--The Steel Finch--The Butterfly Finch. The ASTRILDS
(_Astrildæ_):--The Grey Astrild--The Pheasant Finch 148-165

WEAVER BIRDS (_Plocei_):--The Social Weaver Bird--The Golden
Weaver Bird--The Masked Weaver Bird--The Baya--The Crimson-beaked
Weaver Bird--The Taha--The Flame-coloured Fire Finch--The
Red-beaked Buffalo Weaver Bird--The Alecto Buffalo Weaver
Bird--The Dinemelli Buffalo Weaver Bird 166-178

THE WHYDAH OR WIDOW BIRDS (_Viduæ_):--The Yellow-shouldered
Mourning Widow--The Long-tailed Widow Bird--The Paradise Widow
Bird 178-181

THE AMERICAN FINCHES (_Passerella_):--The White-throated
Sparrow--The Morning Finch--The Tree Bunting Finch--The Prairie
Bunting Finch--The Sea Bunting Finch 181-184

THE BUNTINGS (_Emberizæ_):--The Crested Bunting--The Grey
Bunting--The Golden Bunting--The Ortolan--The Red Bunting--The
Black-headed Bunting--The Reed Bunting--The Lark Bunting--The Snow
Bunting 185-195

THE LARKS (_Alaudæ_):--The Calandra Lark--The Short-toed Lark
or Calandrelle--The Black or Moor Lark--The Desert Lark--The
Black-headed Bunting Lark--The Alpine Lark. The LARKS PROPER
(_Alaudæ_):--The Tufted Lark--The Wood Lark--The Sky Lark--The
Sentry Lark. The COURSER LARKS (_Alaemon_):--The Desert Courser
Lark 195-202

RAVENS (_Coracirostres_).

THE STARLINGS (_Sturnidæ_). The TROOPIALS (_Agelaii_):--The
Boblink or Rice Bird. The MARSH TROOPIALS (_Agelaius_):--The
Red-winged Troopial. The COW BIRDS (_Molothrus_):--The Cow
Starling. The YELLOW or GOLDEN STARLINGS (_Icteri_):--The Jamaica
Yellow Bird--The Baltimore Golden Starling. The CASSICANS
(_Cassici_):--The Japu, or Tufted Cassican. The BOAT-TAILS
(_Quiscalus_):--The Great Boat-tail. The STARLINGS PROPER
(_Sturni_):--The Common Starling--The Sardinian Starling--The
Rose Starling--The Mina Birds--The Musical Grakle. The OX-BITERS
(_Buphagæ_):--The African Ox-biter--The Red-beaked Ox-biter. The
GLOSSY STARLINGS (_Lamprotornithes_)--The Bronze-coloured Glossy
Starling--The Golden-breasted Glossy Starling--The Superb Glossy
Starling--The Scaly Glossy Starling--The Brazen Glossy Magpie. The
ROCK GLOSSY STARLINGS (_Moriones_):--The White-beaked Rock Glossy
Starling. The MOUNTAIN GLOSSY STARLINGS (_Amydrus_):--The Naburup.
The ORIOLES (_Orioli_):--The Satin Bower Bird--The Spotted Collar
Bird--The Pirol, Golden Oriole, or Cherry Bird--The Golden-crested
Oriole 210-243

THE BIRDS OF PARADISE (_Paradiseæ_):--The Footless Bird of
Paradise--The Wumbi--The Ruby, or Red Bird of Paradise--The
King of the Birds of Paradise--The Collared Bird of Paradise.
EPIMACHI:--The Resplendent Epimachus--The Collared Epimachus--The
Magpie Bird of Paradise 243-253

THE RAVENS PROPER (_Coraces_). The MOUNTAIN CROWS, or CHOUGHS
(_Fregili_):--The Chough--The Snow Crow, or Alpine Chough. The
TRUE RAVENS:--The Raven--The White-necked Vulture Raven--The
Scapulated Raven. The CROWS (_Corvus_):--The Carrion Crow--The
Hooded Crow--The Rock or Field Crow--The Jackdaw--The Glossy
Crow--The Nutcracker. The PIPING CROWS (_Phonygamæ_):--The Flute
Bird--The Bell Bird or Bell Magpie--The Bald-headed Crow. The TREE
CROWS, or JAYS (_Garruli_):--The Magpie--The Blue Magpie. The BLUE
RAVENS (_Cyanocorax_):--The Hooded Blue Raven--The Crested Blue
Jackdaw--The Common Jay--The Unlucky Jay. The LONG-TAILED CROWS
(_Glaucopes_). The TREE MAGPIES (_Dendrocitta_):--The Wandering
Magpie--The Benteot--The Long-tailed Kitta--The FEATHER-BEAKS
(_Cissa_):--The Sirgang, or Green Jackdaw 254-283

THE PLANTAIN EATERS (_Amphibolæ_). The TRUE PLANTAIN
EATERS (_Musophagæ_):--The Banana Eater. The HELMET BIRDS
(_Corythaix_):--The White-cheeked Helmet Bird--The Turako. The
SPLIT BEAKS (_Schirzorhis_):--The Alarm Bird. The COLIES, or MOUSE
BIRDS (_Colii_):--The Wiriwa--The White-cheeked Mouse-Bird 283-290

CATCHERS (_Captantes_).

BIRDS OF PREY (_Raptores_). The FALCONS (_Falconidæ_). The
NOBLE FALCONS (_Falcones_). The HUNTING FALCONS (_Hierofalco_).
The WANDERING FALCONS (_Falco_):--The Peregrine Falcon--The
Red-necked Falcon--The Tree Falcon--The Berigora. The KESTRELS
(_Tinnunculus_):--The Lark Kestrel--The Kestrel--The Red-footed,
or Evening Falcon--The Sparrow Falcon. The DWARF FALCONS
(_Hierax_):--The Muti 291-312

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATE I.--THE SCARLET MACAW.

" II.--THE GROUND PARRAKEET.

" III.--THE BLUE-STRIPED LORY.

" IV.--EGGS.

" V.--THE BULLFINCH AND GOLDFINCH.

" VI.--THE WAGLERS CASSICUS.

" VII.--THE SHARP-BILLED ORIOLE.

" VIII.--THE RUBY BIRD OF PARADISE.

" IX.--THE SPARROW HAWK.

" X.--THE IMPERIAL EAGLE.

INTRODUCTION.

FIG. PAGE

1. Respiratory Apparatus of a Fowl 2

2. Wing of a Bird, partially stripped of Feathers,
to show the insertions of the Quills 4

3. Nascent Feather of a Chicken 5

4. Head of a Swan (_Cygnus olor_) 6

5. Section of the Head of an Eagle, showing the
structure of the Eye 7

6. Eye of an Owl, showing the arrangement of
the Nictitating Membrane 8

7. Muscles of the Eye-ball and of the Nictitating Membrane 9

8. External Ear of a Young Owl 10

9. The Throat of a Fowl, showing the parts _in situ_ 11

10. Tongue of the Woodpecker, showing the mechanism
employed for its protrusion 12

11. Viscera of Small Bird (_Euphone violacea_) 13

12. Skeleton of a Goose 16

13. Ornithological Regions of the body of a Small Bird 19

14. Chicken in the Egg, newly arrived at maturity 21

15. A Young Chicken, showing the arrangement
of the Feathers 22

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

1. Cockatoos (_Cacatua_) 28

2. Collared Parrot (_Palæornis torquatus_) 29

3. The Jako (_Psittacus erithacus_) 36

4. The Amazon Parrot (_Chrysotis Amazonicus_) 40

5. The Maitakka (_Pionus menstruus_) 41

6. The Crested Hawk Parrot (_Deroptyus accipitrinus
coronatus_) 44

7. The Helmet Cockatoo (_Callicephalus galeatus_) 48

8. The Nestor Cockatoo (_Nestor productus_) 49

9. The Casmalos (_Microglossus aterrimus_) 52

10. The Raven Cockatoo (_Calyptorhynchus Banksii_) 53

11. The Scarlet Macaw (_Ara Macao_) 61

12. The Garuba (_Conurus luteus_) 64

13. The Rosella (_Platycercus eximius_) 72

14. The Waved Parrot (_Melopsittacus undulatus_) 73

15. The Corella (_Nymphicus Novæ Hollandæ_) 76

16. The Ground Parrakeet (_Pezoporinus formosus_) 77

17. The Purple-capped Lory or Lorikeet (_Lorius domicella_) 80

18. The Dappled Lorikeet (_Psitteuteles versicolor_) 81

19. Tail-piece 82

20. The Large-beaked Cross-bill (_Loxia pityopsittacus_) 85

21. The Banded Cross-bill (_Loxia tænioptera_) 88

22. Cross-bills (_Loxiæ_) 89

23. The Pine Grosbeak (_Pinicola enucleator_) 93

24. The Desert Trumpeter (_Bucanetes githagineus_) 96

25. Female Bullfinch and Nest 104

26. The Girlitz (_Serinus hortulanus_) 105

27. The Wild Canary 109

28. The Tame Canary 112

29. The Chaffinch (_Fringilla Coelebs_) 116

30. The Mountain Finch (_Fringilla montifringilla_) 120

31. The Brown Linnet (_Cannabina linota_) 121

32. Siskin, Bullfinch, and Goldfinch 125

33. Goldfinches and Nest 128

34. Winter Visitors to the Village 132

35. Sparrow's Nest 133

36. The Tree Sparrow (_Passer montanus_) and the
House Sparrow (_Passer domesticus_) 136

37. The Green Grosbeak (_Chloris hortensis_) 140

38. The Rose-breasted Hawfinch (_Coccoborus ludovicianus_) 144

39. The Dominican Finch (_Paroaria dominicana_) 148

40. The Rarita or Rara (_Phytotoma Rara_) 149

41. The Guttarama (_Euphone violacea_) 156

42. The Rice Bird (_Padda oryzivora_) 160

43. The Pheasant Finch (_Astrilda undulata_) 164

44. Detached Nest of Male Gold-fronted Weaver Bird
(_Oriolinus icterocephalus_) 165

45. Nest of Astrilda, from Senegal 165

46. Nest of Weaver Bird, slit open 166

47. Nest of Mahali Weaver Bird 168

48. Nest of Social Weaver Bird (_Philetaërus socius_) 168

49. The Golden Weaver Bird (_Ploceus galbula_) and
the Masked Weaver Bird (_Ploceus larvatus_) 169

50. The Java Weaver Bird (_Baya_) and Nests 172

51. Breeding Nest of the Golden-fronted Weaver Bird
(_Oriolinus icterocephalus_) 173

52. Nests of South African Weaver Birds 175

53. The Fire Finch (_Euplectes Petiti_) 176

54. Dinemelli's Buffalo Weaver Bird (_Textor Dinemellii_) 177

55. The Paradise Widow Bird (_Vidua paradisea_) 180

56. The White-throated or Song Sparrow (_Zonotrichia
albicollis_) 181

57. The Ortolan, or Garden Bunting (_Emberiza-Glycyspina
hortulana_) 188

58. The Black-headed Bunting (_Euspiza melanocephala_) 189

59. The Reed Bunting (_Cynchramus schoeniclus_) 192

60. The Lark Bunting (_Centrophanes lapponicus_) 193

61. The Snow Bunting (_Plectrophanes nivalis_) 194

62. The Calandra Lark (_Melanocorypha Calandra_) 197

63. The Moor Lark (_Saxilauda Tatarica_) 200

64. The Desert Lark (_Ammomanes deserti_) 201

65. The Alpine Lark (_Phileremos alpestris_) 202

66. The Tufted Lark (_Galerita cristata_) 204

67. The Skylark (_Alauda arvensis_) 205

68. The Sentry Lark (_Macronyx capensis_) 208

69. Tail-piece 209

70. The Boblink (_Dolichonyx oryzivorus_) 212

71. The Red-Winged Troopial (_Agelaius Phoeniceus_) 216

72. The Cow Starling (_Molothrus pecoris_) 217

73. The Baltimore Bird 220

74. The Great Boat-tail (_Quiscalus major_) 221

75. The Common Starling (_Sturnus vulgaris_) 224

76. The Rose Starling (_Pastor roseus_) 228

77. The Musical Grakle (_Gracula musica_) 229

78. The Red-beaked Ox-biter (_Buphaga erythrorhyncha_) 232

79. The Superb Glossy Starling (_Notauges superbus_) 233

80. The Scaly Glossy Starling (_Pholidauges leucogaster_) 236

81. The Satin Bower Bird (_Philonorhynchus holosericus_) 237

82. The Spotted Collar Bird (_Chlamydera maculata_) 240

83. The Pirol, or Golden Oriole (_Oriolus galbula_) 241

84. Birds of Paradise 244

85. The Red Bird of Paradise (_Paradisea rubra_) 245

86. The Resplendent Epimachus (_Seleucides resplendens_) 249

87. The Collared Epimachus (_Epimachus magnus_) 252

88. The Magpie Bird of Paradise (_Astrapia gularis_) 253

89. The Chough (_Fregilus graculus_) 256

90. The White-necked Vulture Raven (_Corvultur albicollis_) 259

91. The Scapulated Raven (_Pterocorax scapulatus_) 260

92. The Raven (_Corax nobilis_) 261

93. The Carrion Crow (_Corvus corona_) 262

94. The Rook (_Corvus frugilegus_) 264

95. The Jackdaw (_Monedula turrium_) 265

96. The Nutcracker (_Nucifraga caryocatactes_) 268

97. The Flute Bird (_Gymnorhina tibicen_) 269

98. The Magpie (_Pica caudata_) 273

99. The Crested Blue Jackdaw (_Cyanocitta cristata_) 276

100. The Common Jay (_Garrulus glandarius_) 277

101. The Wandering Magpie (_Dendrocitta vagabunda_) 281

102. The Banana Eater (_Musophaga violacea_) 284

103. The White-cheeked Helmet Bird (_Corythaix leucotis_) 285

104. The Alarm Bird (_Schizorhis zonurus_) 288

105. The Wiriwa (_Colius Senegalensis_) 289

106. Oriental Falconry 297

107. The Peregrine Falcon (_Falco peregrinus_) 301

108. The Falconer 304

109. The Tree Falcon (_Hypotriorchis subbuteo_) 305

110. The Lark Kestrel (_Tinnunculus alaudarius_) 308

111. The Red-footed or Evening Falcon (_Erythropus
vespertinus_) 309

_CASSELL'S_ BOOK OF BIRDS.

EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION.

We were some time ago both delighted and astonished by the performances of a German artist, who imitated with wonderful exactness the notes of a variety of birds. The song of the nightingale and the warblings of the skylark, the whistling of the throstle and the out-poured melody of the canary, were gone through with such perfect execution, that the birds themselves, we thought, could scarcely have detected a flaw in the performance. This gifted individual introduced himself to his audience by a somewhat humorous account of the manner in which he had acquired his extraordinary powers. He told us that his father, who was a breeder of birds, had upon one occasion gone from home, leaving a bag of rice as provision for his children, and a quantity of bird-seed for his feathered protégés. By some mistake the rice had been given to the birds, and the bird-seed to the children, the consequence being, that on the gentleman's return he found his birds all dead, and his children singing like piping bullfinches. How far this explanation was satisfactory we will not stop to inquire; but we have sometimes been almost tempted to suppose that some similar accident must be of frequent occurrence in Germany. The deep acquaintance of the ornithologists of that country with the objects of their study, and the fidelity with which they note down the minutest incidents connected with the history of their favourites, surpassing anything achieved by other naturalists, not even excepting such enthusiastic labourers as Wilson and Audubon, demands our warmest praise; while the patient industry, so conspicuous in their writings, at once calls for and excites our admiration.

Among the foremost of his countrymen in the cultivation of ornithological research stands the author of the magnificent work whose pages it is our wish to lay before English readers. Not content with studying the natural history of his favourites from books, or even in the rich scientifically arranged collections contained in so many Continental museums, his zeal led him to follow them even into their own wild retreats, and, gun in hand, to penetrate the burning deserts of Eastern Africa, and the equally inhospitable, and then but little known, regions of Abyssinia. By thus familiarising himself with the habits of birds in their native haunts, and amid the scenery whereby they are surrounded in a state of nature, he has been enabled to impart a freshness to his descriptions as characteristic of the real naturalist as the smell of new-made hay is redolent of fields and hedgerows, and no more to be imitated by the mere compiler than the voice of an orator by the reporter of his speeches.

Before, however, we permit our author to speak for himself, it may perhaps be desirable to preface his remarks by a few general observations concerning the structure of the beautiful creatures that form the subjects of his teaching, inasmuch as it is obviously desirable to have clear notions concerning the machinery employed before its adaptation to its intended uses can be made manifest; and further, because in the study of ornithology, as in every other branch of natural history, there are certain conventional terms that may require explanation before the words used in describing an object are intelligible to the uninitiated.

The Bird is an inhabitant of the air in the fullest sense of the expression. The atmosphere is emphatically the sphere of its activity; it mounts it as it would a ladder; it sails through it in triumph, and rides upon the winds as upon a fleet steed. Moreover, it is the atmosphere itself which endows the feathered Ariel with such capabilities, and it is in the perfection of his respiration that we must search for an explanation of his wonderful achievements.

_a_, the Lungs, immovably fixed; _c_, _d_, the Breast-bone, moving as upon a hinge at _b_, so that it can be raised to the position indicated by dotted lines at _h_. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Cells, with membranous walls, into which the air is freely admitted during the act of inspiration.]

The muscular activity of every animal is intimately dependent upon the efficiency of its breathing apparatus, upon the freedom with which the vital element finds admission to the blood which it is destined to renovate, and upon which it confers those qualities so inseparably connected with the elimination of increased temperature, and the vigour of muscular action. In this respect, as we shall see immediately, the feathered races surpass all living creatures, with the exception, perhaps, of the members of the insect creation.

The lungs of a bird are not suspended, like those of a quadruped, within a circumscribed chest or thoracic cavity, in such a manner as to become inflated by each inspiration; they are rather to be described as soft, porous, and highly vascular organs, through which the air passes as through the interior of a sponge. The movements of the chest, upon which depend the inspiration and expiration of the atmospheric fluid, may be compared to those of a bellows continually employed in taking in and expelling the surrounding element by a mechanism represented in the accompanying figure (Fig. 1). The framework of the chest, consisting of the ribs and of the breast-bone, is so put together that at each inspiration it can be raised, as shown in the drawing, from the position _d_ to the position _h_, thus materially enlarging the thoracic chamber, just as the upper board of an ordinary bellows is raised for the purpose of taking in the air; but, in this case, the surrounding element, instead of entering through a valve-defended orifice, rushes down the windpipe, and through the immovable, sponge-like lungs, permeating the wide passages with which they are perforated, and not only filling the entire thorax, but penetrating into the interior of the very bones, which are left marrowless for its reception.

The mechanism whereby expiration is effected is equally simple; just as, when the upper board of the bellows is depressed, the air is forced out through the nozzle, so, by the return of the breast-bone to its former position, the inspired air is again forced to pass through the lungs and make its escape by means of the windpipe. By this process it is obvious that the vital element--the oxygen of the atmosphere--being admitted to every part of the system, the blood is vitalised to the greatest possible extent, its temperature is raised until the heat of the body of a bird is far greater than that of an ordinary quadruped, and its vitality is proportionately exalted. Consequently, as the blood circulates through the system, it carries with it heat and life in superabundance; the energies of the entire system are roused to the uttermost; the fibres of every muscle quiver with intense life, like a steam-engine working under high pressure, thus enabling the falcon to cleave the skies with the velocity of a falling thunderbolt, and not only qualifying the swallow for its rapid flight, but enabling it to achieve its wonderful migrations.

This admission of air into every part of the system serves not only to fan the vital flame, and rouse the energies of the bird to an extraordinary degree of tension; it likewise assists in giving buoyancy to its movements, bearing it upward, as the gas does a balloon; for it is evident that the air received into the body being raised to a temperature corresponding to the heat of its blood, the specific gravity of the bird is proportionately diminished, and it rises into the air almost without an effort, and even hovers in the sky with scarcely a perceptible movement of its wings.

A knowledge of the mechanism of their mode of respiration will likewise enable us to explain another remarkable feature in the history of the feathered tribes, namely, their power of song. Who that has listened to the prolonged warblings of a linnet, the flood of melody poured forth from the little throat of the canary, the "lengthened sweetness long drawn out" which almost pains the enraptured ear as we listen to the song of the nightingale, but has wondered how such tiny birds can ever find sufficient breath for the utterance of such long-sustained, such interminable notes? What would our prima-donnas at the opera give for but the tithe of the capacity of these favoured little songsters? No human breast could ever hold sufficient breath for such performances. We now see, however, that the vocal organs of a bird are exactly adapted to the nature of their music. Their whole body is a bellows, as large in proportion to their size as the bellows of an organ is in relation to the pipes into which it has to pour the sound. The little bird is, in fact, a living harmonium--its singing apparatus is not situated at the top of its throat, but is implanted in the inferior termination of its windpipe; and just as the tongue of the harmonium is thrown into vibration by the issuing current of air caused by pressure upon the bellows, so are the vocal chords of the feathered songster rendered sonorous as the air passes over them. In proportion to the capacity of the bellows must be the duration of the note, and we have already seen that the air-cells of the bird are capable of furnishing a supply not easily exhausted. There is, however, this remarkable difference between the two instruments: the tongue of each key of the harmonium can give utterance but to one sound--one never-varying tone--while the corresponding part of the bird, rendered more or less tense by muscles provided for the purpose, contains within itself a whole gamut, and there is not a note in the scale that is not instantly at the command of the inimitable little musician. In the perching birds, among which are found by far the most accomplished singers, five pairs of muscles are connected with this exquisitely-contrived apparatus, and are so disposed as to influence both the diameter and the length of the air-passages. In the parrots three pairs are met with; some of the swimming birds have two, while others have only one; and in a few--as the king of the vultures and the condor--vocal muscles are quite wanting.

Seeing that the temperature of birds is raised so much above the usual standard by the arrangements described above, some clothing is requisite, adequate to retain the vital heat. Another indispensable provision is therefore met with in the FEATHERS with which all birds are so warmly clad. Indeed, so peculiar is the texture of these admirable fabrics, that no better distinctive appellation could be devised for the entire class than that of the "feathered tribes," by which they are frequently designated. A feather realises in its structure more qualities than imagination could have conceived it possible to combine--lightness, thickness, warmth, durability, elasticity, softness, strength, and beauty. It is one of the master-works of creation. Whoever has examined a feather under the microscope will testify to the incomparable perfection of the contrivance. Every feather is a mechanical wonder. If we look at the quill-portion, or barrel, we find it possessed of attributes not easily brought together--strength and lightness. If we cast our eye upon the upper part of the stem, we see a material made for the purpose, which is used in no other class of animals, and in no other part of birds--tough, light, pliant, elastic--the pith. This is also a substance _sui generis_; it is neither bone, flesh, membrane, nor horn.

_a_, the Arm; _d_, the Fore-arm; _g_, the Thumb; _c_, the Secondary Quills, implanted into the Fore-arm; _f_, the Primary Quills, implanted into that portion of the Wing which represents the hand; _e_, the Spurious or Bastard Quills, derived from the Thumb.]

But the most wonderfully constructed part of a feather is the _plume_, or, as it is sometimes called, the _web_. This is affixed to each side of the stem, and constitutes the broad expansion of the feather, that part which we usually strip off when making a pen. One of the first things to be remarked is that the web is much stronger when pressed in a direction perpendicular to the flat plane of the plume than when rubbed either up or down in the direction of the stem; the reason of this is that the web is composed of numerous flat, thin, and broad laminæ, arranged with their flat sides together, so that, although they easily bend towards each other, they offer great resistance in the direction in which they have to encounter the impulse and pressure of the air; and it is in this direction only that their strength is wanted and put to the test.

Another particularity is still more admirable. Whoever examines a feather cannot help noticing that the laminæ of which we have been speaking, in their natural state seem to be fastened together. Their adhesion to each other is manifestly something more than mere apposition; they are not to be separated without a certain degree of force, and, as there is evidently no glutinous cohesion between them, it is plain that by some mechanical means or other they catch or clasp among themselves, thereby giving to the web its closeness and compactness of texture. Nor is this all. When two laminæ which have been separated by accident or design are brought together again, they immediately reclasp; the connection, whatever it was, is perfectly restored, and the web of the feather becomes as smooth and firm as if nothing had happened to it. Draw your finger down the feather, which is, so to speak, against the grain, and you will probably destroy the junction between some of the contiguous laminæ; draw your finger up the feather in the opposite direction, and you restore all to their former state of coherence. This is no common contrivance. Let us now inquire concerning the mechanism whereby it is effected. The laminæ above mentioned, examined individually, are found to be provided with vast numbers of long fibres, or teeth, which project from their edges in such a manner that, when placed in contact, those of contiguous laminæ hook and grapple together. The fibres are extremely minute; indeed, fifty of them have been counted by means of the microscope in the space of the 1/20th of an inch. Every fibre is crooked, but bent after a definite manner; those that proceed from one edge of a lamina are long, flexible, and bent downwards, whereas those that proceed from the opposite edge are shorter, firmer, and turned upwards. The manner in which they are united is, therefore, as follows: When two contiguous laminæ are pressed together, so that the long fibres are forced far enough over the short ones, their crooked parts fall into the angles formed by the crooked parts of the others, just as the latch of a door falls into the cavity of the catch fixed to the door-post, and there hooking itself, fastens the door. This admirable structure, which may be readily seen with a very ordinary microscope, ensures not only the union of the laminæ, but renders it possible that when any two of them have been separated by violence they will become re-connected with facility and expedition. In the ostrich, this apparatus of crotchets and fibres, of hooks and eyes, is wanting; the filamentary laminæ hang loose and separate, forming a kind of down; but such a plan of construction, however it may fit the plumes for the flowing honours of a lady's head-dress, must be considered as detrimental to the bird, inasmuch as wings composed of such feathers, although they may assist in running, will not serve for flight.

_c_, the External Horny Sheath, slit open; _d_, _d_, Web of the Feather produced in successive layers from the central stem, _e_.]

The power of inflating their whole body with air, and the possession of feathers, are therefore the most distinctive endowments of a bird, inasmuch as these attributes are quite peculiar to the class.

To creatures thus gifted with strength and activity so extraordinary, it is manifest that perceptions of great acuteness are requisite, corresponding with the rapidity of their movements and the intelligence necessary for the performance of the important duties entrusted to their charge; and in this respect, as will be made manifest by a perusal of their history, they occupy a position in the economy of nature fully equal or even superior to that enjoyed by the most favoured quadrupeds. The mental faculties of the parrots correspond with those of the monkeys, whom in their habits and capabilities these birds closely resemble; in cunning they are quite upon a par with their four-handed neighbours, with which, in the forests of tropical countries, they are so generally associated; and when removed from their native woods, and made, as they often are, the companions of mankind, the facility with which they can be taught to imitate human actions--nay, to mimic our very speech--bears ample testimony to the exalted character of their mental capacities.

On examining the brain of a bird, the anatomist is therefore by no means surprised to find that, both in its development and in the perfection of its structure, it surpasses that of many quadrupeds. The proportionate volume of the brain of some of our singing birds, as compared with the dimensions of their body, is astonishing, and reveals to us at a glance the reason why these little favourites are so sagacious and so eminently susceptible of education. (See Fig. 4.)

The upper part of the skull has been removed to show the brain and eyes _in situ_. _a_, _a_, the Cerebral Hemispheres; _b_, the Cerebellum; _c_, the Spinal Cord. All the above parts are represented covered by their investing membranes. _e_, Sinuses of the Dura Mater; _g_, _g_, Walls of the Skull; _h_, _h_, Base of the Beak; _m_, Optic Nerve of the Left Eye; _p_, _p_, Large sentient Nerves supplying the Bill; _v_, Bony Ring in front of the Eye-ball; _x_, _x_, Transparent Cornea; 1, 3, 5, 7, Muscles moving the Eye-ball.]

In strict correspondence with this exalted condition of their cerebral organisation are the senses whereby they hold intercourse with surrounding nature. Their power of vision is beyond our comprehension, and the elaborate contrivances whereby the eye of a bird is adapted to its peculiar mode of life, might furnish materials for a lengthy treatise, imperfect as is our knowledge of the numerous delicate arrangements demonstrable by anatomical skill in every part of its structure. At present we can but briefly allude to a few of the more conspicuous peculiarities wherein the visual apparatus of a bird differs from that of other creatures.

The distances from which the vulture and the hawk can see their prey are almost incredible. To have the "eye of a hawk," to see with "eagle glance," are expressions which, though common enough, give but a very feeble idea of the extent to which those birds are gifted in this respect, or of the vast expanse bounded by their horizon. The falcon sees its diminutive prey from an altitude at which it is itself invisible, and from the very sky swoops down upon its quarry with the velocity of a shot, rarely missing its victim, and thus proving at once the perfection of its sight and the steadiness of its aim. The eye of these birds must therefore be constructed after the plan of a telescope, and its focus adapted to long-sightedness. Its axis must be lengthened to an extent greater than is compatible with a spherical form of the eye-ball. To meet this requirement a circlet of bony plates, constituting a firm but at the same time somewhat flexible ring or hoop, is introduced into the composition of the outer coat of the eye, whereby the requisite elongation is effected, and the organ is thus adapted for perfect vision at a great distance. (See Fig. 4.)

The above beautiful arrangement, however, constitutes but a part of the mechanism required. A telescope adjusted for distant vision is quite useless when brought to bear upon an object close at hand, and its focus must necessarily be altered in accordance with the changed conditions. In the case of the telescope, the needful adjustment would be effected by shortening or lengthening the sliding tube; but in the bird some other plan is evidently indispensable, and few contrivances in animal mechanics are more admirable than that which is adopted. Embedded in the transparent vitreous humour of the eye is a peculiar apparatus called the "marsupium," the texture of which resembles that of the human iris. Now the iris, as we all know, being eminently sensitive to the intensity of light, by its spontaneous contractions and dilatations is enabled to alter the diameter of the pupil of the eye, and thus exactly control the quantity of light admitted. The marsupium, equally sensitive, and equally spontaneous in its action, swells or contracts its dimensions, filling or emptying itself like a sponge, and thus adjusting the lenses of the eye so as to secure perfect vision at whatever distance the object to be seen may be placed. The quickness of sight with which birds are gifted is equally remarkable. The swallow is proverbially one of the swiftest flyers in the feathered creation, and yet in the full career of its flight it is looking on the right hand and on the left, upwards and downwards, for its food. The insects upon which it preys are often exceedingly minute, sometimes flying above and sometimes below the level of the swallow's course, and yet they are seen and captured without any diminution of the prodigious rate at which the bird is flying. Nay, more, any one who attentively watches one of these birds skimming over a meadow, may perceive that it will capture two or even three insects in such quick succession as to convince him that the swallow must have "had an eye upon them" all at once, and yet they are caught, as it were, in a moment.

Another admirable contrivance peculiar to the feathered race, is the existence of a thin, semi-transparent veil, which, when requisite, can be instantaneously drawn over the front of the eye. This apparatus, generally known as the "nictitating membrane," is useful for a variety of purposes; it sweeps over the eye to cleanse it from dust, it diffuses the tears which keep it bright and polished, it will act as a screen to shut out the too great intensity of light, so that with its assistance the eagle can confront the sun even at noon-day; it will likewise defend the eye from sudden injuries, and yet, even when drawn like a curtain over the pupil, not shut out the light. The commodious manner in which this membrane lies folded up in the inner corner of the eye, and the quickness with which it executes its purpose, are known to every observer; but what is equally admirable, though not quite so obvious, is the employment of two kinds of material, and the combination of two kinds of force, by which the movements of this membrane are effected. It is not, as in ordinary cases, by the action of two antagonist muscles, the one pulling it forward and the other backward, but the membrane itself, being elastic, is capable of being drawn out like a thin sheet of india-rubber, and of returning to its former position when the force acting upon it is removed. Such being its nature, in order to adapt it for its office it is connected by a tendon with a muscle situated at the back part of the eye. This tendon, though strong, is so fine as not to obstruct the sight, even when it passes across the pupil, and the muscle which moves it being situated deeply within the orbit, derives from its situation the advantage of not only being secure from injury, but of being out of the way, which it hardly would have been in any position that could be assigned to it in the front of the eye, where its function really lies. When this muscle contracts, the membrane, by means of the communicating tendon, is instantly drawn, as it were, by a thread, over the transparent cornea, and when the muscle ceases to act, the elasticity of the membrane is sufficient to bring it back into its former position. (See Fig. 6.)

Both eyelids are divided through their middle, and everted, so as to display the Nictitating Membrane, _a_, and the passage for the tears (_puncta lacrymalia_), _b_.]

But this is not all. In the arrangement of the muscle which, though placed behind the eye, draws the nictitating membrane in front of it, there is what justly deserves to be called a marvellous piece of mechanical contrivance. The extent of contraction necessary to draw the membrane over the whole front of the visual organ would require a much longer muscle than could have been placed in such a situation; in order to meet this difficulty, the tendon which draws forth the nictitating membrane is made to pass through a loop in another muscle, as represented in the next wood-cut (Fig. 7), where it is evident that, by the simultaneous contraction of both these muscles, the extent of their action when drawing the nictitating membrane over the eye is considerably increased. Neither is this the only advantage derived from so ingenious a contrivance; were it not for the plan adopted, the tendon of the muscle _u_ _x_ would press upon the optic nerve, and thus materially interfere with vision--an inconvenience that by the existing arrangement is totally prevented. Devices like these, whereby special machinery is introduced for special purposes, speak for themselves; we acknowledge their beauty, and in them we recognise at once the wisdom and the goodness of the CREATOR.

The Muscles of the Eye-ball, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_, are separated from their origins, and turned aside, to show the "trochlearis" or "quadratus," _t_, and the "pyramidalis," _u_, _x_; the latter of which passes through a loop in the former, so as to gain a double extent of effect with a given length of fibre.]

The SENSE OF SMELL in birds has afforded subject-matter for much discussion, and great obscurity still exists with reference to the extent to which they make use of their olfactory organs. It has been generally asserted that birds of prey are gifted with an acute perception of odours, and are thus enabled to discover their food at a distance; but the rapidity with which vultures are known to assemble round the carcase of an animal too recently killed to attract them by putrefactive exhalations, has induced many observers to consider them as being directed entirely by sight. That this latter is the preferable theory appears to be sufficiently established by the experiments of Audubon, which go to show that these birds possess a sense of smell very far inferior to that conferred upon carnivorous quadrupeds, and that, so far from guiding them to their prey from a distance, it affords them no indication of its presence even when close at hand.

Having procured the skin of a deer, M. Audubon stuffed it full of hay, and after the whole had become perfectly dry and hard, he placed it in the middle of an open field, laying it down on its back in the attitude of a dead animal. In the course of a few minutes he perceived a vulture flying towards and alighting near it. Quite unsuspicious of the deception, the bird immediately proceeded to attack the carcase, as usual, in the most vulnerable points. Failing in this, he next, with much exertion, tore open the seams with which the skin had been stitched, and appeared earnestly intent upon getting at the flesh which he expected to find within, and of the absence of which not one of his senses was able to inform him. Finding that his efforts, which were long reiterated, led to no other result than the pulling out of sundry quantities of hay, he at length, though with evident reluctance, gave up the attempt, and took flight in pursuit of other game.

Another experiment, the converse of the preceding, was then tried:--A large dead hog was concealed in a narrow and winding ravine, about twenty feet deeper than the level of the ground around it, and filled with briars and high cane. This was done in the month of July, in a tropical climate, where putrefaction takes place with great rapidity; yet, although many vultures were seen sailing in all directions over the spot where the putrid carcase was lying covered only with twigs of cane and light underwood, none of them appeared at all to suspect its presence.

Nevertheless, notwithstanding the apparently decisive result of the above experiments, anatomy teaches us that the olfactory apparatus in this class of animals is largely developed, and indicates by its extent that it is well adapted to investigate the odorous properties of the air taken in for respiration.

The SENSE OF HEARING in birds is remarkably acute, as might be readily inferred from the vocal capabilities conferred upon many of these gifted songsters. Their music is certainly not less appreciated by the performers than it is by their auditors. "Nobody can doubt," observes Bishop Stanley, "who sees a bird singing, clapping its little wings, turning from side to side, and glancing its bright eyes in all directions, as if courting attention and admiration, that it feels delight and satisfaction. Did we require further proof, we have but to recollect that the song-bird is most alert with the music of its voice when its affections and interests are awakened by its mate during the time of rearing its young." It is, indeed, principally during the breeding-season that the singing power of birds is in full activity; and seeing that in general it is only the male that possesses the musical faculty, we may naturally suppose that its exercise is intended for the solace and amusement of his mate during her confinement to her nest. The nightingale himself becomes voiceless so soon as the appearance of his nestlings calls him to more profitable employment.

_a_, the Upper Part of the Head, partially denuded of feathers; _b_, the Beak; _d_, the Eye; _c_, _e_, _f_, Marginal Fold of Skin surrounding a cavity, the interior of which somewhat resembles the folds of the human ear; _g_, Auditory Passage leading to _h_, the Drum of the Ear (_membrana tympani_).]

It is, however, among the nocturnal birds that the faculty of hearing is more specially developed. In the generality of birds there is no provision made externally for catching or concentrating sonorous impressions; but in the owls, the bustards, and a few others that venture forth at night, we find a different arrangement. In the owls, more especially, an external auditory apparatus is very conspicuous; not only does the integument exhibit a variety of folds, the disposition of which forcibly reminds us of the human ear, but the feathers upon the sides of the head are so disposed as to fulfil in some degree the purposes of a hearing trumpet. (See Fig. 8.) In such species the sense of hearing is exquisitely developed.

In the generality of birds the SENSE OF TASTE can scarcely be said to exist. The manner in which they obtain and swallow their food precludes the possibility of enjoyment from this source, so that their tongue is in many cases appropriated to some totally different use. In by far the greater number the tongue is small, thin, and cartilaginous; the extremity is flat, and incapable of being protruded beyond the bill. (See Fig. 9.) There are, however, great varieties in the construction of this organ, a few of which will require our notice.

The tongue of the parrot, although its substance is not so fleshy, has some resemblance to that of man, and it is probable that this is one of the circumstances enabling these birds to imitate the human voice with so much facility.

In the family of the toucans and some others, the tongue, without being extensible, is fully as long as the largely developed bill, and, moreover, its sides are fringed like those of a feather. A tongue of this description may probably be endowed with some delicacy of taste, enabling these birds to appreciate the flavour of the fruits on which they feed.

Birds of the duck family have the largest tongues. Owing to its fleshy appearance it more nearly resembles the human tongue than even that of the parrot. Birds of this family discriminate their food not by sight, but by the delicate sense of touch with which their tongue is endowed. They thrust their bill into the mud, and from the mouthful thus obtained select, by means of their tongue alone, whatever is fit for food, rejecting the rest.

The smallest tongues are found in the night-jars and swallows, two groups which at the same time are distinguished by having the largest mouths in proportion to the size of their bodies; and in this case the design is equally apparent. These birds feed upon living insects captured during their rapid flight, and immediately swallowed whole; taste is out of the question. A large tongue would only be in the way, and it is therefore reduced to a mere rudiment.

_a_, the Lower Mandible; _c_, the Tongue; _h_, _m_, interior of the Gullet; _i_, the Upper Larynx.]

In the preceding examples the length of the tongue never exceeds that of the bill; but in the case of the woodpeckers it is protrusible to a wonderful extent. On opening the bill of a woodpecker immediately after it has been killed, the tongue seems of ordinary length, or indeed rather short, and shaped somewhat like the spears used by the Caffres in South Africa, called _assagais_, pointed at the end and furnished with numerous barbs. (See Fig. 10.) This, however, is only the tip of a very remarkable instrument. If the barbed portion be drawn out of the mouth, a person unacquainted with its nature would think that he had got hold of a very long earthworm that the bird had incautiously tried to swallow, but which had stuck in its throat; hence a tongue of this description is called _vermiform_. The point in its usual position reposes in the ordinary manner between the mandibles; the rest is concealed, but is susceptible of extension, at the pleasure of the bird, to four or five times the length of the bill. The act of protrusion is effected by the remarkable structure of the root of the tongue, or more properly of the _os hyoides_, or bony apparatus whereby it is attached. The posterior prolongations derived from the _os hyoides_ are compactly curved around the back of the skull; and occasionally they are prolonged forwards to such an extent as actually to reach the nostrils. By means of this somewhat complex arrangement the woodpecker, having broken away the bark of a tree by the powerful strokes of its bill, and thus laid open the retreat of the insects beneath, suddenly darts out its tongue, spears its prey, and instantly brings the transfixed insect into its mouth.

The SENSE OF TOUCH must be of very limited utility; indeed, there seems to be no part of the body of a bird so constructed as to be capable of tactile impressions. The wings, the representatives of hands and arms, are obviously entirely unfit for the exercise of such a function; neither do the legs and feet seem to be better suited to this purpose. The only organ of touch about which there can be no doubt is the bill, yet even this is generally covered with a hard sheath of horn. Nevertheless, in some races the extremity of the bill is soft and largely supplied with nerves. In snipes and wood-cocks, for example, the sensitive extremity of the beak materially assists in procuring their food.

For the systematic arrangement of the class of birds, the conformation of their feet has been found to afford characters of great importance to the ornithologist, inasmuch as the organisation of these members must obviously be in strict relation with the localities they inhabit. To account for the distribution of the feathered tribes, and to explain the relationships that exist between them and other animals, a great variety of ingenious theories have been broached, all of them more or less fanciful. The different families, sub-families, and minor groups into which they have been divided have been again and again sorted, like a pack of cards, frequently more in accordance with the whim of the player than with the established rules of the game. And yet a little reflection will show that the great principles of zoological classification are so simple, and at the same time so immutable, that we sometimes cannot but admire the ingenuity displayed in going wrong.

_a_, harpoon-like Tip of the Tongue; _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_, Framework of the Throat; _i_, _k_, Glands furnishing adhesive secretion.]

Few things are more manifest to the student of nature than that, in the distribution of the animal creation, it has been ordained that every locality shall be peopled by forms of life pre-eminently adapted for its occupation. If, therefore, we are asked whether birds ought to be arranged in circles or in squares, in hexagons or in pentagons, in groups of five or in groups of seven, our simple reply would be by inquiring how many localities could be pointed out as requiring appropriate occupants, and to this question it is not difficult to find a satisfactory answer.

The earth, the water, and the air, throughout their broad domains, must each of them be provided with inhabitants peculiarly constructed to live in their diversified regions. Upon the earth, we find the level ground, the mountain, and the glen; we find the pathless forests, and the solitary trees and shrubs, and bushy underwood. We cast our eyes upon the waters, and we see the world of ocean covering two-third parts of this great globe, stretching from pole to pole, rolling its mighty waves through every zone; we see the creeks and shallow bays that margin it all round, and watch the waves as they approach the shore and lay them down to sleep upon the beach. There are the rivers, too, and lakes, and swamps and marshes which are neither land nor water, sometimes overspread with floating vegetation, sometimes a broad expanse of ooze and rushes far too soft to bear the weight of creatures that might try to walk upon the treacherous surface. We look into the air, and there we find between the earth and sky abundant room for birds of every wing. If, therefore, with this little map of the world before us, we reply to the question propounded above, we should be tempted to say that there must necessarily be as many different types of organisation as there are districts therein enumerated; and doubtless a reference to any system of ornithology, however much the classification may be confused by preconceived theories, will convince us that such is essentially the foundation of any natural arrangement.

In taking, therefore, a brief survey of the principal groups, or ORDERS, under which the feathered races have been distributed, we will begin with those appointed to live on trees, inasmuch as these are regarded by the author of the following pages as being entitled to the highest rank in the class to which they belong, rivalling in intelligence, as some of them do, the apes and monkeys of which they are in general the inseparable companions.

Few people in this country have any adequate conception of a tropical forest, and, consequently, are scarcely prepared to see whole races of animals constructed specially for a residence in the umbrageous wilderness within its pathless precincts. The great forest of the Amazon, in all its primeval grandeur, stretches for a thousand miles from north to south, and probably three or four hundred from east to west, and over all this vast extent of territory, so closely are the branches interwoven that, as we are told, a monkey might make his way passing from tree to tree without ever coming to the ground except at those points where the rivers hold their course through the tangled yet sublime scenery. "In these untrodden vastnesses the trees, rising frequently to a height of sixty or eighty feet, with stems perfectly straight and without a branch, give support to the huge creepers that climb around their trunks like immense serpents waiting for their prey, or sometimes stretching obliquely from their summits like the stays of a lofty mast, here twisting round each other till they form living cables, as if to bind securely the patriarchs of the forest; there wreathed in tangled festoons, and themselves covered with smaller creepers and parasitic plants." Such is Mr. Wallace's description of the interior of the Amazonian forest.

_a_, Crop; _b_, termination of the Windpipe, or inferior larynx; _c_, one of the Vocal Muscles; _d_, lower portion of the Gullet; _e_, the Gizzard; _g_, Lung of the right side; _h_, Liver; _i_, Alimentary Canal.]

"The forests of Rio Janeiro," says Mr. Darwin, "are ornamented with the cabbage palm trees 110 feet high, with a stem so narrow that it might be clasped with two hands. The woody creepers themselves are of great thickness, some of them measuring two feet in circumference. If the eye was turned from the world of foliage above to the ground beneath, it was attracted by the extreme elegance of the leaves of the ferns and mimosæ (sensitive plants). The latter in some parts covered the ground; in walking across these thick beds, a broad track was marked by the change of colour produced by the drooping of their sensitive leaves. It is easy to specify the individual objects of admiration in these grand scenes, but it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder, astonishment, and devotion, which fill and elevate the mind."

These are the localities amongst which species of the ARBOREAL ORDERS find their Paradise, and hold undisturbed possession. Myriads of climbing birds--parrots, macaws, and cockatoos--fill the whole atmosphere with joyful screams, deafening the very monkeys with their din; gorgeous toucans, with enormous bills and feathers dipped in flame, and woodpeckers scarcely less gaily clad, make the woods echo, as with axe-like beaks they chop their way in search of insect food.