Chapter V: Part 5

Murikinadu.--Murikinadu or Murikinati is a territorial name, which occurs as a division of Telugu Brahmans, and of various Telugu classes, e.g., Kamsala, Mala, Mangala, Razu, and Tsakala.

Muriya.--A small class in Ganjam, who are engaged in making a preparation of fried rice (muri) and in cultivation.

Muru Balayanoru (three-bangle people).--A sub-division of Kappiliyan.

Musaliar.--An occupational term, denoting a Muhammadan priest, returned at times of census in the Tamil country.

Musari.--A division of Malayalam Kammalans, whose occupation is that of brass and copper smiths. The equivalent Musarlu occurs among the Telugu Kamsalas.

Mushika (rat).--A gotra of Nagaralu. The rat is the vehicle of the Elephant God, Vignesvara or Ganesa.

Mushtiga.--An exogamous sept of the Gollas, who may not use the mushtiga tree (Strychnos Nux-vomica). It also occurs as a synonym of Jetti.

Mushti Golla.--A class of mendicants, usually of mixed extraction. Mushti means alms.

Mussad.--For the following note on the Mussads or Muttatus of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. They are known as Muttatus or Mussatus in Travancore and Cochin, and Potuvals (or Poduvals) or Akapotuvals in North Malabar. The word Muttatu means elder, and is generally taken to indicate a community, which is higher than the Ambalavasi castes, as Ilayatu (or Elayad), or younger, denotes a sub-caste slightly lower than the Brahmans. In early records, the word Mupputayor, which has an identical meaning, is met with. Potuval means a common person, i.e., the representative of a committee, and a Muttatu's right to this name is from the fact that, in the absence of the Nambutiri managers of a temple, he becomes their agent, and is invested with authority to exercise all their functions. The work of an Akapotuval always lies within the inner wall of the shrine, while that of the Purapotuval or Potuval proper lies outside. The castemen themselves prefer the name Sivadvija or Saivite Brahman. A few families possess special titles, such as Nambi and Nambiyar. Their women are generally known as Manayammamar, mana meaning the house of a Brahman. There are no divisions or septs among the Muttatus.

The origin of the Muttatus, and their place in Malabar society, are questions on which a good deal of discussion has been of late expended. In the Jatinirnaya, an old Sanskrit work on the castes of Kerala attributed to Sankaracharya, it is said that the four kinds of Ambalavasis, Tantri, Bharatabhattaraka, Agrima, and Slaghyavakku, are Brahmans degraded in the Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali ages, respectively, and that those who were so degraded in the Dvapara Yuga--the Agrimas or Muttatus--and whose occupation is to cleanse the stone steps of shrines--are found in large numbers in Kerala. According to Kerala Mahatmya, another Sanskrit work on Malabar history and customs, these Muttatus are also known as Sivadvijas, or Brahmans dedicated to the worship of Siva, occupying a lower position in Malabar society than that of the Brahmans. One of them, disguised as a Nambutiri, married a Nambutiri's daughter, but his real status became known before the marriage was consummated, and the pair were degraded, and allotted a separate place in society. This tradition is not necessary to account for the present position of the Muttatus in Kerala, as, all over India, worship of fixed images was viewed with disfavour even in the days of Manu. Worship in Saivite temples was not sought by Brahmans, and was even considered as despiritualising on account of the divine displeasure which may be expected as the result of misfeasance. It was for a similar reason that the Nambiyans of even Vaishnavite temples on the east coast became degraded in society. The Illayatus and Muttatus have been long known in Malabar as Nyunas or castes slightly lower than the Brahmans, and Avantaras or castes intermediate between Brahmans and Ambalavasis. As, in subsequent days, the Brahmans themselves undertook with impunity the priestly profession in Hindu temples, Saivite as well as Vaishnavite, the Muttatus had to be content with a more lowly occupation, viz., that of guarding the temples and images. According to Suchindra Mahatmyam, eleven Brahmans were ordered by Parasu Rama to partake of the remnants of the food offered to Siva, and to bear the Saivite image in procession round the shrine on occasions of festivals; and, according to the Vaikam Sthalapuranam, three families of Sivadvijas were brought over by the same sage from eastern districts for service at that temple. Whatever may be said in regard to the antiquity or authenticity of many of these Sthalapuranams, corroborative evidence of the Brahmanical origin of the Muttatus may be amply found in their manners and customs. A fresh colony of Sivadvijas is believed to have been invited to settle at Tiruvanchikkulam in Cranganore from Chidambaram by one of the Perumals of Kerala, in connection with the establishment of Saivite temples there. They have preserved their original occupation faithfully enough down to the present day.

The houses of Muttatus are known as illams and mattams, the former being the name of all Nambutiri houses. They are generally built beside some well-known shrine, with which the inmates are professionally connected. The dress of both men and women resembles that of the Nambutiri Brahmans, the injunction to cover the whole of the body when they go out of doors being applicable also to the Manayammamar. Girls before marriage wear a ring and kuzal on the neck, and, on festive occasions, a palakka ring. The chuttu in the ears, and pozhutu tali on the neck are worn only after marriage, the latter being the symbol which distinguishes married women from widows and maidens. Widows are prohibited from wearing any ornament except the chuttu. In food and drink the Muttatus are quite like the Nambutiris.

The Muttatus are the custodians of the images, which they take in procession, and wash the stone steps leading to the inner sanctuary. They live by the naivedya or cooked food offering which they receive from the temple, and various other emoluments. It may be noted that one of the causes of their degradation was the partaking of this food, which Brahmans took care not to do. The Muttatus are generally well-read in Sanskrit, and study astrology, medicine, and sorcery. The social government of the Muttatus rests wholly with the Nambutiris, who enforce the smartavicharam or enquiry into a suspected case of adultery, as in the case of a Nambutiri woman. When Nambutiri priests are not available, Muttatus, if learned in the Vedas, may be employed, but punyaham, or purification after pollution, can only be done by a Nambutiri.

Like the Nambutiris, the Muttatus strictly observe the rule that only the eldest male member in a family can marry. The rest form casual connections with women of most of the Ambalavasi classes. They are, like the Brahmans, divided into exogamous septs or gotras. A girl is married before or after puberty. Polygamy is not uncommon, though the number of wives is never more than four. Widows do not remarry. In their marriage ceremonies, the Muttatus resemble the Nambutiris, with some minor points of difference. They follow two sutras, those of Asvalayana and Baudhayana, the former being members of the Rig Veda and the latter of the Yajur Veda. The former omit a number of details, such as the panchamehani and dasamehani, which are observed by the latter. According to a territorial distinction, Mussad girls of North Malabar cannot become the daughters-in-law of South Malabar families, but girls of South Malabar can become the daughters-in-law of North Malabar families.

The Muttatus observe all the religious rites of the Nambutiris. The rule is that the eldest son should be named after the paternal grandfather, the second after the maternal grandfather, and the third after that of the father. The upanayana ceremony is celebrated between the ages of seven and eleven, and the Gayatri hymn may only be repeated ten times thrice daily. In the funeral rites, the help of the Maran called Chitikan (a corruption of Chaitika, meaning one who is connected with the funeral pyre) is sought. Pollution lasts only ten days.

The Muttatus stand above all sections of the Ambalavasi group, and below every recognised section of the Brahman and Kshatriya communities, with whom they do not hold commensal relations in any part of Kerala. They are thus on a par with the Illayatus, but the latter have their own hierarchy, and lead a social life almost independent of the Brahmans. The Muttatus seek their help and advice in all important matters. The Muttatus are, however, privileged to take their food within the nalampalam (temple courts), and the leaf-plates are afterwards removed by temple servants. The Ambalavasis do not possess a right of this kind. At Suchindram, the Nambutiri by whom the chief image is served is not privileged to give prasada (remains of offerings) to any worshipper, this privilege being confined to the Muttatus engaged to serve the minor deities of the shrine. The washing of the stone steps leading to the inner sanctuary, the mandapa, kitchen, feeding rooms, and bali stones, both inside and outside the shrine, are done by Muttatus at temples with which they are connected. All Ambalavasis freely receive food from Muttatus.

It is further noted, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, that "there is a pithy saying in Malayalam, according to which the Muthads are to be regarded as the highest of Ambalavasis, and the Elayads as the lowest of Brahmans. Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the exact social status of Muthads. For, while some hold that they are to be regarded as degraded Brahmans, others maintain that they are only the highest class of Ambalavasis. In the opinion, however, of the most learned Vydikan who was consulted on the subject, the Muthads are to be classed as degraded Brahmans. They are supposed to have suffered social degradation by their having tattooed their bodies with figures representing the weapons of the god Siva, and partaking of the offerings made to that god."

A correspondent, who has made enquiry into caste questions in Malabar, writes to me as follows. There are several ways of spelling the name, e.g., Mussu, Mussad, and Muttatu. Some people tried to discriminate between these, but I could not work out any distinctions. In practice, I think, all the classes noted below are called by either name indifferently, and most commonly Mussad. There are several classes, viz.:--

(1) BRAHMAN OR QUASI-BRAHMAN.

(a) Ashtavaidyanmar, or eight physicians, are eight families of hereditary physicians. They are called Jatimatrakaras (barely caste people), and it is supposed that they are Nambudiris slightly degraded by the necessity they may, as surgeons, be under of shedding blood. Most of them are called Mussad, but one at least is called Nambi.

(b) Urili Parisha Mussad, or assembly in the village Mussad, who are said to be degraded because they accepted gifts of land from Parasu Rama, and agreed to take on themselves the sin he had contracted by slaying the Kshetriyas. This class, as a whole, is called Sapta or Saptagrastan.

(2) AMBALAVASI.

(c) Mussad or Muttatu.--They appear to be identical with the Agapothuvals, or inside Pothuvals, as distinguished from the Pura, or outside Pothuvals, in North Malabar. They are said to be the descendants of a Sivadvija man and pure Brahman girl. According to another account, they lost caste because they ate rice offered to Siva, which is prohibited by one of the anacharams, or rules of conduct peculiar to Kerala. They perform various duties in temples, and escort the idol when it is carried in procession on an arrangement called tadambu, which is like an inverted shield with a shelf across it, on which the idol is placed. They wear the punul, or sacred thread.

(d) Karuga Mussad.--So called from the karuga grass (Cynodon Dactylon), which is used in ceremonies. Their exact position is disputed. They wear the sacred thread (cf. Karuga Nambudiris in North Malabar), who cook rice for the sradh (memorial ceremony) of Sudras,

(e) Tiruvalayanath or Kovil (temple) Mussad.--They also wear the sacred thread, but perform puja in Bhadrakali temples, incidents of which are the shedding of blood and use of liquor. They seem to be almost identical with the caste called elsewhere Adigal or Pidaran, but, I think, Adigals are a little higher, and do not touch liquor, while Pidarans are divided into two classes, the lower of which does not wear the thread or perform the actual puja, but only attends to various matters subsidiary thereto.

In an account of the annual ceremony at the Pishari temple near Quilandy in Malabar in honour of Bhagavati, Mr. F. Fawcett informs [67] that the Mussad priests repeat mantrams (prayers) over the goats for an hour as a preliminary to the sacrifice. Then the chief priest, with a chopper-like sword, decapitates the goats, and sacrifices several cocks. The Mussads cook some of the flesh of the goats, and one or two of the cocks with rice. This rice, when cooked, is taken to the kavu (grove) to the north of the temple, and there the Mussads again ply their mantrams.

Musu Kamma.--The name of a special ear ornament worn by the Musu Kamma sub-division of Balijas. In the Salem District Manual, Musuku is recorded as a sub-division of this caste.

Mutalpattukar.--A synonym of Tandan in Travancore, indicating those who received an allowance for the assistance they were called on to render to carpenters.

Mutracha.--Mutracha appears, in published records, in a variety of forms, such as Muttaracha, Muttirajulu, Muttarasan, and Mutratcha. The caste is known by one of these names in the Telugu country, and in the Tamil country as Muttiriyan or Palaiyakkaran.

Concerning the Mutrachas, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes as follows. [68] "This is a Telugu caste most numerous in the Kistna, Nellore, Cuddapah, and North Arcot districts. The Mutrachas were employed by the Vijayanagar kings to defend the frontiers of their dominions, and were honoured with the title of paligars (cf. Palaiyakkaran). The word Mutracha is derived from the Dravidian roots mudi, old, and racha, a king; but another derivation is from Mutu Raja, a sovereign of some part of the Telugu country. They eat flesh, and drink liquor. Their titles are Dora and Naidu." Mr. Stuart writes further [69] that in the North Arcot district they are "most numerous in the Chendragiri taluk, but found all over the district in the person of the village taliari or watchman, for which reason it is often called the taliari caste. They proudly call themselves paligars, and in Chendragiri doralu or lords, because several of the Chittoor palaiyams (villages governed by paligars) were in possession of members of their caste. They seem to have entered the country in the time of the Vijayanagar kings, and to have been appointed as its kavilgars (watchmen). The caste is usually esteemed by others as a low one. Most of its members are poor, even when they have left the profession of taliari, and taken to agriculture. They eat in the houses of most other castes, and are not trammelled by many restrictions. In Chendragiri they rarely marry, but form connections with women of their caste, which are often permanent, though not sanctioned by the marriage ceremony, and the offspring of such associations are regarded as legitimate."

In the Nellore Manual, the Mutrachas are summed up as being hunters, fishermen, bearers, palanquin-bearers, and hereditary watchmen in the villages. At times of census, Mutracha or Mutarasan has been recorded as a sub-division of Urali, and a title of Ambalakkaran. Muttiriyan, which is simply a Tamil form of Mutracha, appears as a title and sub-division of Ambalakkaran (q.v.). Further, Tolagari is recorded as a sub-division of Mutracha. The Tolagaris are stated [70] to be a small cultivating caste, who were formerly hunters, like the Palayakkarans. Most of the Mutrachas are engaged in agriculture. At Paniyam, in the Kurnool district, I found some employed in collecting winged white-ants (Termites), which they sun-dry, and store in large pots as an article of food. They are said to make use of some special powder as a means of attracting the insects, in catching which they are very expert.

In some places, the relations between the Mutrachas and Gollas, both of which castes belong to the left-hand section, are strained. On occasions of marriage among the Madigas, some pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts), is set apart for the Mutrachas, as a mark of respect.

In consequence of the fact that some Mutrachas have been petty chieftains, they claim to be Kshatriyas, and to be descended from Yayathi of the Mahabaratha. According to the legend, Devayana, the daughter of Sukracharya, the priest of the Daityas (demons and giants), went to a well with Charmanishta, the daughter of the Daitya king. A quarrel arose between them, and Charmanishta pushed Devayana into a dry well, from which she was rescued by king Yayathi. Sukracharya complained to the Daitya king, who made his daughter become a servant to Yayathi's wife, Devayana. By her marriage Devayana bore two sons. Subsequently, Yayathi became enamoured of Charmanishta, by whom he had an illegitimate son. Hearing of this, Sukracharya cursed Yayathi that he should be subject to old age and infirmity. This curse he asked his children to take on themselves, but all refused except his illegitimate child Puru. He accordingly cursed his legitimate sons, that they should only rule over barren land overrun by Kiratas. One of them, Durvasa by name, had seven children, who were specially favoured by the goddess Ankamma. After a time, however, they were persuaded to worship Maheswara or Virabhadra instead of Ankamma. This made the goddess angry, and she caused all flower gardens to disappear, except her own. Flowers being necessary for the purpose of worship, the perverts stole them from Ankamma's garden, and were caught in the act by the goddess. As a punishment for their sin, they had to lose their lives by killing themselves on a stake. One of the seven sons had a child named Ravideviraju, which was thrown into a well as soon as it was born. The Naga Kannikas of the nether regions rescued the infant, and tended it with care. One day, while Ankamma was traversing the Naga lokam (country), she heard a child crying, and sent her vehicle, a jackal (nakka), to bring the child, which, however, would not allow the animal to take it The goddess accordingly herself carried it off. The child grew up under her care, and eventually had three sons, named Karnam Raju, Gangi Raju, and Bhupathi Raju, from whom the Mutrachas are descended. In return for the goddess protecting and bringing up the child, she is regarded as the special tutelary deity of the caste.

There is a saying current among the Mutrachas that the Mutracha caste is as good as a pearl, but became degraded as its members began to catch fish. According to a legend, the Mutrachas, being Kshatriyas, wore the sacred thread. Some of them, on their way home after a hunting expedition, halted by a pond, and were tempted by the enormous number of fish therein to fish for them, using their sacred threads as lines. They were seen by some Brahmans while thus engaged, and their degradation followed.

In the Telugu country, two divisions, called Paligiri and Oruganti, are recognised by the Mutrachas, who further have exogamous septs or intiperulu, of which the following are examples:--

Avula, cow.
Arigala, a dish carried in processions.
Busi, dirt.
Ella, boundary.
Guvvala, doves.
Indla, house.
Iga, fly.
Koppula, hair-knot.
Katari, dagger.
Marri, Ficus bengalensis.
Nakka, jackal.
Puli, tiger.
Talari, watchman.
Tota, garden.
Uyyala, a swing.
Thumu, iron measure for measuring grain.

During the first menstrual seclusion of a girl, she may not have her meals served on a metal plate, but uses an earthen cup, which is eventually thrown away. When she reaches puberty, a girl does up her hair in a knot called koppu.

In the case of confinement, pollution ends on the tenth day. But, if a woman loses her infant, especially a first-born, the pollution period is shortened, and, at every subsequent time of delivery, the woman bathes on the seventh or ninth day. Every woman who visits her on the bathing day brings a pot of warm water, and pours it over her head.

Muttal (substitute).--A sub-division of Maran.

Muttan.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Muttans are summed up as "a trading caste in Malabar. The better educated members of it have begun to claim a higher social status than that usually accorded them. Formerly they claimed to be Nayars, but recently they have gone further, and, in the census schedules, some of them returned themselves as Vaisyas, and added the Vaisya title Gupta to their names. They do not, however, wear the sacred thread, or perform any Vedic rites, and Nayars consider themselves polluted by their touch."

It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, under the conjoint heading Muttan and Tarakan, that "these two are allied castes, but the latter would consider it a disgrace to acknowledge any affinity with the former. Tarakan literally means a broker. Dr. Gundert says that these were originally warehouse-keepers at Palghat. Muttan is probably from Muttavan, an elder, Tarakans have returned Muttan as a sub-division, and vice versâ, and both appear as sub-divisions of Nayar. We have in our schedules instances of persons who have returned their caste as Tarakan, but with their names Krishna Muttan (male) and Lakshmi Chettichiar (female). A Muttan may, in course of time, become a Tarakan, and then a Nayar. Both these castes follow closely the customs and manners of Nayars, but there are some differences. I have not, however, been able to get at the real state of affairs, as the members of the caste are very reticent on the subject, and simply assert that they are in all respects the same as Nayars. One difference is that a Brahmani does not sing at their tali-kettu marriages. Again, instead of having a Marayan, Attikurissi, or Elayad as their priest, they employ a man of their own caste, called Choratton. This man assists at their funeral ceremonies, and purifies them at the end of pollution, just as the Attikurissi does for Nayars. Kali temples seem to be specially affected by this caste, and these Chorattons are also priests in these temples. The Muttan and Tarakan castes are practically confined to Palghat and Walluvanad taluks."

In a note on some castes in Malabar which are most likely of foreign origin, it is stated, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "this is certainly true of the Muttans, who are found only in the Palghat taluk and in the parts of Walavanad bordering on it, a part of the country where there is a large admixture of Tamils in the population. They are now advancing a claim to be Vaisyas, and some of them have adopted the title Gupta which is proper to that caste, while a few have the title Ezhutacchan. Some Muttans in Palghat are called Mannadiars, a title also apparently borne by some Taragans. The Muttans follow makkattayam (inheritance from father to son), and do not enter into the loose connections known as sambandhams; their women are called Chettichiars, clearly indicating their eastern origin; and their period of pollution is ten days, according to which test they would rank as a high caste. On the other hand, they may eat meat and drink liquor. Their purificatory ceremonies are performed by a class known as Chorttavans (literally, sprinklers), who are said to be identical with Kulangara Nayars, and not by Attikurrissi Nayars as in the case with Nambudris, Ambalavasis, and Nayars. There is considerable antagonism between the Palghat and Walavanad sections of the caste. Another caste of traders, which has now been practically incorporated in the Nayar body, is the class known as Taragans (literally, brokers) found in Palghat and Walavanad, some of whom have considerable wealth and high social position. The Taragans of Angadippuram and the surrounding neighbourhood claim to be immigrants from Travancore, and to be descendants of Ettuvittil Pillamar of Quilon, who are high caste Nayars. They can marry Kiriyattil women, and their women occasionally have sambandham with Samantan Rajas. The Palghat Taragans on the other hand can marry only in their caste."

Muttasari.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a name by which Kammalans are addressed.

Muttiriyan.--See Mutracha.

Mutyala (pearl).--An exogamous sept, and name of a sub-division of Balijas who deal in pearls. The Ambalakarans say that they were born of the sweat (muttu, a pearl or bead of perspiration) of Paramasiva.

Muvvari.--Recorded [71] as "a North Malabar caste of domestic servants under the Embrantiri Brahmans. Their customs resemble those of the Nayars, but the Elayads and the Marayans will not serve them."

Myasa.--Myasa, meaning grass-land or forest, is one of the two main divisions, Uru (village) and Myasa, of the Bedars and Boyas. Among the Myasa Bedars, the rite of circumcision is practiced, and is said to be the survival of a custom which originated when they were included in the army of Haidar Ali

N

Nadan.--Nadan, meaning ruler of a country or village, or one who lives in the country, is a title of the Shanans, who, further, call themselves Nadans in preference to Shanans.

Nadava.--" This, "Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [72] "is a caste of Canarese farmers found only in South Canara. The Nadavas have returned four sub-divisions, one of which is Bant, and two of the other three are sub-divisions of Bants, the most important being Masadi. In the case of 33,212 individuals, Nadava has been returned as sub-division also. I have no information regarding the caste, but they seem to be closely allied to the Bant caste, of which Nadava is one of the sub-divisions." The name Nadava or Nadavaru means people of the nadu or country. It is one of the sub-divisions of the Bants.

Naga (cobra: Naia tripudians).--Nag, Naga, Nagasa, or Nageswara, occurs in the name of a sept or gotra of various classes in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, e.g., Aiyarakulu, Bhondari, Bhumia, Bottada, Domb, Gadaba, Konda Dora, Medara, Muka Dora, Nagaralu, Omanaito, Poroja, Rona, and Samantiya. Members of the Nagabonso sept of Odiya claim to be descendants of Nagamuni, the serpent rishi. Naga is further a gotra or sept of Kurnis and Toreyas, of whom the latter, at their weddings, worship at 'ant' (Termites) hills, which are often the home of cobras. It is also a sub-division of Gazula Kapus and Koppala Velamas. Nagavadam (cobra's hood) is the name of a sub-division of the Pallis, who wear an ornament, called nagavadam, shaped like a cobra's head, in the dilated lobes of the ears. Among the Viramushtis there is a sept named Naga Mallika (Rhinacanthus communis), the roots of which shrub are believed to be an antidote to the bite of poisonous snakes. The flowers of Couroupita guianensis, which has been introduced as a garden tree in Southern India, are known as naga linga pu, from the staminal portion of the flower which curves over the ovary being likened to a cobra's hood, and the ovary to a lingam.

Nagali (plough).--An exogamous sept of Kapu.

Nagalika (of the plough).--A name for Lingayats engaged in cultivation.

Nagaralu.--The Nagaralu are a cultivating caste in Vizagapatam, concerning whom it is recorded [73] that "Nagaralu means the dwellers in a nagaram or city, and apparently this caste was originally a section of the Kapus, which took to town life, and separated itself off from the parent stock. They say their original occupation was medicine, and a number of them are still physicians and druggists, though the greater part are agriculturists."

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Viziaram Raz, the friend of Bussy, conferred mokhasas (grants of land) on some of the most important members of the caste, whose descendants are to be found in various places. The caste is divided into three sections or gotras, viz., Nagesvara (cobra) Kurmesa (tortoise), and Vignesvara or Mushika (rat). The rat is the vehicle of the elephant god Ganesa or Vignesvara. It is further divided into exogamous septs or intiperulu, such as sampathi (riches), chakravarthi (king or ruler), majji, etc.

The menarikam system, according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is in force. Girls are usually married before puberty, and a Brahman officiates at marriages. The marriage of widows and divorce are not permitted.

The dead are burnt, and the chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies, whereat a Brahman officiates, are celebrated.

Some members of the caste have acquired a great reputation as medicine-men and druggists.

The usual caste title is Pathrulu, indicating those who are fit to receive a gift

Nagartha.--Nagarata, Nagarattar, or Nagarakulam is returned, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Chetti. In the Census Report, 1891, it is recorded that the Nagarattu "hail from Kanchipuram (Conjeeveram), where, it is said, a thousand families of this caste formerly lived. Their name (nagaram, a city) refers to their original home. They wear the sacred thread, and worship both Vishnu and Siva. They take neither flesh nor alcohol. As they maintain that they are true Vaisyas, they closely imitate the Brahmanical ceremonies of marriage and death. This sub-division has a dancing-girl and a servant attached to it, whose duties are to dance, and to do miscellaneous work during marriages. The caste servant is called Jatipillai (child of the caste).

Concerning the Nagarthas, who are settled in the Mysore Province, I gather [74] that "the account locally obtained connects them with the Ganigas, and the two castes are said to have been co-emigrants to Bangalore where one Mallaraje Ars made headmen of the principal members of the two castes, and exempted them from the house-tax. Certain gotras are said to be common to both castes, but they never eat together or intermarry. Both call themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas, and the feuds between them are said to have often culminated in much unpleasantness. The Nagarthas are principally found in towns and large trade centres. Some are worshippers of Vishnu, and others of Siva. Of the latter, some wear the linga. They are dealers in bullion, cloth, cotton, drugs and grain. A curious mode of carrying the dead among the Namadari or Vaishnavite Nagarthas is that the dead body is rolled up in a blanket, instead of a bier or vimana as among others. These cremate their dead, whereas the others bury them. Marriage must be performed before a girl reaches puberty, and widows are not allowed to remarry. Polygamy is allowed, and divorce can be for adultery alone. It is recorded by Mr. L. Rice [75] that "cases sometimes occur of a Sivachar marrying a Namadari woman, and, when this happens, her tongue is burned with the linga, after which she forsakes her parents' house and religion. It is stated that the Sivachar Nagarthas never give their daughters in marriage to the Namadari sect." Among the gotras returned by the Nagarthas are Kasyapa, Chandramauleswara, and Cholendra.

Naga-sreni.--A fanciful name, meaning those who live in the Naga street, used as a caste name by the Patramela dancing-girl caste.

Nagavasulu.--The Nagavasulu are described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as "cultivators in the Vizagapatam district. Women who have not entered into matrimony earn money by prostitution, and acting as dancers at feasts. Some of the caste lead a bad life, and are excluded from the body of the caste." In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is stated that "Nagavasamu means a company of dancing-girls, and the sons of women of this profession frequently call themselves Nagavasulu. The bulk of the caste in Vizagapatam, however, are said to be respectable farmers." It is noted, in the Census Report, 1901, that "most of the Nagavasulu are cultivators, but some of the women, are prostitutes by profession, and outsiders are consequently admitted to the caste. Their title is Naidu."

Nagellu (plough).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Nagna (naked).--A name for Sanyasis, who go about naked.

Naidu.--Naidu or Nayudu is a title, returned at times of census by many Telugu classes, e.g., Balija, Bestha, Boya, Ekari, Gavara, Golla, Kalingi, Kapu, Mutracha, and Velama. A Tamilian, when speaking of a Telugu person bearing this title, would call him Naicker or Naickan instead of Naidu.

Naik.--The word Naik (Nayaka, a leader or chief) is used, by the older writers on Southern India, in several senses, of which the following examples, given by Yule and Burnell, [76] may be cited:--

(a) Native captain or headman. "Il s'appelle Naique, qui signifie Capitaine." Barretto, Rel du Prov de Malabar.

(b) A title of honour among Hindus in the Deccan. "The kings of Deccan also have a custome when they will honour a man or recompence their service done, and rayse him to dignitie and honour. They give him the title of Naygue".--Linschoten.

(c) The general name of the kings of Vijayanagara, and of the Lords of Madura and other places. "Il y a plusieurs Naiques au Sud de Saint Thomé, qui sont Souverains: Le Naigue de Madure on est un".--Thevenot.

Naik, Naickan, Naicker, Nayak or Nayakkan has been returned, at recent times of census, by the Tamil Pallis, Irulas, and Vedans, and also by various Telugu and Canarese classes, e.g.:--

Telugu--Balija, Boya, Ekari, Golla, Kavarai, Muttiriyan, Odde, Tottiyan, and Uppiliyan.

Canarese--Bedar, Cheptegara, Charodi, Kannadiyan, Servegara, Siviyar, and Toreya. Some Jen Kurumbas (a jungle folk) in the Wynad are also locally known as Naikers.

Tulu--The Mogers, in some parts of South Canara, prefer the title Naiker to the ordinary caste title Marakaleru, and some Bants have the same title.

The headman among the Lambadis or Brinjaris is called Naik. Naicker further occurs as a hereditary title in some Brahman families. I have, for example, heard of a Desastha Brahman bearing the name Nyna Naicker.

Naik, Naiko, or Nayako appears as the title of various Oriya classes, e.g., Alia, Aruva, Bagata, Gaudo, Jatapu, Odia, Pentiya, Rona, and Teli. It is noted by Mr. S. P. Rice that "the Uriya Korono, or head of the village, appropriates to himself as his caste distinction the title Potonaiko signifying the Naik or head of the town."

The name Nayar or Nair is, it may be noted, akin to Naik and Naidu, and signifies a leader or soldier. [77] In this connection, Mr. Lewis Moore writes [78] that "almost every page of Mr. Sewell's interesting book on Vijayanagar [79] bears testimony to the close connection between Vijayanagar and the west coast. It is remarkable that Colonel (afterwards Sir Thomas) Munro, in the memorandum written by him in 1802 on the poligars (feudal chiefs) of the Ceded Districts, when dealing with the cases of a number of poligars who were direct descendants of men who had been chiefs under the kings of Vijayanagar, calls them throughout his report Naigue or Nair, using the two names as if they were identical." [80]

It is noted by Mr. Talboys Wheeler [81] that, in the city of Madras in former days, "police duties were entrusted to a Hindu official, known as the Pedda Naik or 'elder chief,' who kept a staff of peons, and was bound to make good all stolen articles that were not recovered."

In the South Canara district, the name Naikini (Naik females) is taken by temple dancing-girls.

Nainar.--See Nayinar.

Nakash.--A name, denoting exquisite workmanship, by which Rachevars or Chitrakaras are known in some places.

Nakkala.--Nakkala or Nakka, meaning jackal, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Boya, Gudala, Golla, and Mutracha. The jackal is the vehicle of the goddess Ankamma, who is the tutelary deity of the Mutrachas. The name occurs further as a name for the Kuruvikkarans, who manufacture spurious jackal horns as charms.

Nali (bamboo tube).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Nalillakkar (people of the four illams).--A section of Mukkuvans, which is divided into four illams.

Nalke.--The Nalkes or Nalakeyavas are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [82] as "a caste of mat, basket, and umbrella makers, who furnish the devil-dancers, who play such an important part in the worship of the Tulu people. They have the usual Tulu exogamous sub-divisions or balis. They are generally held to be Holeyas or Pariahs. In Canarese they are called Panaras,"

"Every village in Canara," Mr. Stuart writes further, [83] "has its Bhutasthanam or demon temple, in which the officiating priest or pujari is usually a man of the Billava caste, and shrines innumerable are scattered throughout the length and breadth of the land for the propitiation of the malevolent spirits of deceased celebrities, who, in their lifetime, had acquired a more than usual local reputation whether for good or evil, or had met with a sudden or violent death. In addition to these there are demons of the jungle and demons of the waste, demons who guard the village boundaries, and demons whose only apparent vocation is that of playing tricks, such as throwing stones on houses, and causing mischief generally. The demons who guard the village boundaries seem to be the only ones who are credited with even indirectly exercising a useful function. The others merely inspire terror by causing sickness and misfortune, and have to be propitiated by offerings, which often involve the shedding of blood, that of a fowl being most common. There are also family Bhutas, and in every non-Brahman house a room, or sometimes only a corner, is set apart for the Bhuta, and called the Bhutakotya. The Bhutasthanam is generally a small, plain structure, 4 or 5 yards deep by 2 or 3 yards wide, with a door at one end covered by a portico supported on two pillars. The roof is of thatch, and the building is without windows. In front of it there are usually three or four T-shaped pillars. Flowers are placed, and cocoanuts broken on them at ceremonies. The temples of the more popular Bhutas are often substantial buildings of considerable size. Inside the Bhutasthanam there are usually a number of images, roughly made in brass, in human shape, or resembling animals, such as pigs, tigers, fowls, etc. These are brought out and worshipped as symbols of the Bhutas on various ceremonial occasions. [84] A peculiar small goglet or vase, made of bell-metal, into which from time to time water is poured, is kept before the Bhutas, and, on special occasions, kepula (Ixora coccinea) flowers, and lights are placed before them. In the larger sthanas a sword is always kept near the Bhuta, to be held by the officiating priest when he stands possessed and trembling with excitement before the people assembled for worship. [85] A bell or gong is also found in all Bhutasthanams. In the case of Bhutas connected with temples, there is a place set apart for them, called a gudi. The Bhutasthanam of the Baiderlu is called a garudi.

"The names of the Bhutas are legion. One of the most dreaded is named Kalkuti. Two others commonly worshipped by the Bants and the Billavas are Koti Baidya and Chennaya Baidya, who always have Billava pujaris. These two Bhutas are the departed spirits of two Billava heroes. The spirit of Kujumba Kanje, a Bant of renown, belongs to this class of Bhutas. Amongst the most well known of the others, may be mentioned Kodamanitaya and Mundaltaya, and the jungle demons Hakkerlu and Brahmerlu. The Holeyas worship a Bhuta of their own, who is not recognised by any other class of the people. He goes by the name of Kumberlu, and the place where he is said to reside is called Kumberlu-kotya. Very often a stone of any shape, or a small plank is placed on the ground, or fixed in a wall, and the name of a Bhuta given to it. Other representations of Bhutas are in the shape of an ox (Mahisandaya), a horse (Jarandaya), a pig (Panjurli), or a giant (Baiderlu).

"The Bhuta worship of South Canara is of four kinds, viz., kola, bandi, nema, and agelu-tambila. Kola, or devil dancing, is offered to the Bhutas in the sthana of the village in which they are supposed to reside. The Sudras of the village, and of those adjacent to it, assemble near the sthana, and witness the kola ceremony in public, sharing the cost of it by subscriptions raised among all the Sudra families in the village in which the ceremony is held. Bandi is the same as kola, with the addition of dragging about a clumsy kind of car, on which the Pompada priest representing the Bhuta is seated. Nema is a private ceremony in honour of the Bhutas, held in the house of anyone who is so inclined. It is performed once in ten, fifteen, or twenty years by well-to-do Billavas or Bants. The expenses of the nema amount to about Rs. 600 or Rs. 700, and are borne by the master of the house in which the nema takes place. During the nema, the Bhutas, i.e., the things representing them, are brought from the sthana to the house of the man giving the feast, and remain there till it is over. Agelu-tambila is a kind of worship offered only to the Baiderlu, and that annually by the Billavas only. It will be seen that kola, bandi, and nema are applicable to all the Bhutas, including the Baiderlu, but that the agelu-tambila is applicable only to the Baiderlu."

The following account of Canara devil-dancers and exorcists is given in Mr. Lavie's Manuscript History of Canara. "It is their duty to carry a beautiful sword with a handsomely curved handle, and polished blade of the finest steel. These they shake and flourish about in all directions, jumping, dancing, and trembling in a most frightful manner. Their hair is loose and flowing, and, by their inflamed eyes and general appearance, I should suppose that they are prepared for the occasion by intoxicating liquids or drugs.... Their power as exorcists is exercised on any person supposed to be possessed with the devil. I have passed by a house in which an exorcist has been exercising his powers. He began with groans, sighs, and mutterings, and broke forth into low mournings. Afterwards he raised his voice, and uttered with rapidity and in a peculiar tone of voice certain mantrams or charms, all the while trembling violently, and moving his body backwards and forwards." The performance (of devil dances) always takes place at night, commencing about nine o'clock. At first the pujari, with the Bhuta sword and bell in his hands, whirls round and round, imitating the supposed mien and gestures of the demon. But he does not aspire to full possession; that is reserved for a Pombada or a Nalke, a man of the lowest class, who comes forward when the Billava pujari has exhibited himself for about half an hour. He is naked save for a waist-band, his face is painted with ochre, and he wears a sort of arch made of cocoanut leaves, and a metal mask. After pacing up and down slowly for some time, he gradually works himself up to a pitch of hysterical frenzy, while the tom-toms are beaten furiously, and the spectators join in raising a long, monotonous howling cry, with a peculiar vibration. At length he stops, and every one is addressed according to his rank; if the Pombada offends a rich Bant by omitting any of his numerous titles, he is made to suffer for it. Matters regarding which there is any dispute are then submitted for the decision of the Bhuta, and his award is generally accepted. Either at this stage or earlier, the demon is fed, rice and food being offered to the Pombada, while, if the Bhuta is of low degree, flesh and arrack (liquor) are also presented. These festivals last for several nights, and Dr. Burnell states that the devil-dancer receives a fee of eight rupees for his frantic labours."

Of the three devil-dancing castes found in South Canara (Nalke, Parava, and Pompada), the Nalkes are apparently the lowest. Even a Koraga considers a Nalke or a Parava inferior to him. It is said that, when a Parava meets a Koraga, he is expected to raise his hand to his forehead. This practice does not, however, seem to be observed at the present day. The Nalkes, though living amidst castes which follow the aliyasantana law of inheritance (in the female line), follow the makkalakattu law of Inheritance from father to son. The caste has numerous balis (septs), which are evidently borrowed from the Bants and Billavas. As examples of these, Salannaya, Bangerannaya, Kundarannaya, and Uppenannayya may be cited. The Nalkes have a headman called Gurikara, who settles disputes and other matters affecting the community, and acts as the priest at marriages, death ceremonies, and other ceremonials.

Girls are married after puberty, and a woman may marry any number of times. The marriage ceremony is concluded in a single day. The contracting couple are seated on planks, and the Gurikara throws coloured rice over their heads, and ties a turmeric-dyed string with beads strung on it round their necks. Those assembled then throw rice over them, their hands are joined by the Gurikara or their fathers, and the dhare water is poured thereon.

The dead are either buried or cremated. After burial or cremation, a mound (dhupe) is, as among other castes in Canara, made over the spot. Round it, four posts are stuck in the ground, and decorated so as to resemble a small car (cf. Billava). The final death ceremonies (uttarakriya) are generally performed on the fifth or seventh day. On this day, cooked food is offered to the deceased by placing it near the dhupe, or on the spot where he breathed his last. This is followed by a feast. If the ceremony is not performed on one of the recognised days, the permission of some Bants or Billavas must be obtained before it can be carried out.

All castes in South Canara have great faith in Bhutas, and, when any calamity or misfortune overtakes a family, the Bhutas must be propitiated. The worship of Bhutas is a mixture of ancestor and devil propitiation. In the Bhuta cult, the most important personage is Brahmeru, to whom the other Bhutas are subordinate. Owing to the influence of Brahman Tantris, Brahmeru is regarded as another name for Brahma, and the various Bhutas are regarded as ganas or attendants on Siva. Brahmanical influence is clearly to be traced in the various Bhuta songs, and all Bhutas are in some manner connected with Siva and Parvati.

Whenever people want to propitiate the Bhutas, a Nalke or Parava is engaged. In some places, the Nalke disguises himself as any Bhuta, but, where Paravas are also to be found, the Nalke may not dress up as the Baiderkulu, Kodamanitaya, or Rakteswari. The propitiation of the Bhuta takes the form of a ceremony called Kola, Nema, or Agelu Tambila. Of these, Kola is a periodical ceremony, in which various castes take part, and is always performed near a Bhutasthana. Nema is usually undertaken by a single family, and is performed at the house. Agelu Tambila is celebrated by Billavas at their homes. The Kola ceremony is usually performed for the propitiation of Bhutas other than the Baiderkulu. The Muktesar or chief man, with the assistance of a Brahman, fixes an auspicious day for its celebration. The jewels, and votive offerings made to the Bhutas, are kept in the custody of the Muktesar. On the Kola day, the people go in procession from the sthana to the Muktesar's house, and return to the sthana with the jewels and other articles. These are arranged on cots, and a Billava pujari places seven plantain leaves in a row on a cot, and heaps rice thereon. On each heap, a cocoanut is placed for the propitiation of the most important Bhuta. To the minor Bhutas, these things are offered on three or five leaves placed on cots, or on the floor of the sthana, according to the importance of the Bhuta. A seven-branched torch must be kept burning near the cot of the principal Bhuta. The pujari goes to the courtyard of the sthana, and piles up a conical mass of cooked rice on a stool. Over this pieces of plantain fruits are scattered. Round the mass several sheaths of plantain leaves are arranged, and on them tender cocoanut leaves, cut in various ways, are stuck. The pujari, who wears a metal belt and other jewelry, does puja to the Bhutas, and retires. The Nalkes or Paravas then advance dressed up as Bhutas, and request permission to put on their canopy (ani) and brass anklet (guggire). They then dance, and sing songs connected with the Bhutas which are being propitiated. When they are exhausted and retire, the pujari steps forwards, and addresses the assembly in the following terms:-- "Oh! great men who are assembled, with your permission I salute you all. Oh! Brahmans who are assembled, I salute you. Oh! priest, I salute you." In this manner, he is expected to run through the names of all important personages who are present. When he has finished, the devil-dancers do the same, and the ceremony is at an end.

Of the Bhutas, the best known are Brahmeru, Kodamanitaya, Kukkintaya, Jumadi, Sarlu Jumadi, Pancha Jumadi, Rakteswari, Panjurli, Kuppe Panjurli, Rakta Panjurli, Urundarayya, Hosadevata (or Hosa Bhuta), Devanajiri, Kalkutta, Ukkatiri, Gulige, Bobbariya, Nicha, Duggalaya, Mahisandaya, Varte, Chamundi, Baiderukulu, Okkuballala, and Oditaya. According to some, Jumadi is the small-pox goddess Mari. There are only two female Bhutas--Ukkatiri and Kallurti. The Bhutas are supposed to belong to different castes. For example, Okkuballala and Devanajiri are Jains, Kodamanitaya and Kukkinataya are Bants, Kalkutta is a smith, Bobbariya is a Mappilla, and Nicha a Koraga.

In some temples dedicated to Siva, the Tantris offer food, etc., to the various Bhutas on special occasions, such as Dipavali and Sankaranthi. At Udipi, the Sanyasis of the various mutts (religious institutions) seem to believe in some of the Bhutas, as they give money for the performance of Kola to Panjurli, Sarla Jumadi, and Chamundi.

At Hiriadkap in South Canara, where the Nalkes performed before me, the dancers wore spathes of the areca palm, forming spats to prevent the skin from being injured by the metal bells round their ankles as they danced.

The songs sung by the devil dancers are very numerous, and vary in different localities. Of the stories relating to Bhutas, a very full account has been given by Mr. A. C. Burnell. [86]

A collection of stories (padanollu) belonging to the demon-worshippers of the Tulu country, and recited at their annual festivals, was published at the Mangalore Basel Mission Press in 1886.

Nalla (black).--An exogamous sept of Koppala Velama.

Nallur.--Nallur and Naluvitan are recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as sub-divisions of Nayar.

Namadari.--A name, indicating one who wears the Vaishnava sectarian mark (namam). The equivalent Namala occurs as an exogamous sept of Boya.

Nambidi.--A class, included among the Ambalavasis. It is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "Nampitis are of two classes, the thread-wearing and the threadless. The former have their own priests, while the Ilayatus perform the required sacerdotal functions for the latter. Their ceremonies are very much like those of the Kshatriyas. Tradition connects them with royalty acquired under rather unenviable circumstances. They are, therefore, called Tampurans (lords) by the Sudras, and also Muppinnu (elder) or Karanavappat (uncle) head of a matriarchal family. They observe twelve days' pollution, and inherit in the female line. Their women are called Mantalu. The chief man among the Nampitis is the Karanavappat of Kakkat in British Malabar." In the Cochin Census Report, 1901, it is noted that of the Nampidis "the Aiynikoor Nampidis, or the five families of Nampidis, are historically and socially the most important; the eldest male member possesses the honorific title of Karanavarpad, enjoying special privileges at the hands of the rulers of Cochin, as the members of the family once held responsible posts in the militia of the State. According to tradition, they were Nambudris. One of the Perumals or Viceroys of Kerala having proved troublesome, the Brahmans resolved upon his removal. In the struggle that followed, the Perumal was killed by the Brahmans. When those who had slain him returned to the place where the Brahmans had met in solemn conclave, they were gladly welcomed, and asked to sit in their midst; but, feeling that they had committed a heinous crime and thus disqualified themselves from sitting along with the Brahmans, they volunteered to sit apart on the threshold of the council room by saying nam padimel (we on the threshold), which fact is supposed to account for the origin of their name Nampadi. They and their companions have since been regarded as having almost lost their social status as Brahmans, and they are now classed along with the intermediate castes, having but a few privileges other than those enjoyed by the group. They wear the sacred thread, and have Gayatri. Nambudri Brahmans officiate as priests at marriage ceremonies, sradhas, and purification at the end of birth or death pollution, which lasts only for ten days. They follow the marumakkatayam law of inheritance (in the female line). The tali (marriage badge) is tied by their own caste men. Nambudris, or their own caste men, unite themselves in sambandham with Nampidi females. Nampidis are allowed to consort with Nayar women. At public feasts they are not privileged to sit and eat with Nambudris. Their women are called Manolpads."