Chapter II: Part 2

The peculiar structure of the feet in the arboreal races is evidently adapted to a life amongst the branches of trees: the outer toe can be directed backwards like a thumb, enabling them to grasp the boughs as with a hand.

If, leaving the trackless gloom of the forest, we approach the sylvan scenery of the surrounding country, the "bosky woods" and isolated trees, or the sparse undergrowth of bushy shrubs, we find innumerable forms that have their feet contrived for _perching_ only. These INSESSORIAL races, called also PASSERES, from their general resemblance to sparrows, live upon insects, fruit, and grain; but those with strong beaks live more exclusively upon grain, and those with slender beaks upon insects. The proportional length of their wings is as variable as their habits. They have four toes, generally so disposed that there are three in front and one behind; sometimes all four in front. Their legs are slender, and they hop rather than walk.

The forests and the trees, the bushes and the brakes, the thickets and the hedgerows, being thus provided with appropriate denizens, we turn our attention to the level ground; and here we find species as obviously designed for a terrestrial existence as were the preceding groups for a residence among the branches. The terrestrial or GALLINACEOUS birds live principally upon the ground. Their body is large and heavy, and their wings short and rounded, so as to be but ill adapted to prolonged flight. They have three toes in front, which are united at their base by a short fold of the skin, and their hinder toe is affixed above the level of the rest. In many species the male is provided with formidable weapons in the shape of _spurs_. To this order belong the turkeys, pheasants, and barn-door fowls. Their legs are thick, strong, and muscular, their toes short and powerful. They always prefer running to flying, and, indeed, will rarely take to their wings, except when compelled to do so by the urgency of the occasion.

If any doubt could be entertained as to the terrestrial character of the gallinaceous birds, there can be none whatever as to those distinguished by the name of CURSORES or runners. The principal characteristic of the cursorial race consists in the undeveloped condition of their wings, which are quite disproportioned to the size of their body. In some cases these rudimentary wings are but imperfectly furnished with feathers, and seem only to be used after the manner of sails, to catch the wind, and thus assist in running. The living species form two families, of one of which the Ostrich, and of the other the Apteryx, is the type.

Leaving the firm dry land, we next turn our attention to the marshes--the dubious confines between land and water--and here we find the order of WADERS, or, as they have been named on account of their long stilt-like legs, GRALLATORES or stilt-walkers. These birds, as their name imports, are characterised by the height of their legs, which are naked, and thus adapted for wading to a certain depth into the water, where many species catch their prey. A remarkable example is met with in this order of the facility with which difficulties, apparently insurmountable, in the adaptation of certain species to peculiar circumstances, have been encountered and overcome. In India, the tanks and ponds of considerable depth are more or less covered with the broad leaves of water-lilies and other floating vegetation. In such places, which are far too deep to be occupied by wading birds, and yet too extensive to be left without inhabitants, we find a family provided with toes so enormously lengthened, and moreover eked out by claws of such extraordinary length, that the spread of their feet extends over a very large surface, thus enabling them to walk over the floating weeds.

Another order of birds comprehends those whose feet are specially constructed for swimming, constituting a NATATORIAL TYPE; for this purpose they are placed far back upon the body, the legs are short and compressed, and the toes are united by a web. Their plumage is thick and shining, impregnated with oil, and closely packed with soft down, so as to preserve them from all contact with the water. They are the only birds the length of whose neck much surpasses that of their legs, thus enabling them, while swimming at the surface, to obtain their food at the bottom. Such are the DUCKS and SWANS, which are, moreover, further characterised by having their bill covered with a soft skin, and furnished occasionally at the sides with ridges and tooth-like points. The DIVERS, trusting to their superior powers of battling with the watery element, are met with further from the shore; while, at distances still more remote from land, daring the utmost fury of the tempestuous ocean, walking upon the waters, or riding upon the seas--

"Up and down, up and down,
From the base of the wave to the billow's crown,
In the midst of the flashing and feathery foam,
The Stormy Petrel finds _her_ home."

Lastly, in this our rapid survey of the distribution of the feathered tribes, we have to speak of those whose element is the air. And here, perhaps, the reader may feel inclined to remark that, with the exception of the cursorial birds, such as the Ostriches and the Apteryx, all the species we have had occasion to mention are more or less capable of flight--that this is the special attribute of the whole class. Nevertheless, upon a little consideration, he will find that amongst the many races that fly well, there are some so pre-eminent in this respect that all others quail before them. It is one thing to be able to fly, and another to be furnished with wings so powerful that they never seem to tire. It is one thing to be the champion of the coppice, but another to be the tyrant of the sky!

The greatest powers of flight are of course conferred upon the rapacious birds, whose business is to overtake and destroy their swift-flying prey. To enable them to do this, their wings are necessarily of the most perfect structure; and they may also be recognised by their feet, which are strong, and armed with formidable talons. Of the swiftness of the falcon we have spoken elsewhere; and any one who has witnessed the flight of the eagle is not likely to have forgotten so grand a spectacle; his movements are majestic, and as he sails above the clouds on outstretched wings he seems to feel himself the monarch of the scene around. And yet even the falcon and the eagle cannot, as regards their powers of flight, be looked upon as the most highly gifted of flying birds. The spread of wing of the frigate-birds measures ten feet from tip to tip, and their flight is so powerful that they are everywhere to be seen in tropical climates at immense distances from land; while the albatross has been known to fly around a ship for weeks together, exhibiting such indomitable strength of wing that it has been supposed to be capable of circling round the world.

It is by no means our intention to trouble the reader with unnecessary details concerning the anatomy of the creatures upon the history of which he is about to enter; nevertheless, it is indispensably requisite that we should give at least an outline of their internal organisation.

No one can have examined attentively the bony framework whereby the body of a bird is sustained, without being forcibly impressed with the lightness as well as the compactness of its construction. The most wonderful economy is exhibited in the arrangement of the weighty material of which it consists. The bones present in their interior extensive cavities, whereby they are considerably lightened, and their walls, although exceedingly dense and strong, are much thinner than in any other animals. The extremities of the cylindrical bones are occupied by a light open network of slender filaments shooting across in every direction from wall to wall, and as these attenuated buttresses are likewise hollow, it is easy to perceive how incomparably lightness and strength are here conjoined.

The extent to which the skeleton is thus filled with air varies in different birds in relation with their powers of flight. In the Swifts and the Humming-birds every bone of the skeleton, even to the toes and the claws, is permeated by the atmospheric fluid. In the opposite extreme, the terrestrial Apteryx and the aquatic Penguin have not a single bone thus excavated.

_a_, the Skull; _b_, Vertebræ of the Neck; _c_, Dorsal Region of
the Spine; _d_, Vertebræ that support the Tail; _e_, _e_, _e_,
the Sternum or Breast-bone; _f_, _f_, _f_, _f_, the Ribs; _h_,
the Scapula, or Shoulder-blade; _i_, _i_, the conjoined Clavicles
or Collar-bones, forming the Furculum, or "Merry-thought;" _k_,
the Coracoid Bones; _l_, the Humerus, or Arm-bone; _m_, _n_,
Bones of the Fore-arm; _o_, _b'_, Bones of the Wrist or Carpus;
_p_, _p_, the Metacarpal Bones and Rudimentary Thumb; _q_, _q_,
Pieces representing the Middle Finger; _r_, _s_, _s_, the Pelvis,
formed by the consolidation of the hinder Vertebræ of the Back
into one piece; _t_, the Thigh-bone; _u_, the Leg; _x_, _x_,
the Tarso-Metatarsal Bones, usually called the Tarsus; _y_, the
Hallux, or Hinder Toe; _z_, _z_, the Front Toes.
]

The skeleton of an animal formed for flight must be constructed upon mechanical principles of a very refined character. The utmost lightness is indispensable; nevertheless, in a framework which has to sustain the powerful action of muscles so vigorous, strength and firmness are equally essential. It is in combining these two opposite qualities that the human mechanician exhibits the extent of his resources and the accuracy of his knowledge; but let the best and most ingenious mechanic carefully examine the skeleton of a bird, and we doubt not that in its construction he will find all his ingenuity surpassed, and perhaps derive not a little instruction from the survey.

In order to render the following account of the structure of a bird's skeleton intelligible to the non-scientific reader, we have delineated that of the Pigeon, and with this figure before us we shall have but little difficulty in indicating those points with which it is essential that the reader of the present volume should be intimately acquainted. (See Fig. 12.)

In the back-bone, or vertebral column, we find three principal regions, each of which will merit distinct notice.

The _cervical region_, or that portion belonging to the neck (Fig. 12, _b_), is exceedingly variable in its proportionate length, and forms the only flexible portion of the spine; it performs, indeed, the functions of an arm, at the end of which the beak, the chief instrument of prehension, is situated. The number of vertebræ entering into the composition of this part of the skeleton is very variable; in the Swan there are as many as twenty-three, in the Crane nineteen, while in the Sparrow there are only nine. As a general rule, it may be observed that the neck of a bird is never so short as not to be able to reach to every part of the body; in many aquatic species it is remarkably elongated, whether they swim upon the surface by means of webbed or natatory feet, like the Swan, or wade into rivers and marshes, like the Crane or the Heron. Throughout the entire class a very beautiful contrivance is observable in the S-shaped curvature of this region, the joints of the upper vertebræ being so disposed that they will bend forwards, while in the lower part they can only be bent backwards, thus enabling the bird to lengthen or shorten its neck with the utmost facility and gracefulness.

But if flexibility is thus admirably provided for in the cervical region, in the thoracic portion of the skeleton which has to support the framework of the wings, and sustain the efforts of the powerful muscles connected with flight, firmness and rigidity become essential requisites, and, accordingly, in the dorsal region, every means has been employed to prevent those movements which in the neck are so advantageously permitted. The vertebræ of this region (Fig. 12, _c_) are therefore so consolidated as to be almost immovable; and, moreover, splints of bone laid along the back materially add to its stability and strength. There are likewise two sets of ribs, one firmly lashed to the back-bone, the other strongly attached to the sides of the sternum; these dorsal and sternal ribs are moreover united to each other by firm connections, and a thorax is thus formed, possessing sufficient mobility to perform the movements connected with respiration, but still affording a strong basis for muscular action; nay, still further to strengthen this part of the skeleton, from the hinder margin of each dorsal rib a broad flat plate of bone (Fig. 12, _f_) is prolonged backwards, so as to overlap the rib next behind, and thus bind the whole together as firmly as possible.

The sternum or breast-bone (Fig. 12, _e_) is developed in proportion to the size of the three pectoral muscles subservient to flight, and is prolonged beneath into a deep keel-like projection. In the cursorial races, such as the Ostriches and the Apteryx, whose wings are not available for flying, the keel is entirely wanting.

Whoever considers the position of the hip-joint in the skeleton of a bird, and reflects how far it is necessarily removed behind the centre of gravity when the bird walks with its body in a horizontal position, will at once perceive that the hinder portion of the spinal column, having to support the whole weight of the body under the most disadvantageous circumstances, and at the same time to give attachment to the strong and massive muscles that wield the thigh, must be consolidated and strengthened in every possible manner, and that even the slight degree of movement permitted in the region of the back would here be inadmissible. Most of the hinder vertebræ are, therefore, solidly conjoined into a single piece (Fig. 12, _r_, _s_), sufficiently strong and massive to bear the great strain to which it is continually subjected, leaving only a few of the hindmost pieces (Fig. 12, _d_) free, upon which the feathers of the tail are supported.

The fore limb of a bird, although used for the purpose of flight, when stripped of the feathers and quills that, as we have already seen, form the extensive surface of the wing, will be found very much to resemble the human arm in its general arrangement, presenting only such modifications as are required for the performance of its peculiar function.

The framework of the shoulder consists of three bones (Fig. 12, _h_, _i_, _k_), named respectively the _scapula_ or _shoulder-blade_, the _clavicle_ or _collar-bone_, and the _coracoid bone_. The scapula (_h_) is a long and comparatively slender piece placed upon the ribs, and embedded in the muscles, to which it gives attachment. The coracoid bone (_k_) is the strongest piece of the shoulder; it supports the wing at one extremity, while at the opposite it is firmly united to the sternum by a broad and massive joint. But the most peculiarly formed part of the shoulder is the _furculum_, or "merry-thought," as it is usually called (_i i_), consisting of the two collar-bones united, so as to form but a single fork-shaped apparatus, the presence of which materially enlarges and strengthens the shoulder, without unnecessarily adding to the weight. It is by the union of the three last-mentioned bones that a place is made for the socket of the shoulder, with which the wing is more immediately connected.

The skeleton of the wing presents the bone of the arm, called the _humerus_ (Fig. 12, _l_), and the two bones of the fore-arm, named respectively the _radius_ (_m_) and the _ulna_, or _cubit_ (_n_). The _wrist_, or _carpus_, consists of two bones (_b' o_), and the metacarpus (_p_) is likewise made up of two pieces; these, with two, or sometimes three, rudimental fingers (_p' q q_), complete the framework of the wing. The largest finger consists of two, or sometimes of three joints; a second offers but a single joint; and the third, when present, is a mere appendage to the carpus, representing a sort of apology for a thumb.

The bones of the leg likewise exhibit the same parts as exist in the human skeleton, but modified. The _thigh_, or _femur_ (Fig. 12, _t_), is a short and strong bone, to which succeeds the leg, consisting of two bones (_u_), named the _tibia_ and the _fibula_, but the latter is generally very imperfectly developed. That part which is commonly considered to be the leg consists of the bones of the ankle and a part of the foot (the tarsal and metatarsal bones) consolidated into a single piece, called by anatomists the _tarso-metatarsal_ bone, but known to ornithologists as the _tarsus_ (_x_). At the lower extremity of the tarsus are three joints that support the three front toes (_z, z_), while a fourth toe (technically called the _hallux_) (_y_), which is directed backwards, is attached to it by the intervention of a small accessory piece. In the gallinaceous order there exists a bony spur, considered by some as representing a fifth toe.

In order to facilitate the description of a bird, it is usual for the ornithologist to consider its exterior as being mapped out into sundry _regions_ (see Fig. 13), to each of which has been assigned a definite and appropriate name; with the names of these regions, and their precise application, it is requisite that the reader should be intimately acquainted.

A bird, like any other vertebrate animal, is divisible into the head, the body, and the limbs; under one or other of which divisions all subordinate parts may be classed.

The head consists of the _skull_ and the _bill_, and is joined to the body by the _neck_. Commencing with the bill, we see that it is composed of two pieces, corresponding to the jaws of quadrupeds; that which is above is called the _upper mandible_ (Fig. 13, 1), that which represents the under jaw is called the _lower mandible_ (2). The upper mandible contains the _nostrils_ (3); its highest part is called the _culmen_ or _ridge_ (4), while the corresponding ridge of the lower mandible is called the _gonys_ or _keel_ (9).

The lateral edges of the mandibles which meet when the bill is closed are called the _margins_. In some birds the margins of the upper mandible fold over those of the lower, while in others the edges meet; when this is the case, the line of junction between the two is called the _commissure_ (5).

In many birds the upper mandible is continued far back over the forehead, and there dilated, so as to form a _casque_ or _helmet_. In rapacious birds and parrots there is a belt of soft naked skin at the base of the upper mandible, named the _cere_, in which the nostrils are placed, while around the eye is a space, often denuded of feathers, called the _ophthalmic_ region (11).

The HEAD is that part which lies immediately over the skull, extending from the base of the beak to the commencement of the neck. The _front_ or _forehead_ (12) is that part of the head which lies close above the nostrils; then follows the _crown_ or _summit_ (17), which occupies the middle or centre of the head, forming that part which is usually occupied by the crest in birds so ornamented. The _hind head_(18) commences at the declivity of the skull; its lower portion is called the _nape_ (19).

1. Upper Mandible.
2. Lower Mandible.
3. Nostrils.
4. Ridge, or Culmen.
5. Commissure, or cutting edges of the Mandibles.
6. Apex, or point of the Beak.
7. The Chin.
8. Upper Throat.
9. Keel, or Gonys.
10. } Coloured Bands, usually called Bridles and Stripe.
11. }
12. The Forehead.
13. The Gape, or Rictus.
14. Space around the Eye.
15. Lower Throat.
16. Superciliary Region.
17. Crown, Summit, or Vertex.
18. Hind Head, or Occipital Region.
19. The Nape, or Nucha.
20. The Ear, or Ear-feathers.
21. The Throat.
22. The Breast.
23. The Neck above, or Upper Neck.
24. The Back, or Mantle.
25. Scapular Wing-covers.
26. Lower Back, or Tergum.
27. The Shoulder.
28. Body, or Lower Breast.
29. The Belly.
30. The Vent.
31. The Tail Feathers.
32. The Under Tail-covers.
33. Spurious Quills.
34. Secondary Quills, or Secondaries.
35. Primary Quills, or Primaries.
36. The Shoulder Margin.
37. Wing Covers.
38. Under-surface or Under-part of the Body.
39. The Tarsus, or Leg.
40. The Front Toes.
41. The Hinder Toe, or Hallux.
42. Upper Tail-covers.
]

On the sides of the head the following parts have received distinct names:--The feathers that cover the ears, to save repetition, are usually called the _ears_ (20): they are generally rather more rigid and their webs more disconnected than the surrounding feathers. The space between these and the corner of the mouth (usually called the _gape_)(13), is termed the _cheek_.

The parts of the NECK are thus designated:--The back of the neck is called the _upper neck_, or _nucha_ (23), beneath which is the _lower neck_ or _auchenium_. The under-side of the neck is divided into three regions; first, there is the _chin_ (7), or that small space just beneath the lower mandible; to the chin succeeds the _upper throat_ (8), between which and the broad part of the body is the _lower throat_ (15).

The BODY presents the following regions: first there is the _breast_ (22), which extends over the space which covers the breast-bone. To this succeeds the _belly_ (29), which is terminated by the _vent_ or _crissum_ (30). Immediately behind the vent are the _under-tail covers_ (32), which are frequently of a different colour from the surrounding feathers.

On the upper aspect of the body we have the _interscapular region_, sometimes called the _back_ (24), to which succeeds the _lower back_ (26), which terminates at the _rump_, or that part where the _upper-tail covers_ (42) are inserted.

Last of all comes the TAIL, composed of long stiff feathers, called the _tail-feathers_ (31), concerning which it is only necessary to observe that the two middle tail-feathers are the _intermedial_, while those on the sides are the _lateral_ tail-feathers.

The WING of a bird will be found to present a structure worthy of our highest admiration. The object aimed at in the arrangement of its different parts is evidently to obtain a very large and firm expanse of surface, by employing the smallest possible quantity of material. For the purposes of flight it is obviously necessary that the superficial extent of the wings shall be sufficiently ample, not only to sustain the weight of their possessor in the thin and yielding element in which it flies, but, by the vigour of their stroke and the violence of their impulse, to propel the bird with a rapidity proportioned to the occasion, and, moreover, by the lightness of their touch and the accuracy of their movements, to steer and steady its course through all the varied evolutions whereby it is enabled to capture prey, or sportively display the wonderful activity conferred upon the feathered tribes.

We have already seen, while examining the construction of the skeleton, that the bony framework of the wing essentially resembles that of the human arm, and that the limb when stripped of its feathers is no more adapted for flying than our own. The needful expansion is obtained altogether by the addition of the quill feathers, which, as explained in a preceding page, combine in their structure all the qualities requisite for the intended purpose, lightness, firmness, strength, elasticity, and extent of surface: the central part of the arm or wing forms merely a basis of support, into which the quills and other appendages to the wing are securely implanted. It will therefore be easily understood that the importance of the individual quills as instruments of flight will depend very much upon the position they hold in the wing, of which they form so considerable a portion, and, consequently, that they have received names expressive of their relative efficiency. Those that are affixed to the bones representing the hand (Fig. 12, _p_, _q q_), by the length of their stroke, and the peculiarity of their arrangement, are obviously of primary importance, both from their size and the situation they occupy, and have consequently been named the "_primaries_," or the "_primary quills_," (Figs. 2, _f_; 13, 35); they might be called with equal propriety the "_hand-quills_," a term more particularly expressive of the parts to which they are attached. Upon the relative length and other proportions of the primary quills the shape and mechanical power of the instrument principally depend; if the first primary be the longest, the termination of the wing is sharp and pointed (_acuminate_), as in most birds that are remarkable for the swiftness of their flight; whereas if the second, third, or fourth of these quills should exceed the others in this respect, the wing becomes more and more rounded (_obtuse_), and the perfection of its action visibly deteriorated.

The "_Secondary Quills_," or "_Secondaries_" (Figs. 2, _c_; 13, 34), are exclusively sustained by the bones of the fore-arm (Fig. 12, _m_, _n_); from their situation being much nearer to the shoulder-joint than the preceding, the extent of their sweep is more limited, and their stroke much feebler; they are, consequently, as their name indicates, of secondary importance in locomotion.

1. Tyrant Shrike (_Tyrannus intrepidus_).--2. Virginian Chordeiles (_Chordeiles Virginianus_).--3. Cow-bird (_Icterus pecoris_).--4. Crimson Honeysucker (_Myzantha garrula_).--5. Masked Weaver-bird (_Ploceus larvatus_).--6. Fire-crested Wren (_Regulus pyrocephalus_).--7. Rice-bird (_Padda oryzivora_).--8. Variegated Grakle (_Quiscalus versicolor_).--9. White-tailed wheatear (_Saxicola leucura_).--10. The Wittal Oriole (_Oriolus galbula_).--11. The Alpine Accentor (_Accentor Alpinus_).--12. Nordman's Glareole (_Glareola Nordmanni_).--13. Alpine Tit (_Parus Alpinus_).--14. Crested Tit (_Parus Cristatus_).--15. African Parra (_Parra Africana_).--16. Piririguan Tick-eater (_Crotophaga Piririgua_).--17. Ptarmigan (_Lagopus Scoticus_).--18. Scapulated Crow (_Corvus Scapulatus_).--19. The Kestrel (_Tinnunculus Cenchris_).--20. The Senegal Thick-knee (_Oedicnemus Senegalensis_).--21. Rock Kestrel (_Tinnunculus rupicolus_).--22. Corythus (_Corythus enucleator_).--23. The Red-legged Stilt-Walker (_Himantopus rufipes_).--24. The Stone Thrush (_Turdus saxatilis_).--25. The Silk-tail (_Bombycilla garrula_).--26. Long-tailed Tit (_Parus biarmicus_).--27. The Wall-creeper (_Tichodroma muraria_).--28. The Troopial (_Agelaius phœniceus_).--29. The Yellow Bunting (_Emberiza Cia_).--30. The Red-eyed Coccyzus (_Coccyzus erythropthalmus_).--31. The Cirl-Bunting (_Emberiza cirlus_).]

The _Spurious_, or _Bastard Quills_ (Figs. 2, _e_; 13, 33), are attached to the rudimental bone that represents the thumb (Figs. 2, _g_; 12, _p_); their size is diminutive, and their use in flight comparatively unimportant.

The _Wing Covers_ or _Coverts_ (Fig. 13, 37) are small feathers arranged in several rows, which overlap and strengthen the bases of the quills; they are often variously coloured, and thus afford important features whereby different species may be distinguished. Besides the above, there are certain conventional terms employed by the ornithologist that will require enumeration. The arm-part of the wing in the living bird is generally known as the _shoulder_ (27); the elbow-joint is the _flexum_; while that part of the fore-arm which corresponds to the edge of the wing is denominated the _shoulder-margin_ (6).

The names appropriated to the different parts of the hinder-limb have been already sufficiently indicated when describing the composition of the skeleton.

There are many birds which have stripes of variously coloured feathers situated above, before, and behind the eye; while others sometimes occur at the base of the lower mandible. To all these distinct names have been appropriated. A _superciliary_ stripe is situated _above_ the eye, occupying a position analogous to that of the human eyebrow. An ordinary eye-stripe is either _anterior_, _posterior_, or _entire_. It is called _anterior_ when it only occupies the space between the eye and the bill; _posterior_ when it commences behind the eye, and advances towards or unites with the ear-feathers; and _entire_ when it is both posterior and anterior. A _maxillary_ stripe commences at the base of the under mandible, and descends on the sides of the neck.

Showing the little Hammer or "Bill-scale" on the end of its beak, wherewith it is enabled to break through the egg-shell.]

Such is the by no means very long list of names of parts used by the ornithologist in his description, and which in the course of the present volume will necessarily be of very frequent occurrence.

The oil with which birds preen their feathers, and the glands that supply it, constitute a remarkable provision peculiar to the feathered creation. Embedded among the feathers at the root of the tail, there is on each side a small nipple, yielding upon pressure a butter-like substance, which the bird extracts by squeezing the orifice with its bill. By means of the oil, or rather ointment, thus procured, it dresses its feathers, either for the purpose of increasing their brilliancy, or, as in the case of the swimming birds, to make them impenetrable to wet.

The pairing of birds is a feature in their history which draws a broad line of distinction between the feathered tribes and the generality of quadrupeds. Among mammiferous quadrupeds the young derive their nutriment during the earlier period of their existence entirely from the maternal breast, the male parent contributing nothing towards its support; but in the winged races the callow brood derive their supply of food from the industry of both parents, whose united exertions are not more than is requisite to procure the needful supply. In this circumstance we may see a reason for the faithful love of the feathered mate as contrasted with the vagrant disposition of the quadruped. The parental fondness of birds towards their young has escaped no observer; no historian of nature is silent upon this subject. "How well they caress them," says Derham, "with their affectionate notes, lull and quiet them with their voice, put food into their mouths, cherish and keep them warm, teach them to peck and eat, and gather food for themselves, and, in a word, perform the part of so many nurses deputed by the Sovereign Lord and preserver of the world to help such young and shiftless creatures."

It would lead us far beyond the limits of our space were we to do more than indicate the close relationship that exists between the exalted temperature and warm clothing of the feathered creation and the wonderful instinct which urges them to build nests for the reception of their eggs, or the still more remarkable blind perseverance with which they devote themselves to the task of incubation. "There is nothing," says Paley, "either in the aspect or in the internal composition of an egg which could lead even the most daring imagination to conjecture that it was hereafter to turn out from its shell a perfect living bird. From the contents of an egg would any one expect the production of a feathered goldfinch? To suppose the female bird to act in this process from a sagacity and reason of her own is to suppose her to arrive at conclusions there are no premises to justify." And yet HE who made the egg not only ordained that such should be the result of the simple process of incubation; but, as though to confound scepticism, by giving, as it were, the last touch to HIS inscrutable work, provided the young bird with the means of escaping from incarceration, by attaching to the end of its beak a little hammer, called the "bill-scale," the only use of which is to crack the egg-shell, and allow the little prisoner to come forth. (See Fig. 14.)

With these few prefatory remarks, we leave our author in the reader's hands, at the same time promising that he will find in the succeeding pages a rich store of valuable information.

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

Those who are familiar with modern works on ornithology will have observed that it is usual to commence the history of the feathered tribes by a description of the vultures--the most disagreeable and least intelligent of the race. Some writers, however, consider the singing birds as entitled to the first place, the remaining members of the heterogeneous multitude being arranged according to the pleasure of individual naturalists more or less acquainted with their subject. For our own part, we recognise in the parrots the qualifications most fitted to entitle them to take the precedence, and it is, consequently, with these that we shall commence our history. Ornithologists, moreover, differ widely among themselves as regards the relation that exists between the parrots and other members of the class to which they belong, either placing them in a group by themselves, in a manner never intended by Nature, or associating them with toucans, woodpeckers, and cuckoos, with which they possess but few characteristics in common. Under these circumstances, we have considered ourselves at liberty to adopt our own views upon the subject, and have, accordingly, constituted for the parrots a distinct order, under the quaint but expressive name of

CRACKERS (_Enucleatores_),

in allusion to the facility with which, owing to the construction of their beaks, they are enabled to crack nuts, and other hard seeds, that form the usual staple of their food.

The order that we have thus thought it advisable to establish is, however, by no means limited to the parrots; it includes various other seed-eating birds, chiefly belonging to the passerine tribes, the resemblance of which to parrots has been in some cases generally acknowledged in selecting the names ordinarily conferred upon them. Thus, the Cross-bills have long been known in Germany as the FIR-TREE PARROTS, and, on the other hand, the epithet of SPARROW-PARROTS, applied to some races of climbing-birds, clearly shows the relationship that exists between these generally dissevered groups.

The birds thus associated will be found to present many features in common. They live chiefly upon vegetable substances, and their strong beaks enable them to break up hard kinds of food, such as nuts, seeds, and grain. They will also eat fruit and leaf-buds, or the tender shoots of plants; many will devour insects; and a few do not altogether reject the flesh of other animals. They are all clever, lively, and active, much attached to the society of birds of their own species, though they do not often cultivate acquaintance with those belonging to a different family. Their great intelligence enables them to live comfortably even under disadvantageous circumstances, and their temperament allows them to fight the "battle of life" very cheerfully. Owing to the diversity of their habits, they are necessarily widely distributed, and some of them are to be met with in every climate; the parrots only are restricted to the torrid zones, the remaining members of the order being citizens of the world. As to the localities they frequent, much depends upon the absence or presence of the trees to which they usually resort, by far the greater number being strictly arboreal, passing their whole lives in flying from tree to tree, and confining their excursions to a very limited district. Only such as live in cold countries migrate; indeed, regular migrations--that is to say, such as take place at stated periods--or journeys to any considerable distance, are quite exceptional among them. They are, in general, very affectionate and docile; the male has frequently but one mate during his whole life, and nearly all of them brood more than once in the year.

The nests of this order of birds are of very various construction, and the number of eggs never large. The task of incubation usually devolves upon the female, who is cheered and tended by her mate during the period of her seclusion, but he also occasionally shares her labours, and both parents co-operate in feeding and taking care of their young. Many species are considered inimical to mankind, on account of their marauding attacks upon property; and yet the benefits they confer far outweigh any injuries of which they may be guilty. They clear away the seeds of noxious weeds, free the plants from insects; and their lively and cheering presence in the woods, their beauty, their song, and the ease with which they are tamed, together with other good qualities, fully entitle them to our admiration and regard. The flesh of most of them affords an appetising and healthy food, and the plumage of some species forms a beautiful and admired decoration.

PARROTS (_Psittacini_).

If it is ever permissible to compare animals of one class with those of another, we would state our opinion that the parrots hold among birds much the same position as that occupied by monkeys among quadrupeds. The truth of this remark will become obvious as we proceed with their history. Most systematists have considered parrots as entitled to take but an inferior place in the zoological series, founding this opinion upon a single characteristic which they share with many other birds of far humbler endowments; we allude to the prehensile structure of the foot. Parrots, Woodpeckers, Pepper-eaters, Curacus, Barbets, and Jacamars, are all climbing birds; that is to say, they all have two toes placed in front and two directed backwards; and, immaterial as this structure of the foot may appear, it has been deemed a sufficient reason for forming an order embracing several races of most dissimilar form, which present only this one feature in common. Little stress should, in reality, be laid upon this disposition of the toes, from whatever point of view it is regarded, seeing that Woodpeckers, Tree-creepers, and a great number of others that do not possess the scansorial foot, vie with the so-called climbing birds in the facility with which they climb. The three-toed Woodpecker is not inferior in the dexterity with which it can use its claws to any four-toed scansorial species; and we shall, we believe, be giving this climbing foot its proper appreciation if we compare it to and rank it with the flexible tail of some mammalia, the possession of which is not confined to any particular race, but bestowed alike upon arboreal species of the most various kinds. A foot of this description is by no means of such uniform structure as is usually supposed, and, in truth, is scarcely less varied than are the birds themselves; the foot of the parrot, in particular, differs essentially from the pair-toed foot of other Scansores, in the development of the central part, which renders it in its functions comparable to a hand. The parrots, in fact, constitute a distinct and very clearly defined race, their most distinguishing characteristic being found in the structure of their beak, which can never be mistaken for that of any other bird. At the first glance, indeed, the beak of the parrot would appear to resemble that of the birds of prey; but it is, in reality, much thicker and stronger, and also comparatively higher and more symmetrical in its form. The legs are thick, strong, and fleshy, but never long; the tarsus much shorter than the middle toe, and always covered with small scaly plates; the toes are moderately long, and have a thick sole, but this exists only on certain peculiar ball-like elevations; upon their upper surface the feet are covered with minute scales, resembling those of the tarsus; and these scales, as they approach the ends of the toes, become gradually larger, and project beyond the base of the claw upon the terminal joint in the shape of short tubular or band-like plates; the claws are not long, but much bent and tolerably sharp, never very powerful. The structure of the wings is in exact correspondence with that of the feet; the bones are of moderate length, but strong; the pinion feathers tolerably numerous--twenty to twenty-four. The compactly formed primary quills are seldom long, but so disposed that the outspread wing is generally pointed; the tail-feathers vary considerably in different species, both as regards length and shape. The general plumage is remarkable on account of its compactness; it consists of few feathers, but these are usually of large size, with the exception of those covering the head, which are small. The eye is in many instances surrounded by a naked patch of skin, which during life is usually powdered over with white dust. The body feathers are each furnished on the under side with a large downy appendage. The coloration of the plumage, notwithstanding its great diversity, will require notice, as presenting a feature very distinctive of the different races of parrots. The prevailing tint is a more or less vivid leaf-green; but we also meet with hyacinth, blue, purple, red, golden yellow, and at times darker hues; their distribution is also characteristic, more especially the frequent occurrence of complementary colours upon the upper and under sides of the same feather--blue-violet, dark blue, light blue or green above, with light yellow, orange-yellow, cinnabar red, or purple underneath. Not less peculiar is the frequent concealment of glowing tints among others which are less conspicuous, as, for example, in the case of some Cockatoos in which we meet with feathers having their lower portion and their downy roots of a deep cinnabar red or brilliant yellow, and yet this portion is seldom visible, on account of the length of the white feathers among which it is hidden.

The extraordinary intelligence exhibited by some parrots is particularly remarkable; it is, indeed, their sensible behaviour, not their form, that makes us regard these creatures as representatives of the Quadrumana. The parrot has, superadded to the form of a bird, all the qualifications and troublesome propensities of the monkey--humoursome and fickle at one moment, gentle and agreeable at the next; it is intelligent, active and circumspect, provident and crafty, very quick in discernment, and possessed of an excellent memory; on this account it is eminently susceptible of instruction, and may be taught almost anything. On the other hand, it is choleric, malicious, spiteful, and deceitful; it forgets injuries as little as it does kindnesses; it is cruel and inconsiderate to creatures weaker than itself, tyrannically ill-treating the helpless and unfortunate, as does the monkey. It has been the fashion to rank parrots as inferior to many other birds, because they do not exhibit such conspicuous capabilities of locomotion; they are, nevertheless, very well endowed, even in this respect. The larger species fly with apparent heaviness, but with considerable rapidity; the smaller, wonderfully well--so well, indeed, that we have been almost consoled for the loss of a favourite bird whilst watching the beauty of its flight. Very many appear to be quite out of their element when upon the ground, they seem to hobble rather than to walk, but there are some Ground Parrots that run swiftly and with much facility; and Gould makes mention of a Grass Parrot that he saw running upon the ground like a plover. The capability of hopping from bough to bough is an accomplishment in which parrots are deficient, nevertheless they have their own mode of progression among the branches; any considerable space they fly over, but smaller distances they pass by climbing, and that with considerable rapidity, unwieldy as some of them appear; helping themselves along by means of their beak, as well as their feet, while other birds use their feet only. Parrots are unable to swim, and are quite incapable of diving. The bill is far more movable than that of any other bird, and is useful for many purposes. Their voice is harsh and screaming, but yet not entirely destitute of an agreeable sound when heard in their native haunts. Some species will learn to whistle tunes with remarkable clearness and accuracy; the faculty which they possess of imitating the human voice and speech is well known--their performance, indeed, is wonderful; they do not babble, they speak, and seem to know the meaning of the words they use.

With the exception of Europe, parrots are to be met with in all parts of the world, more especially in tropical regions; one American species ranges as far north as 42°, and another is found in the southern hemisphere, as far as the inhospitable wastes of Tierra del Fuego, in 53° south latitude. Cockatoos are known to inhabit New Zealand and Macquarrie's island, 52° south. In Asia and Africa, the parrots are principally confined to the limits of the torrid zone; in China, they rarely pass 27° north latitude, and in India, at furthest, only extend to the foot of the Himalaya mountains. In Western Africa, they rarely go beyond 16° north, and in Eastern Africa, according to our information, not further than 15°; but towards the southern hemisphere they probably are to be met with at a greater distance from the equator.

Generally speaking, the woods are their favourite haunts; but this is by no means universally the case. There are certain species, for example, which only frequent treeless plains or wide steppes; in the Andes some are to be found living far beyond the region of trees, even at an altitude of 11,000 feet above the level of the sea.

In the north-east of Africa, according to our own experience, they almost exclusively reside in places frequented by monkeys, insomuch that apes and monkeys seem to be their inseparable companions. The more extensive the forests--that is, the richer they are in vegetation--the more these birds abound; indeed, in the tropical forests, they constitute a large--we might almost say, the largest--proportion of the feathered inhabitants. The same remark applies to Australia, as well as to many localities in India, and in part also to Africa; in these countries parrots are as numerous as crows are in Europe, and as common as sparrows.

They would seem to understand how to make themselves conspicuous; and while they deafen the ear with their discordant cries, enliven the dark shades of tropical forests with their lavishly-coloured plumage. "It is impossible," says Gould, "to describe the enchanting scene afforded by certain parrots, more especially by those adorned with feathers of glowing red, as they wheel their varied flight among the silver-leaved gum-trees of Australia, their gorgeous plumage standing out amid the surrounding scenery with wonderful effect."

"Morning and evening," writes Schomburgk, "countless multitudes may be seen at a considerable height, making an insufferable noise; one afternoon I saw such a prodigious flight descend upon the trees by the river-side, that the branches bent low under the weight of the birds." "It is necessary to have lived in these countries, more especially in the hot valleys of the Andes," says Humboldt, "to believe it possible that the shrieking of the parrots actually drowns the roar of the mountain torrents as the waters leap from rock to rock. What would those wondrous tropical forests be without parrots? Lifeless gardens of enchantment, a wilderness of silence, a solitary desert; by these birds they are awakened and kept alive, for the parrots know equally well how to find occupation both for the ear and eye of the traveller."

Except in the breeding season, parrots live in society, or, we might rather say, in great flocks; they select a locality in the forest as their settlement, and thence make daily excursions to considerable distances. Early in the morning they simultaneously quit their roosting-place, to invade the same tree or the same field in search of food, stationing sentinels, whose duty it is to protect the community from a sudden surprise. They pay instant attention to any voice of warning, and when alarmed, immediately take flight, either all together or shortly after each other.

"At the first glimmering of the clear morning sun of the tropics," says the Prince von Wied, "the parrots rouse themselves from their sleeping-places, dry their wings, which have become wetted with the dews of night, and playfully call aloud to each other; then, after describing many sweeping circles above the high woods, they quickly depart in search of the morning's meal. In the evening they invariably come back again to their usual roost."

Le Vaillant tells us that in south-eastern Africa the native parrots fly in little flocks in search of food, bathe about noon, and hide themselves among the foliage during the overpowering heat of the sun. Towards evening they disperse themselves, after which they again bathe, and then fly back to the same roosting-place from which they had departed in the morning. These roosting-places are very various--sometimes the thickly-leaved top of a tree, sometimes a rock full of holes, often a hollow tree trunk; the situation last mentioned seems to be especially sought after. "Their sleeping-place," says Audubon, speaking of the American parrakeets, "is a hollow tree, or the hole chiselled out in some tree's trunk, to be the nestling-place of the larger woodpeckers, that is, in case these are not occupied by their true owners. In the gloaming large flocks of parrots assemble around old hollow sycamores, or other trees of similar character; and may be seen immediately in front of the entrance clinging to the bark, until one after another they disappear through the hole that leads into the interior, in order to pass the night. When a hollow of this description is not sufficiently large to accommodate the numbers that are assembled, those that come last are content to suspend themselves by their bill and claws from the bark before the entrance.

"We have ourselves, in the primitive forests around the Blue River, in Africa, repeatedly watched the parrots at twilight, slipping one after another into their hole, and have observed them ranged with great regularity around the many perforations in the trunk of some old Adansonia.

"In India, the Collared Parrot, as Layard informs us, sleeps among the thickets of bamboos. "All Parrots, Bee-eaters, Grakles, and Crows from districts extending for many miles around, pass the night in flocks among the great bamboo plantations, where the dull rushing sound caused by their flutterings, constantly heard from sundown till dark, and from the first grey dawning in the east until long after sunrise, might almost be supposed by the observer to proceed from numerous steam-engines in full work. Many of these flocks returning late in the evening from their excursions, fly so near to the ground that they scarcely clear the obstacles to their course; indeed, they do not always succeed in doing so; for, several nights together, we have picked up parrots which had flown against walls or similar obstructions, and had been killed in consequence."

Layard gives a very lively account of the behaviour and doings of the Alexander parrot (a species commonly met with in Ceylon), at one of their sleeping-places.

In Chilau, he relates, that he has seen such massive flights of these birds winging their way to their roosting-places among the cocoa-nut trees that overshadow the market-place, that their cries completely drowned the Babel-like confusion of tongues heard among the buyers and sellers in the streets. He had previously been told of the flocks which thus pay their nightly visits, and placed himself, accordingly, towards evening, upon one of the neighbouring bridges, in order to form a calculation of the numbers that might make their appearance in a certain given direction. At about four o'clock in the afternoon they began to arrive; scattered swarms were seen wending their way homewards, to these there succeeded others still more numerous, and in the course of half an hour the homeward stream was apparently in full flow. He very soon found that it was impossible even to count the flocks, which seemed gradually to unite into one great living, roaring torrent. Some flew high in the air, until they were immediately over their roosting-place, and then suddenly plunged down, wheeling round and round towards the tree-tops, of which they were in search. Others crowded onwards, flying close to the ground--indeed, so closely that some of them nearly grazed his face. They swept along with the rapidity of thought, and their dazzling plumage seemed to be lit up with gorgeous brilliancy, as it glanced in the rays of the sun. He waited at his post of observation until the evening closed in, and he could see no longer, but even then the flight of the birds as they made towards their nests was audible. When he fired off a gun, they rose with a sound like that of a furiously rushing wind; soon, however, they again settled down, and commenced an indescribable hubbub. The shrill screams of the birds, the noise caused by the fluttering of their wings, and the rattling of the leaves of the palm-trees was so deafening, that he was heartily glad when he escaped from such a turmoil, and took refuge in his own house.

Next to a safe sleeping-place, the presence of trees thickly crowned with foliage is an essential requisite for the comfortable lodgment of parrots; this they require, not so much as a protection against the weather, as for a secure hiding-place. Of all things they like warmth, nevertheless they do not absolutely avoid a cool temperature, and still less are they afraid of wet, at least for a time.

"During the heavy tropical rain-storms that sometimes darken the air," says the Prince von Wied, "it is not uncommon to see parrots sitting motionless upon the dead branches at the very top of a tree, uttering cheerful screams, as the water streams off from their plumage; there may be dense foliage, and thick boughs immediately beneath, under which they might easily find shelter, but they prefer the warm shower, and seem to enjoy the wetting. No sooner, however, has the rain ceased, than they appear equally desirous to dry themselves, and to rid their plumage of the moisture."