Chapter II: Part 2

There is a tradition that the Shivalli Brahmans of the Tulu country came from Ahikshetra. As only males migrated from their home, they were compelled to take women from non-Brahman castes as wives. The ranks are said to have been swelled by conversions from these castes during the time of Sri Madhvacharya. The Shivalli Brahmans are said to be referred to by the Bants as Mathumaglu or Mathmalu (bride) in allusion to the fact of their wives being taken from the Bant caste. Besides the Shivallis, there are other Tulu Brahmans, who are said to be recent converts. The Matti Brahmans were formerly considered low by the Shivallis, and were not allowed to sit in the same line with the Shivallis at meal time. They were only permitted to sit in a cross line, separated from the Shivallis, though in the same room. This was because the Matti Brahmans were supposed to be Mogers (fishing caste) raised to Brahmanism by one Vathiraja Swami, a Sanyasi. Having become Brahmans, they could not carry on their hereditary occupation, and, to enable them to earn a livelihood, the Sanyasi gave them some brinjal (Solanum Melongena) seeds, and advised them to cultivate the plant. From this fact, the variety of brinjal, which is cultivated at Matti, is called Vathiraja gulla. At the present day, the Matti Brahmans are on a par with the Shivalli Brahmans, and have become disciples of the Sodhe mutt (religious institution) at Udipi. In some of the popular accounts of Brahmans, which have been reduced to writing, it is stated that, during the time of Mayura Varma of the Kadamba dynasty, [32] some Andhra Brahmans were brought into South Canara. As a sufficient number of Brahmans were not available for the purpose of yagams (sacrifices), these Andhra Brahmans selected a number of families from the non-Brahman caste, made them Brahmans, and chose exogamous sept names for them. Of these names, Manoli (Cephalandra Indica), Perala (Psidium Guyava), Kudire (horse), and Ane (elephant) are examples.

A character, with which I am very familiar, when measuring the heads of all sorts and conditions of natives of Southern India, is the absence of convexity of the segment formed by the posterior portion of the united parietal bones. The result of this absence of convexity is that the back of the head, instead of forming a curve gradually increasing from the top of the head towards the occipital region, as in the European skull figured in plate IIIa, forms a flattened area of considerable length almost at right angles to the base of the skull as in the "Hindu" skull represented in plate IIIb. This character is shown in a marked degree in plate IV, which represents a prosperous Linga Banajiga in the Canarese country.

In discussing racial admixture, Quatrefages writes as follows. [33] "Parfois on trouve encore quelques tribus qui ont conservé plus on moins intacts tous les caractères de leur race. Les Coorumbas du Malwar [Malabar] et du Coorg paraissent former un noyau plus considérable encore, et avoir conservé dans les jungles de Wynaad une indépendence à peu près complète, et tous leurs caractères ethnologiques." The purity of blood and ethnological characters of various jungle tribes are unhappily becoming lost as the result of contact metamorphosis from the opening up of the jungles for planter's estates, and contact with more civilised tribes and races, both brown and white. In illustration, I may cite the Kanikars of Travancore, who till recently were in the habit of sending all their women into the seclusion of the jungle on the arrival of a stranger near their settlements. This is now seldom done, and some Kanikars have in modern times settled in the vicinity of towns, and become domesticated. The primitive short, dark-skinned and platyrhine type, though surviving, has become changed, and many leptorhine or mesorhine individuals above middle height are to be met with. The following are the results of measurements of Kanikars in the jungle, and at a village some miles from Trivandrum, the capital of Travancore:--

===========================================================
| Stature cm. | Nasal Index.
==============+=======================+====================
| Av. | Max. | Min. | Av. | Max. | Min.
Jungle | 155.2 | 170.3 | 150.2 | 84.6 | 105 | 72.3
Domesticated | 158.7 | 170.4 | 148 | 81.2 | 90.5 | 70.8
===========================================================

Some jungle Chenchus, who inhabit the Nallamalai hills in the Kurnool district, still exhibit the primitive short stature and high nasal index, which are characteristic of the unadulterated jungle tribes. But there is a very conspicuous want of uniformity in their physical characters, and many individuals are to be met with, above middle height, or tall, with long narrow noses. A case is recorded, in which a brick-maker married a Chenchu girl. And I was told of a Boya man who had married into the tribe, and was living in a gudem (Chenchu settlement).

=========================================================
| Stature cm. | Nasal Index.
==============+=====================+====================
| Av. | Max.| Min. | Av. | Max. |Min.
| 162.5 | 175 | 149.6 | 81.9 | 95.7 | 68.1
=========================================================

By the dolichocephalic type of cranium which has persisted, and which the Chenchus possess in common with various other jungle tribes, they are still, as shown by the following table, at once differentiated from the mesaticephalic dwellers in the plains near the foot of the Nallamalais:--

================================================
| | Number of
| Cephalic| times the
| Index. | index was
| | 80 or over.
========================+=========+=============
40 Chenchus | 74.3 | 1
60 Gollas | 77.5 | 9
50 Boyas | 77.9 | 14
39 Tota Balijas | 78.0 | 10
49 Kapus | 78.8 | 16
19 Upparas | 78.8 | 4
16 Mangalas | 78.8 | 7
17 Verukalas | 78.6 | 6
12 Medaras | 80.7 | 8
================================================

In a note on the jungle tribes, M. Louis Lapicque, [34] who carried out anthropometric observations in Southern India a few years ago, writes as follows. "Dans les montagnes des Nilghirris et d'Anémalé, situées au coeur de la contrée dravidienne, on a signalé depuis longtemps des petits sauvages crépus, qu'on a même pensé pouvoir, sur des documents insuffisants, identifier avec les negritos. En réalité, it n'existe pas dans ces montagnes, ni probablement nulle part dans l'Inde, un témoin de la race primitive comparable, comme pureté, aux Andamanais ni même aux autres Negritos. Ce que l'on trouve là, c'est simplement, mais c'est fort précieux, une population métisse qui continue au delà du Paria la série générale de l'Inde. Au bord de la forêt vierge ou dans les collines partiellement défrichées, il y a des castes demi-Parias, demi-sauvages. La hiérachie sociale les classe au-dessous du Paria: on peut même trouver des groupes ou le facies nègre, nettement dessiné, est tout à fait prédominant. Ehbien, dans ces groupes, les chevelures sont en général frisées, et on en observe quelques-unes qu'on peut même appeler crépues. On a donc le moyen de prolonger par l'imagination la série des castes indiennes jusq'au type primitif qui était (nous n'avons plus qu'un pas à faire pour le reconstruire), un Nègre.... Nous sommes arrives à reconstituer les traits nègres d'un type disparu en prolongeant une série graduée de métis. Par la même méthode nous pouvons déterminer théoriquement la forme du crâne de ce type. Avec une assez grande certitude, je crois pouvoir affirmer, après de nombreuses mesures systématiques, que le nègre primitif de l'Inde était sousdolichocéphale avec un indice voisin de 75 ou 76. Sa taille, plus difficile à préciser, car les conditions de vie modifient ce caractère, devait être petite, plus haute pourtant que celle des Andamanais. Quant au nom qu'il convient de lui attribuer, la discussion des faits sociaux et linguistiques sur lesquels est fondée la notion de dravidien permet d'établir que ce nègre était antérieur aux dravidiens; il faut done l'appeller Prédravidien, ou, si nous voulons lui donner un nom qui ne soit pas relatif à une autre population, on peut l'appeler Nègre Paria."

In support of M. Lapicque's statement that the primitive inhabitant was dolichocephalic or sub-dolichocephalic, I may produce the evidence of the cephalic indices of the various jungle tribes which I have examined in the Tamil, Malayalam, and Telugu countries:--

===================================================
| Cephalic Index.
|==========+==========+==========
| Average. | Maximum. | Minimum.
==================+==========+==========+==========
Kadir | 72.9 | 80.0 | 69.1
Irula, Chingleput | 73.1 | 78.6 | 68.4
Kanikar | 73.4 | 78.9 | 69.1
Mala Vedan | 73.4 | 80.9 | 68.8
Panaiyan | 74.0 | 81.1 | 69.4
Chenchu | 74.3 | 80.5 | 64.3
Sholaga | 74.9 | 79.3 | 67.8
Paliyan | 75.7 | 79.1 | 72.9
Irula, Nilgiris | 75.8 | 80.9 | 70.8
Kurumba | 76.5 | 83.3 | 71.8
===================================================

It is worthy of note that Haeckel defines the nose of the Dravidian as a prominent and narrow organ. For Risley has laid down [35] that, in the Dravidian type, the nose is thick and broad, and the formula expressing the proportionate dimension (nasal index) is higher than in any known race, except the Negro; and that the typical Dravidian, as represented by the Male Paharia, has a nose as broad in proportion to its length as the Negro, while this feature in the Aryan group can fairly bear comparison with the noses of sixty-eight Parisians, measured by Topinard, which gave an average of 69.4. In this connection, I may record the statistics relating to the nasal indices of various South Indian jungle tribes:--

====================================================
| Nasal Index.
|================================
| Average. | Maximum. | Minimum.
===================+==========+==========+==========
Paniyan | 95.1 | 108.6 | 72.9
Kadir | 89.8 | 115.4 | 72.9
Kurumba | 86.1 | 111.1 | 70.8
Sholaga | 85.1 | 107.7 | 72.8
Mala Vedan | 84.9 | 102.6 | 71.1
Irula, Nilgiris | 84.9 | 100. | 72.3
Kanikar | 84.6 | 105. | 72.3
Chenchu | 81.9 | 95.7 | 68.1
====================================================

In the following table, I have brought together, for the purpose of comparison, the average stature and nasal index of various Dravidian classes inhabiting the plains of the Telugu, Tamil, Canarese, and Malayalam countries, and jungle tribes:--

======================================================
| | Nasal |
|Linguistic area.| Index.| Stature.
===================+================+=======+=========
Paniyan | Jungle tribe | 95.1 | 157.4
Kadir | Do. | 89.8 | 157.7
Kurumba | Do. | 86.1 | 157.9
Sholaga | Do. | 85.1 | 159.3
Irula, Nilgiris | Do. | 84.9 | 159.8
Mala Vedan | Do. | 84.9 | 154.2
Kanikar | Do. | 84.6 | 155.2
Chenchu | Do. | 81.9 | 162.5
Pallan | Tamil | 81.5 | 164.3
Mukkuvan | Malayalam | 81. | 163.1
Paraiyan | Tamil | 80. | 163.1
Palli | Do. | 77.9 | 162.5
Ganiga | Canarese | 76.1 | 165.8
Bestha | Telugu | 75.9 | 165.7
Tiyan | Malayalam | 75. | 163.7
Kuruba | Canarese | 74.9 | 162.7
Boya | Telugu | 74.4 | 163.9
Tota Balija | Do. | 74.4 | 163.9
Agasa | Canarese | 74.3 | 162.4
Agamudaiyan | Tamil | 74.2 | 165.8
Golla | Telugu | 74.1 | 163.8
Vellala | Tamil | 73.1 | 162.4
Vakkaliga | Canarese | 73. | 167.2
Dasa Banajiga | Do. | 72.8 | 165.3
Kapu | Telugu | 72.8 | 164.5
Nayar | Malayalam | 71.1 | 165.2
======================================================

This table demonstrates very clearly an unbroken series ranging from the jungle men, short of stature and platyrhine, to the leptorhine Nayars and other classes.

In plate V are figured a series of triangles representing (natural size) the maxima, minima, and average nasal indices of Brahmans of Madras city (belonging to the poorer classes), Tamil Paraiyans, and Paniyans. There is obviously far less connection between the Brahman minimum and the Paraiyan maximum than between the Brahman and Paraiyan maxima and the Paniyan average; and the frequent occurrence of high nasal indices, resulting from short, broad noses, in many classes has to be accounted for. Sir Alfred Lyall somewhere refers to the gradual Brahmanising of the aboriginal non-Arayan, or casteless tribes. "They pass," he writes, "into Brahmanists by a natural upward transition, which leads them to adopt the religion of the castes immediately above them in the social scale of the composite population, among which they settle down; and we may reasonably guess that this process has been working for centuries." In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Mr. H. A. Stuart states that "it has often been asserted, and is now the general belief, that the Brahmans of the South are not pure Aryans, but are a mixed Aryan and Dravidian race. In the earliest times, the caste division was much less rigid than now, and a person of another caste could become a Brahman by attaining the Brahmanical standard of knowledge, and assuming Brahmanical functions; and, when we see the Nambudiri Brahmans, even at the present day, contracting alliances, informal though they be, with the women of the country, it is not difficult to believe that, on their first arrival, such unions were even more common, and that the children born of them would be recognised as Brahmans, though perhaps regarded as an inferior class. However, those Brahmans, in whose veins mixed blood is supposed to run, are even to this day regarded as lower in the social scale, and are not allowed to mix freely with the pure Brahman community."

Popular traditions allude to wholesale conversions of non-Brahmans into Brahmans. According to such traditions, Rajas used to feed very large numbers of Brahmans (a lakh of Brahmans) in expiation of some sin, or to gain religious merit. To make up this large number, non-Brahmans are said to have been made Brahmans at the bidding of the Rajas. Here and there are found a few sections of Brahmans, whom the more orthodox Brahmans do not recognise as such, though the ordinary members of the community regard them as an inferior class of Brahmans. As an instance may be cited the Marakas of the Mysore Province. Though it is difficult to disprove the claim put forward by these people, some demur to their being regarded as Brahmans.

Between a Brahman of high culture, with fair complexion, and long, narrow nose on the one hand, and a less highly civilised Brahman with dark skin and short broad nose on the other, there is a vast difference, which can only be reasonably explained on the assumption of racial admixture; and it is no insult to the higher members of the Brahman community to trace, in their more lowly brethren, the result of crossing with a dark-skinned, and broad-nosed race of short stature. Whether the jungle tribe are, as I believe, the microscopic remnant of a pre-Dravidian people, or, as some hold, of Dravidians driven by a conquering race to the seclusion of the jungles, it is to the lasting influence of some such broad-nosed ancestor that the high nasal index of many of the inhabitants of Southern India must, it seems to me, be attributed. Viewed in the light of this remark, the connection between the following mixed collection of individuals, all of very dark colour, short of stature, and with nasal index exceeding 90, calls for no explanation:--

========================================================
| Stature. | Nasal | Nasal | Nasal
| |height. |breadth.| Index.
==================+==========+========+========+========
| cm. | cm. | cm. |
Vakkaliga | 156 | 4.3 | 3.9 | 90.7
Moger | 160 | 4.3 | 3.9 | 90.7
Saiyad Muhammadan | 160 | 4.4 | 4 | 90.9
Kammalan | 154.4 | 4.4 | 4 | 90.9
Chakkiliyan | 156.8 | 4.4 | 4 | 90.9
Vellala | 154.8 | 4.7 | 4.3 | 91.6
Malaiyali | 158.8 | 4 | 3.7 | 92.5
Konga Vellala | 157 | 4.1 | 3.8 | 92.7
Pattar Brahman | 157.6 | 4.2 | 3.9 | 92.9
Odde | 159.6 | 4.3 | 4 | 93
Smarta Brahman | 159 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 95.1
Palli | 157.8 | 4.1 | 3.9 | 95.1
Pallan | 155.8 | 4.2 | 4.2 | 100
Bestha | 156.8 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 100
Mukkuvan | 150.8 | 4 | 4 | 100
Agasa | 156.4 | 4.3 | 4.3 | 100
Tamil Paraiyan | 160 | 4 | 4.2 | 105
========================================================

I pass on to a brief consideration of the languages of Southern India. According to Mr. G. A. Grierson [36] "the Dravidian family comprises all the principal languages of Southern India. The name Dravidian is a conventional one. It is derived from the Sanskrit Dravida, a word which is again probably derived from an older Dramila, Damila, and is identical with the name of Tamil. The name Dravidian is, accordingly, identical with Tamulian, which name has formerly been used by European writers as a common designation of the languages in question. The word Dravida forms part of the denomination Andhra-Dravida-bhasha, the language of the Andhras (i.e., Telugu), and Dravidas (i.e., Tamilians), which Kumarila Bhatta (probably 7th Century A.D.) employed to denote the Dravidian family. In India Dravida has been used in more than one sense. Thus the so-called five Dravidas are Telugu, Kanarese, Marathi, Gujarati, and Tamil. In Europe, on the other hand, Dravidian has long been the common denomination of the whole family of languages to which Bishop Caldwell applied it in his Comparative Grammar, and there is no reason for abandoning the name which the founder of Dravidian philology applied to this group of speeches."

The five principal languages are Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Canarese, and Oriya. Of these, Oriya belongs to the eastern group of the Indo-Aryan family, and is spoken in Ganjam, and a portion of the Vizagapatam district. The population speaking each of these languages, as recorded at the census, 1901, was as follows:--

Tamil 15,543,383
Telugu 14,315,304
Malayalam 2,854,145
Oriya 1,809,336
Canarese 1,530,688

In the preparation of the following brief summary of the other vernacular languages and dialects, I have indented mainly on the Linguistic Survey of India, and the Madras Census Report, 1901.

Savara.--The language of the Savaras of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. One of the Munda languages. Concerning the Munda, linguistic family, Mr. Grierson writes as follows. "The denomination Munda (adopted by Max Müller) was not long allowed to stand unchallenged. Sir George Campbell in 1866 proposed to call the family Kolarian. He was of opinion that Kol had an older form Kolar, which he thought to be identical with Kanarese Kallar, thieves. There is absolutely no foundation for this supposition. Moreover, the name Kolarian is objectionable, as seeming to suggest a connexion with Aryan which does not exist. The principal home of the Munda languages at the present day is the Chota Nagpur plateau. The Munda race is much more widely spread than the Munda languages. It has already been remarked that it is identical with the Dravidian race, which forms the bulk of the population of Southern India."

Gadaba.--Spoken by the Gadabas of Vizagapatam and Ganjam. One of the Munda languages.

Kond, Kandhi, or Kui.--The language of the Kondhs of Ganjam and Vizagapatam.

Gondi.--The language of the Gonds, a tribe which belongs to the Central Provinces, but has overflowed into Ganjam and Vizagapatam.

Gattu.--A dialect of Gondi, spoken by some of the Gonds in Vizagapatam.

Koya or Koi.--A dialect of Gondi, spoken by the Koyis in the Vizagapatam and Godavari districts.

Poroja, Parja, or Parji.--A dialect of Gondi.

Tulu.--The language largely spoken in South Canara (the ancient Tuluva). It is described by Bishop Caldwell as one of the most highly developed languages of the Dravidian family.

Koraga.--Spoken by the Koragas of South Canara. It is thought by Mr. H. A. Stuart [37] to be a dialect of Tulu.

Bellera.--Spoken by the Belleras of South Canara, and regarded as a dialect of Canarese or Tulu.

Toda.--The language of the Todas of the Nilgiri hills, concerning which Dr. W. H. R. Rivers writes as follows. [38] "Bernhard Schmid, [39] who wrote in 1837, appears to have known more of the true Toda language than any one who has written since, and he ascribes two-thirds of the Toda vocabulary to Tamil, and was unable to trace the remaining third to any other language. Caldwell [40] believed the language of the Todas to be most closely allied to Tamil. According to Pope, [41] the language was originally old Canarese with the addition of a few Tamil forms, but he has included in his vocabulary words which have probably been borrowed from the Badagas."

Kota.--A mixture of Canarese and Tamil spoken by the Kotas of the Nilgiri hills.

Badaga.--The language of the Badagas of the Nilgiri hills. Said to be an ancient form of Canarese.

Irula.--Spoken by the Irulas of the Nilgiris, and said to be a dialect of Tamil. According to Mr. Stuart, Kasuba or Kasuva is another dialect of Tamil spoken by the sub-division of the Irulas which bears the same name.

Kurumba.--Spoken by the Kurumbas of the Nilgiri hills, Malabar, and Mysore, and regarded as a dialect of Canarese.

Konkani.--A dialect of Marathi, spoken almost entirely in the South Canara district by Sarasvat and Konkani Brahmans and Roman Catholic Christians.

Marathi.--In the Tanjore district, the descendants of the former Maratha Rajas of Tanjore speak this language. It is also spoken in the Bellary district, which was formerly under Maratha dominion, by various Maratha castes, and in the feudatory State of Sandur.

Patnuli or Khatri.--A dialect of Gujarati, spoken by the Patnulkarans who have settled for the most part in the town of Madura. They are immigrants from Saurashtra in Gujarat, who are said to have come south at the invitation of the Nayak kings of Madura.

Lambadi.--The language of the nomad Lambadis, Brinjaris, or Sugalis. It is described by Mr. W. Francis [42] as a patois "usually based on one of the local vernaculars, and embroidered and diversified with thieves' slang and expressions borrowed from the various localities in which the tribe has sojourned. Cust thought that Lambadi was Semi-Dravidian, but the point is not clear, and it has been classed as Indo-Aryan."

Korava or Yerukala.--A dialect of Tamil spoken by the nomad caste bearing these names. Like the Lambadis, they have a thieves' slang.

Vadari.--Recorded as a vulgar Telugu dialect spoken by a wandering tribe of quarrymen in the Bombay Presidency, the Berars, and elsewhere. They are doubtless Oddes or Wudder navvies, who have migrated from their home in the Telugu country.

TABLE A.

========================================================================== | | | Length cm. | Breadth cm. | Index. |Index |No.| Caste or |==============+==============+==============|80 and | | Tribe. | Av.|Max.|Min.| Av.|Max.|Min.| Av.|Max.|Min.|over. ====+===+=============+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====+====== | 40|Badaga, | | | | | | | | | | | | Nilgiris |18.9|20.2|18. |13.6|14.5|12.8|71.7|77.5|66.1| 0 M. | 18|Kanikar |18.8|19.5|18.2|13.6|14.2|13. |72.5|76.1|68.1| 0 M. | 40|Mappilla, | | | | | | | | | | | | Muhammadan |18.9|20. |18. |13.7|14.6|13. |72.8|78.5|68. | 0 J. | 23|Kadir |18.4|19.4|17.2|13.4|13.8|12.5|72.9|80. |69. | 1 M. | 40|Tiyan |18.9|20.3|17.8|13.7|14.9|12.6|73. |80.3|68.5| 1 Tam.|40 |Palli |18.6|19.6|17.4|13.6|14.6|12.1|73. |80. |64.4| 1 Tam.|40 |Irula |18.5|19.6|17. |13.5|14.4|12.8|73.1|78.6|68.4| 0 |82 |Toda, | | | | | | | | | | | | Nilgiris |19.4|20.4|18.2|14.2|15.2|13.3|73.3|81.3|68.7| 1 J. |20 |Kaanikar |18.5|19.4|17.8|13.6|14.2|13. |73.4|78.9|69.1| 0 Tam.|29 |Ambattan |18.6|19.2|18. |13.7|14.6|12.5|73.4|76.9|67.2| 0 J. |25 |Mala Vedan |18.5|19.6|17.4|13.6|14.6|13. |73.4|80.9|68.8| 1 Tam.|40 |Paraiyan |18.6|19.7|17. |13.7|14.5|13. |73.6|78.3|64.8| 0 M. |25 |Cheruman |18.3|19.3|17.1|13.5|14.2|12.3|73.9|80.1|67.7| 1 M. |25 |Paniyan |18.4|19.3|17.5|13.6|14.9|13. |74. |81.1|69.4| 1 Tam.|40 |Agamudaiyan |18.8|20. |17.8|13.9|14.6|12.8|74. |80.9|66.7| 1 |25 |Kota, | | | | | | | | | | | | Nilgiris |19.2|20.2|18.3|14.2|15.1|13.4|74.1|79.1|69.9| 0 Tam.|40 |Vellala |18.6|19.6|17.7|13.8|14.6|13.1|74.1|81.1|67.9| 2 Tam.|20 |Smarta | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18. |19.2|17.8|14. |14.8|13. |74.2|80.4|67.8| 1 Tam.|50 |Malaiyali |18.3|19.3|17. |13.6|14.4|12.8|74.3|82.8|61. | 2 J. |40 |Chenchu |18.2|19.6|17.2|13.5|14.4|12.4|74.3|80.5|64.3| 1 M. |40 |Nayar |18.7|19.8|17.4|13.9|15. |13.2|74.4|81.9|70.4| 1 Tam.|25 |Pattar | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18.8|20.3|17.2|14. |15.1|13.1|74.5|81.4|69.1| 2 Tam.|23 |Malasar |18.2|19.2|17.3|13.5|14.4|12.4|74.5|80. |70. | 1 J. |57 |Urali |18.2|19.3|17.2|13.5|14.4|12.8|74.6|81.9|69.8| 1 Tam.|50 |Chakkiliyan |18.6|19.8|17.6|13.9|15.2|13. |74.9|80.9|70.4| 1 J. |20 |Sholaga |18.2|19.4|17.2|13.6|14.6|12.2|74.9|79.3|67.8| 0 Tel.|30 |Madiga, | | | | | | | | | | | | Adoni |18.6|20.2|17. |13.9|14.6|13. |75. |82.2|71.3| 2 Tam.|40 |Kammalan |18.4|19.7|17.3|13.7|14.7|13.1|75. |81.5|68.4| 5 M. |40 |Mukkuvan |19. |20.4|17.6|14.2|15.2|13.4|75.1|83.5|68.6| 2 Tam.|40 |Sheik | | | | | | | | | | | | Muhammadan |18.3|20. |16.7|13.8|14.5|12.8|75.6|81.6|71.5| 2 C. |50 |Dayare | | | | | | | | | | | | Muhammadan |18.5|19.7|17. |14. |15. |13. |75.6|83.3|68.5| 8 Tam.|40 |Saiyad | | | | | | | | | | | | Muhammadan |18.5|19.6|17.2|14. |15. |13.1|75.6|84.9|68.2| 2 J. |26 |Paliyan |17.8|18.6|17.1|13.5|14. |13. |75.7|79.1|72.8| 0 J. |25 |Irula |18. |19.1|17. |13.7|14.3|13.1|75.8|80.9|70.8| 1 Tam.|50 |Pallan |18.3|19.6|17.2|13.9|14.9|12.6|75.9|87. |70.1| 6 Tam.|42 |Idaiyan |18.3|19. |16.8|14. |14.6|13.2|76. |81.9|71.3| 5 Tam.|40 |Pathan | | | | | | | | | | | | Muhammadan |18.5|19.6|17.2|14.2|15.2|13.3|76.2|83.1|71.1| 2 M. |24 |Pulayan |18.3|19.3|17. |13.9|15. |13. |76.3|83. |72.3| 5 J. |22 |Kurumba |17.9|18.7|16.9|13.7|14.5|13. |76.4|83.3|71.8| 2 Tel.|40 |Madiga, | | | | | | | | | | | | Hospet |18.3|20. |17.2|14. |15.4|13. |76.5|83.3|68. | 8 C. |50 |Sedan |18.4|19.4|17. |14.1|14.8|13.2|76.6|82.6|72.6| 7 C. |40 |Toreya |18.3|19.2|17.2|14.1|15.2|13. |76.6|86.4|70.2| 5 Mar.|24 |Desastha | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18.7|20.2|18. |14.4|15.2|13.2|77. |83.4|71. | 4 Tel.|30 |Mala |18.4|19.8|16.8|14.2|14.8|13.4|77.1|85.9|70.3| 6 Tel.|60 |Bestha |18.4|19.4|16.6|14.2|15.6|13.2|77.1|85.1|70.5| 11 C. |50 |Kuruba, | | | | | | | | | | | | Mysore |18.1|19.4|17.2|14. |15. |12.8|77.3|83.9|70.3| 9 Tel.|40 |Odde |18.2|20.4|17.2|14.1|15.2|13.4|77.3|83.1|70.1| 10 Tel.|60 |Golla |18.2|19.6|16.4|14.1|15.1|13.2|77.5|89.3|70.1| 12 C. |40 |Dasa | | | | | | | | | | | | Banajiga |18.6|19.8|17.3|14.4|15.6|13.4|77.8|85.5|72. | 11 Tel.|25 |Komati, | | | | | | | | | | | | Adoni |18.2|19.4|17. |14.3|15.2|13.3|77.9|88.2|72.2| 8 C. |40 |Okkiliyan, | | | | | | | | | | | | Coimbatore |18.2|19.4|17. |14.2|15.2|13.2|77.9|88.2|71.7| 9 C. |50 |Boya |18. |19.2|16.8|14. |15.2|13. |77.9|89.2|70.5| 14 Tu. |40 |Bant |18.5|20. |17. |14.4|16.6|13.1|78. |91.2|70.8| 12 Tel.|49 |Kapu |18.2|19.8|16.8|14.2|15.6|13.2|78. |87.6|71.6| 16 Tel.|39 |Tota | | | | | | | | | | Tel.|39 | Balija |18.1|19. |17. |14.1|15. |13. |78. |86. |73.3| 10 C. |60 |Madhva | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18.4|19.8|16.6|14.3|15.2|13.2|78. |88.5|68. | 18 C. |40 |Bedar, | | | | | | | | | | | | Hospet |18.4|20. |16.8|14.3|15.2|13.2|78.1|85.3|70.8| 13 Tel.|38 |Uppara |18. |19. |16.2|14. |15.2|13.2|78.1|87.8|71.7| 9 C. |25 |Linga | | | | | | | | | | | | Banajiga, | | | | | | | | | | | | Sandur |18.2|19.4|16.6|14.2|15. |13.4|78.3|87.9|73.7| 7 C. |60 |Karnataka | | | | | | | | | | | | Smarta | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18.5|20.7|17. |14.4|15.8|13.4|78.4|89.5|69.8| 19 Tel.|30 |Padma | | | | | | | | | | | | Sale |17.8|19.|16.5|14.1|15.1|13.2|78.7 |86.2|72.8| 10 C. |50 |Kuruba, | | | | | | | | | | | | Hospet |18.1|19.6|17. |14.2|15.4|13.4|78.9|88.4|72.9| 19 Tel.|50 |Telugu | | | | | | | | | | | | Banajiga |18.4|19.2|16.6|14.5|15.4|13.2|79. |89.5|71.9| 18 C. |50 |Panchala |18.3|19.4|17.2|14.4|15.6|13. |79. |89.5|71.3| 23 C. |50 |Holeya |17.9|19.6|16.6|14.1|15.2|13.2|79.1|87.4|70. | 20 C. |25 |Bedar, | | | | | | | | | | | | Adoni |18.1|19.2|17. |14.4|15. |13.6|79.4|85.9|74.1| 12 Mar.|30 |Rangari |18.1|19.8|16.8|14.5|15.4|13.8|79.8|92.2|70.7| 14 Tel.|25 |Togata |17.7|19. |16.2|14.2|14.8|13.6|80. |88.1|73.7| 13 Tu. |50 |Billava |18.2|20.6|16.4|14.6|15.6|13.2|80.1|91.5|71. | 28 C. |30 |Linga | | | | | | | | | | | | Banajiga, | | | | | | | | | | | | Adoni |18.1|19.4|16.7|14.4|15.2|13.6|80.1|87.4|74.1| 14 C. |50 |Hebbar | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18.4|19.6|17.2|14.7|16.4|13.4|80.1|92.1|72.8| 21 C. |50 |Mandya | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18.5|20.2|16.6|14.8|15.8|13.4|80.2|88.2|69.8| 31 Tu. |30 |Shivalli | | | | | | | | | | | | Brahman |18.5|19.6|16.8|14.9|16.2|13.6|80.4|96.4|72.3| 17 C. |20 |Ganiga |18. |19.1|16.6|14.4|15.2|14. |80.5|86.7|74.5| 11 C. |20 |Devanga |18. |19.6|17. |14.5|15.5|13.6|80.8|87.1|74.7| 10 Tel.|25 |Komati |17.6|18.8|16.4|14.3|14.8|13.4|81. |87.1|74.5| 16 C. |50 |Vakkaliga, | | | | | | | | | | | | Mysore |17.7|19.5|15.8|14.5|15.7|13.2|81.7|93.8|72.5| 27 Mar.|30 |Suka | | | | | | | | | | | | Sale |17.7|18.8|16.6|14.5|15. |13.4|81.8|88.2|76.1| 22 Mar.|30 |Sukun | | | | | | | | | | | | Sale |17.6|19. |16. |14.4|15.4|13.6|82.2|90. |73.9| 21 ==========================================================================

TABLE B.

====+===+============================+=================+================= | | | Stature cm. | Nasal Index. == |No.| Caste or Tribe. +=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+===== | | | Av. | Max.|Min. | Av. | Max.|Min. ====+===+============================+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+===== M. |40 |Nayar |165.2|179. |152.2| 71.1| 78.7|54.4 C. |50 |Hebbar Brahman |163.2|174.4|150.8| 71.2| 87.2|55.4 C. |60 |Karnataka Smarta Brahman |164.2|176. |150.6| 71.5| 91.5|61.1 C. |50 |Dayare Muhammadan |166.4|181.8|150. | 71.5| 82.6|59.3 Mar.|60 |Madhva Brahman |163.3|176.2|151.8| 72. | 93.2|58.8 Tu. |40 |Bant |165.7|179.2|155.8| 72.2| 86.1|61.6 Tam.|40 |Sheik Muhammadan |164.6|174.8|153.8| 72.4| 87. |60. Tam.|29 |Ambattan |165.7|173.2|153.2| 72.4| 84.3|57.9 Tu. |50 |Billava |163.2|175.8|149.4| 72.6| 92.8|60. C. |50 |Sedan |163.3|177.2|153.2| 72.7| 92.9|59.3 C. |40 |Dasa Banajiga |165.3|177.8|152. | 72.8| 82.6|59.3 Tel.|49 |Kapu |164.5|177.6|152.6| 72.8| 90.5|62.7 C. |50 |Mandya Brahman |165.7|177.8|150.6| 73. | 97.8|58.4 C. |50 |Vakkaliga, Mysore |167.2|181. |155.2| 73. | 85. |62.3 Tam.|40 |Vellala |162.4|172.8|153.2| 73.1| 91.5|60.8 Tel.|30 |Padma Sale |159.9|171.4|153.8| 73.2| 83.7|61.5 C. |40 |Okkiliyan |166. |179.6|154.6| 73.5| 90.7|63.5 C. |50 |Kuruba, Mysore |163.6|174.2|152. | 73.5| 88.4|64. Mar.|30 |Rangari |161.3|168.4|154.4| 73.6| 84.1|63.5 Tam.|42 |Idaiyan |164.3|178. |154.6| 73.6| 91. |62.7 Tel.|25 |K mati, Sandur |162.5|169.2|153.4| 74.1| 88.9|62.5 C. |30 |Linga Banajiga |163.4|171.2|154. | 74.1| 85.7|60.4 Tel.|60 |Golla |163.8|173.8|151. | 74.1| 83. |61.5 M. |40 |Tiyan |164.2|171.6|155.2| 74.2| 85.7|61.5 Tam.|40 |Agamudaiyan |165.8|175.6|153.6| 74.2| 88.9|73.8 Tel.|39 |Tota Balija |163.9|176.8|149.6| 74.4| 83. |65.4 C. |25 |Linga Banajiga, Sandur |165.6|173. |157.8| 74.6| 86.4|61.5 Mar.|30 |Sukun Sale |160.3|167.6|152.5| 74.8| 84.4|61.5 Mar.|30 |Suka Sale |161.1|170. |147.8| 74.8| 86.1|62.3 C. |50 |Panchala |162.3|177.2|151.6| 74.8| 88.9|62. C. |50 |Kuruba, Hospet |162.7|175.4|162.2| 74.9| 92.2|75.8 .. |82 |Toda, Nilgiris |169.8|186.8|157.6| 74.9| 89.1|61.2 C. |50 |Boya |160.8|171.6|151.9| 75. | 86. |66. Tel.|50 |Telugu Banajiga |164.6|176.2|151.6| 75. | 97.7|66. M. |40 |Mappilla, Muhammadan |164.8|174.4|145. | 75.1| 88.1|64. C. |50 |Holeya |162.8|175.2|151.5| 75.1| 88.9|64.6 ... |40 |Badaga, Nilgiris |164.1|180.2|154. | 75.6| 88.4|62.7 Mar.|24 |Desastha Brahman |163.4|175. |151.4| 75.8| 87.2|66.7 Tel.|60 |Bestha |165.7|181. |155. | 75.9| 100.|63.3 C. |30 |Toreya |164.2|180.6|156.4| 76.1| 87.2|62.7 Tel.|30 |Mala |163.9|175. |153.8| 76.2| 93.2|67.3 Tam.|40 |Pathan Muhammadan |164.4|177.6|155.6| 76.2| 83.1|71.1 Tam.|25 |Pattar Brahman |164.3|175. |153.4| 76.5| 95.3|64.7 ...|25 |Kota, Nilgiris |162.9|174.2|155. | 77.2| 92.9|64. Tam.|40 |Palli |162.5|171.6|149.8| 77.3| 90.5|68.3 Tam.|40 |Kammalan |159.7|171.8|146.4| 77.3| 90.9|63.3 Tel.|40 |Odde |164.4|172.4|155. | 77.3| 93. |65.4 C. |40 |Bedar, Hospet |165.4|176.6|156. | 77.5| 93. |78.1 Tel.|40 |Madiga, Hospet |162.9|173.4|152.2| 77.5|90.1 |66.7 Tel.|30 |Togata |160.5|168.9|151.4| 77.5|93.9 |68.8 Tam.|50 |Malaiyali |163.9|173.2|153.2| 77.8|100. |63.8 Tel.|25 |Komati, Adoni |161. |168.3|153.2| 77.8|100. |65.3 Tam.|40 |Palli |162.5|169.4|151. | 77.9|95.1 |60.8 M. |25 |Cheruman |157.5|166.4|145.8| 78.1|88.9 |69.6 Tam.|50 |Chakkiliyan |162.2|174.5|150.3| 78.9|97.6 |64. M. |24 |Pulayan |153. |162.6|143.4| 79.3|92.7 |68. C. |25 |Bedar, Adoni |165.4|176.2|156.6| 79.4|91. |65.2 Tam.|40 |Paraiyan |162.1|171.4|149.4| 80. |91.8 |66. J. |57 |Urali |159.5|171.6|147.8| 80.1|97.7 |66.7 Tam.|40 |Irula |159.9|166.8|150.2| 80.4|90.5 |79. Tel.|30 |Madiga, Adoni |163.1|173.2|154.2| 80.8|102.6|69.4 M. |40 |Mukkuvan |163.1|177.8|150.8| 81. |104.8|62.5 M. |18 |Kanikar |158.7|170.4|148. | 81.2|90.5 |70.8 Tam.|50 |Pallan |164.3|177.6|151.5| 81.5|100. |68.8 J. |40 |Chenchu |162.5|175. |148. | 81.9|95.7 |68.1 J. |26 |Pulayan |150.5|158.4|143.1| 82.9|100.2|70.8 J. |20 |Kanikar |155.2|170.3|150.2| 84.6|105. |72.3 J. |25 |Mala Vedan |154.2|163.8|140.8| 84.9|102.6|71.1 J. |25 |Irula |159.8|168. |152. | 84.9|100. |72.3 J. |20 |Sholaga |159.3|170.4|151.2| 85.1|107.7|72.8 J. |22 |Kurumba |158. |167. |149.6| 86.1|111.1|70.8 J. |23 |Malasar |161.2|170.5|152.8| 87.2|102.4|75.4 J. |23 |Kadir |157.7|169.4|148.6| 89.8|115.4|72.9 J. |25 |Paniyan |157.4|171.6|152. | 95.1|108.6|72.9 ============================================================================

CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

Abhisheka.--Abhisheka Pandarams are those who are made to pass through some ceremonies in connection with Saiva Agama.

Acchu Tali.--A sub-division of Vaniyan. The name refers to the peculiar tali (marriage badge) worn by married women.

Acchuvaru.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "Oriya-speaking carriers of grain, etc., on pack bullocks. Treated as a sub-division of Gaudo." The Acchuvarus are not Oriya people, but are attached to the Devanga weavers, and receive their name from the fact that they do acchupani, i.e., thread the long comb-like structures of the hand-loom. They correspond to the Jatipillais of the Kaikolan weavers, who do acchuvelai.

Acchu Vellala.--A name assumed by some Pattanavans.

Achan.--Achan, meaning father or lord, was returned, at the Cochin census, 1901, as a title of Nayars. According to Mr. Wigram [43] it is used as a title of the following:--

1. Males in the Royal Family of Palghat.

2. The minister of the Calicut Raja, known as Mangat Achan.

3. The minister of the Cochin Raja, known as Paliyat Achan.

4. The minister of the second Raja of Calicut, known as Chenli Achan.

Acharapakam Chetti.--One of the sub-divisions of the Chettis, generally grouped among the Beri Chettis (q.v.).

Achari.--See Asari.

Adapadava (man of the wallet).--A name, referring to the dressing-bag which barbers carry, applied to Lingayat barbers in South Canara.

Adapapa.--Returned in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Balija. The name is applied to female attendants on the ladies of the families of Zamindars, who, as they are not allowed to marry, lead a life of prostitution. Their sons call themselves Balijas (see Khasa).

Adavi (forest or jungle).--The name of a sub-division of Yanadis, and also of a section of Gollas in Mysore. [44]

Adaviyar.--Adaviyar or Ataviyar is the name of a class of Tamil-speaking weavers found in the Tanjore and Tinnevelly districts.

Addaku (Bauhinia racemosa).--A sept of Jatapu. The leaves of this tree are largely used as food platters, in Madras, and generally on the east coast.

Addapu Singa.--Mendicants who beg only from Mangalas in the Telugu country.

Adhigari.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [45] as the head of the amsam or parish in Malabar, corresponding to the Manigar (village munsiff) in east coast districts and Patel in South Canara. The title Adhigari (one in power) is assumed by some Agamudaiyans, and Adhikari occurs as an exogamous sept of the Badagas, and the title of village headman among some Oriya castes. In South Canara, it is a sept of Stanika.

Adi (primitive or original).--The name of a division of Linga Balijas, and of Velamas who have abandoned the practice of keeping their females gosha (in seclusion). It is also applied by the Chenchus to the original members of their tribe, from whom the man-lion Narasimha obtained his bride Chenchita.

Adichchan.--A sub-division of Nayar.

Adikal (slaves or servants).--Included among the Ambalavasis. It is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "tradition states that Sankaracharya, to test the fidelity of certain Brahmins to the established ordinances of caste, went to a liquor-shop, and drank some stimulants. Not recognising that the obligations, from which adepts like Sankara were free, were none the less binding on the proletariat, the Brahmins that accompanied the sage made this an excuse for their drinking too. Sankara is said to have then entered a foundry, and swallowed a cup of molten metal, and handed another to the Brahmins, who had apparently made up their minds to do all that may be done by the Acharya. But they begged to differ, apologised to him as Atiyals or humble servants, and accepted social degradation in expiation of their sinful presumption. They are now the priests in temples dedicated to Bhadrakali, and other goddesses who receive offerings of liquor. They practise sorcery, and aid in the exorcising of spirits. They have the upanayana-samskara, and wear the sacred thread. The simantam ceremony is not performed. They are to repeat the Gayatri (hymn) ten times, and observe eleven days' death pollution. Their own caste-men act as priests. The Atiyammamar wear the same jewellery as the Nambutiri women, but they do not screen themselves by a cadjan (palm leaf) umbrella when they go out in public, nor are they accompanied by a Nayar maid."

Adimittam.--An occupational sub-division of Marans, who clean the court-yards of temples in Travancore.

Adisaivar.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a sub-caste of Vellala. They are singers of Devara hymns in Saiva temples." The name indicates those who have been Saivites from the beginning, as opposed to recent Saivites. Adisaivas are Saivites, who have survived the absorbing influence of the Lingayat sect. Saivites who profess the Lingayat doctrines are known as Virasaivas. Some Pandarams, who belong to the Sozhia sub-division of the Vellalas, regularly recite Tamil verses from Thevaram and Tiruvachagam in Saivite temples. This being their profession, they are also called Oduvar (readers or reciters).

Aditya Varada.--Kurubas, who worship their God on Sunday.

Adiyan.--Adiyan (adi, foot) has been defined [46] as meaning literally "a slave, but usually applied to the vassals of Tamburans and other powerful patrons. Each Adiyan had to acknowledge his vassalage by paying annually a nuzur (gift of money) to his patron, and was supposed also to be ready to render service whenever needed. This yearly nuzur, which did not generally exceed one or two fanams, was called adima-panam" (slave money), adima meaning feudal dependency on a patron.

Adiyodi.--Adiyodi or Atiyoti, meaning slave or vassal, has been returned at times of census as a sub-division of Samantan. It is, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [47] "the caste of the Kadattanad Rajah in North Malabar. The tradition is that, when he was driven out of his territories in and around Calicut by the Zamorin, he took shelter under the Rajah of Chirakkal, who gave him the Kadattanad country to hold as his vassal. Some Atiyotis advance no pretension to be above Nayars in rank."

Adutton (a bystander).--A synonym for Kavutiyan, a caste of Malayalam barbers. In like manner, the name Ambattan for Tamil barbers is said to be derived from the Sanskrit amba (near), s'tha (to stand), indicating that they stand near to shave their clients or treat their patients.

Agamudaiyan.--The Agamudaiyans, Mr. W. Francis writes, [48] are "a cultivating caste found in all the Tamil districts. In Chingleput, North Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore and Trichinopoly, they are much less numerous than they were thirty years ago. The reason probably is that they have risen in the social scale, and have returned themselves as Vellalas. Within the same period, their strength has nearly doubled in Tanjore, perhaps owing to the assumption of the name by other castes like the Maravans and Kallans. In their manners and customs they closely follow the Vellalas. Many of these in the Madura district are the domestic servants of the Marava Zamindars." The Agamudaiyans who have settled in the North Arcot district are described [49] by Mr. H. A. Stuart as "a class of cultivators differing widely from the Agamudaiyans of the Madura district. The former are closely allied to the Vellalas, while the latter are usually regarded as a more civilised section of the southern Maravans. It may be possible that the Agamudaiyans of North Arcot are the descendants of the first immigrants from the Madura district, who, after long settlement in the north, severed all connexions with their southern brethren." In some districts, Agamudaiyan occurs as a synonym of Vellalas, Pallis and Melakkarans, who consider that Agamudaiyan is a better caste name than their own.

The Agamudaiyans proper are found in the Tanjore, Madura, and Tinnevelly districts.

It is noted in the Tanjore Manual that Ahamudaiyar (the equivalent of Agamudaiyan) is "derived from the root aham, which, in Tamil, has many significations. In one of these, it means a house, in another earth, and hence it has two meanings, householder and landholder; the suffix Udeiyar indicating ownership. The word is also used in another form, ahambadiyan, derived from another meaning of the same root, i.e., inside. And, in this derivation, it signifies a particular caste, whose office it was to attend to the business in the interior of the king's palace, or in the pagoda." "The name," Mr. J. H. Nelson writes, [50] "is said by the Rev. G. U. Pope, in his edition of the Abbé Dubois' work, [51] to be derived from aham, a temple, and padi, a step, and to have been given to them in consequence of their serving about the steps of temples. But, independently of the fact that Madura pagodas are not approached by flights of steps, this seems to be a very far-fetched and improbable derivation of the word. I am inclined to doubt whether it be not merely a vulgar corruption of the well-known word Ahamudeiyan, possessor of a house, the title which Tamil Brahmans often use in speaking of a man to his wife, in order to avoid the unpolite term husband. Or, perhaps, the name comes from aham in the sense of earth, and pati, master or possessor."

Concerning the connection which exists between the Maravans, Kallans, and Agamudaiyans (see Kallan), the following is one version of a legend, which is narrated. The father of Ahalya decided to give her in marriage to one who remained submerged under water for a thousand years. Indra only managed to remain thus for five hundred years, but Gautama succeeded in remaining for the whole of the stipulated period, and became the husband of Ahalya. Indra determined to have intercourse with her, and, assuming the guise of a cock, went at midnight to the abode of Gautama, and crowed. Gautama, thinking that daybreak was arriving, got up, and went to a river to bathe. While he was away, Indra assumed his form, and accomplished his desire. Ahalya is said to have recognised the deception after two children, who became the ancestors of the Maravans and Kallans, were born to her. A third child was born later on, from whom the Agamudaiyans are descended. According to another version of the legend, the first-born child is said to have faced Gautama without fear, and Agamudaiyan is accordingly derived from aham or agam, pride, and udaiyan, possessor. There is a Tamil proverb to the effect that a Kallan may come to be a Maravan. By respectability he may develope into an Agamudaiyan, and, by slow degrees, become a Vellala, from which he may rise to be a Mudaliar.

Of the three castes, Kallan, Maravan and Agamudaiyan, the last are said to have "alone been greatly influenced by contact with Brahmanism. They engage Brahman priests, and perform their birth, marriage, and death ceremonies like the Vellalas." [52] I am told that the more prosperous Agamudaiyans in the south imitate the Vellalas in their ceremonial observances, and the poorer classes the Maravans.

Agamudaiyan has been returned, at times of census, as a sub-division of Maravan and Kallan. In some places, the Agamudaiyans style themselves sons of Sembunattu Maravans. At Ramnad, in the Madura district, they carry the fire-pot to the burning ground at the funeral of a Maravan, and also bring the water for washing the corpse. In the Tanjore district the Agamudaiyans are called Terkittiyar, or southerners, a name which is also applied to Kallans, Maravans, and Valaiyans. The ordinary title of the Agamudaiyans is Servaikkaran, but many of them call themselves, like the Vellalas, Pillai. Other titles, returned at times of census, are Adhigari and Mudaliar.

At the census, 1891, the following were returned as the more important sub-divisions of the Agamudaiyans:--Aivali Nattan, Kottaipattu, Malainadu, Nattumangalam, Rajaboja, Rajakulam, Rajavasal, Kallan, Maravan, Tuluvan (cf. Tuluva Vellala) and Servaikkaran. The name Rajavasal denotes those who are servants of Rajas, and has been transformed into Rajavamsa, meaning those of kingly parentage. Kottaipattu means those of the fort, and the Agamudaiyans believe that the so-called Kottai Vellalas of the Tinnevelly district are really Kottaipattu Agamudaiyans. One sub-division of the Agamudaiyans is called Sani (cow-dung). Unlike the Maravans and Kallans, the Agamudaiyans have no exogamous septs, or kilais.

It is recorded, in the Mackenzie Manuscripts, that "among the Maravas, the kings or the rulers of districts, or principal men, are accustomed to perform the ceremony of tying on the tali, or in performing the marriage at once in full, with reference to females of the Agambadiyar tribe. The female children of such marriages can intermarry with the Maravas, but not among the Agambadiyar tribe. On the other hand, the male offspring of such marriages is considered to be of the mother's tribe, and can intermarry with the Agambadiyas, but not in the tribe of the Maravas." I am told that, under ordinary circumstances, the offspring of a marriage between a Maravan and Agamudaiyan becomes an Agamudaiyan, but that, if the husband is a man of position, the male issues are regarded as Maravans. Adult marriage appears to be the rule among the Agamudaiyans, but sometimes, as among the Maravans, Kallans and other castes, young boys are, in the southern districts, sometimes married to grown-up girls.

The marriage ceremonial, as carried out among the poorer Agamudaiyans, is very simple. The sister of the bridegroom proceeds to the home of the bride on an auspicious day, followed by a few females carrying a woman's cloth, a few jewels, flowers, etc. The bride is seated close to a wall, facing east. She is dressed up in the cloth which has been brought, and seated on a plank. Betel leaves, areca nuts, and flowers are presented to her by the bridegroom's sister, and she puts them in her lap. A turmeric-dyed string or garland is then placed round the bride's neck by the bridegroom's sister, while the conch shell (musical instrument), is blown. On the same day the bride is conducted to the home of the bridegroom, and a feast is held.

The more prosperous Agamudaiyans celebrate their marriages according to the Puranic type, which is the form in vogue amongst most of the Tamil castes, with variations. The astrologer is consulted in order to ascertain whether the pair agree in some at least of the points enumerated below. For this purpose, the day of birth, zodiacal signs, planets and asterisms under which the pair were born, are taken into consideration:--

1. Varam (day of birth).--Days are calculated, commencing with the first day after the new moon. Counting from the day on which the girl was born, if the young man's birthday happens to be the fourth, seventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, or seventeenth, it is considered good.

2. Ganam (class or tribe).--There are three ganams, called Manusha, Deva, and Rakshasa. Of the twenty-seven asterisms, Aswini, Bharani, etc., some are Manusha, some Deva, and some Rakshasa ganam. Ashtham and Swathi are considered to be of Deva ganam, so individuals born under these asterisms are regarded as belonging to Deva ganam. Those born under the asterisms Bharani, Rogini, Puram, Puradam, Uththaradam, etc., belong to the Manusha ganam. Under Rakshasa ganam are included Krithika, Ayilyam, Makam, Visakam, and other asterisms. The bridal pair should belong to the same ganam, as far as possible. Manusha and Deva is a tolerable combination, whereas Rakshasa and Deva, or Rakshasa and Manusha, are bad combinations.

3. Sthridirgam (woman's longevity).--The young man's birthday should be beyond the thirteenth day, counting from the birthday of the girl.

4. Yoni (female generative organs).--The asterisms are supposed to belong to several animals. An individual belongs to the animal to which the asterism under which he was born belongs. For example, a man is a horse if his asterism is Aswini, a cow if his asterism is Uththirattadhi, and so on. The animals of husband and wife must be on friendly terms, and not enemies. The elephant and man, horse and cow, dog and monkey, cat and mouse, are enemies. The animals of man and wife should not both be males. Nor should the man be a female, or the wife a male animal.

5. Rasi (zodiacal sign).--Beginning from the girl's zodiacal sign, the young man's should be beyond the sixth.

6. Rasyathipathi (planet in the zodiacal sign).--The ruling planets of the zodiacal signs of the pair should not be enemies.

7. Vasyam.--The zodiacal signs of the pair should be compatible, e.g., Midunam and Kanni, Singam and Makaram, Dhanus and Minam, Thulam and Makaram, etc.

8. Rajju (string).--The twenty-seven asterisms are arranged at various points on four parallel lines drawn across three triangles. These lines are called the leg, thigh, abdomen, and neck rajjus. The vertices of the triangles are the head rajjus. The asterisms of the pair should not be on the same rajju, and it is considered to be specially bad if they are both on the neck.

9. Vriksham (tree).--The asterisms belong to a number of trees, e.g.:--

Aswini, Strychnos Nux-vomica.
Bharani, Phyllanthus Emblica.
Krithikai, Ficus glomerata.
Puram, Butea frondosa.
Hastham, Sesbania grandiflora.
Thiruvonam, Calotropis gigantea.
Uththirattadhi, Melia Azadirachta.

Some of the trees are classed as milky, and others as dry. The young man's tree should be dry, and that of the girl milky, or both milky.

10. Pakshi (birds).--Certain asterisms also belong to birds, and the birds of the pair should be on friendly terms, e.g., peacock and fowl.

11. Jadi (caste).--The zodiacal signs are grouped into castes as follows:--

Brahman, Karkatakam, Minam, and Dhanus.
Kshatriya, Mesham, Vrischikam.
Vaisya, Kumbam, Thulam.
Sudra, Rishabam, Makaram.
Lower castes, Midhunam, Singam, and Kanni.

The young man should be of a higher caste, according to the zodiacal signs, than the girl.

After ascertaining the agreement of the pair, some close relations of the young man proceed to some distance northward, and wait for omens. If the omens are auspicious, they are satisfied. Some, instead of so going, go to a temple, and seek the omens either by placing flowers on the idol, and watching the direction in which they fall, or by picking up a flower from a large number strewn in front of the idol. If the flower picked up, and the one thought of, are of the same colour, it is regarded as a good omen. The betrothal ceremony is an important event. As soon as the people have assembled, the bridegroom's party place in their midst the pariyam cloth and jewels. Some responsible person inspects them, and, on his pronouncing that they are correct, permission is given to draw up the lagna patrika (letter of invitation, containing the date of marriage, etc.). Vigneswara (the elephant god Ganesa) is then worshipped, with the lagna patrika in front of him. This is followed by the announcement of the forthcoming marriage by the purohit (priest), and the settlement of the amount of the pariyam (bride's money). For the marriage celebration, a pandal (booth) is erected, and a dais, constructed of clay and laterite earth, is set up inside it. From the day on which the pandal is erected until the wedding day, the contracting couple have to go through the nalagu ceremony separately or together. This consists in having their bodies smeared with turmeric paste (Phaseolus Mungo paste), and gingelly (Sesamum) oil. On the wedding day, the bridegroom, after a clean shave, proceeds to the house of the bride. The finger and toe-nails of the bride are cut. The pair offer pongal (boiled rice) to the family deity and their ancestors. A square space is cleared in the centre of the dais for the sacred fire (homam). A many-branched lamp, representing the thousand-eyed Indra, is placed to the east of the square. The purohit, who is regarded as equivalent to Yama (the god of death), and a pot with a lamp on it representing Agni devata, occupy the south-east corner. Women representing Niruti (a devata) are posted in the south-west corner.