Chapter IX: Part 9

Rajput.--The Rajputs (Sanskrit, raja-putra, son of a king) have been defined [121] as "the warrior and land-owning race of Northern India, who are also known as Thakur, lord, or Chhatri, the modern representative of the ancient Kshatriya." At the Madras census, 1891 and 1901, the number of individuals, who returned themselves as Rajputs, was 13,754 and 15,273. "It needs," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [122] "but a cursory examination of the sub-divisions returned under the head Rajput to show that many of these individuals have no claim whatever to the title of Rajput. The number of pure Rajputs in this Presidency must be very small indeed, and I only mention the caste in order to explain that the number of persons returning it is far in excess of the actual number of Rajputs." Mr. Stuart writes further [123] concerning the Rajputs of the North Arcot district that "there are but few of this caste in the district, and they chiefly reside in Vellore; a few families are also found in Chittoor and Tirupati. They assert that they are true Kshatriyas who came from Rajputana with the Muhammadan armies, and they, more than any other claimants to a Kshatriya descent, have maintained their fondness for military service. Almost all are sepoys or military pensioners. Their names always end with Singh, and in many of their customs they resemble the Muhammadans, speaking Hindustani, and invariably keeping their wives gosha. They are often erroneously spoken of by the people as Bondilis, a term which is applicable only to the Vaisya and Sudra immigrants from Northern India; but doubtless many of these lower classes have taken the title Singh, and called themselves Rajputs. Members of the caste are, therefore, very suspicious of strangers professing to be Rajputs. Their cooking apartment, called chowka, is kept most religiously private, and a line is drawn round it, beyond which none but members of the family itself may pass. At marriages and feasts, for the same reason, cooked food is never offered to the guests, but raw grain is distributed, which each cooks in a separate and private place."

It is noted, [124] in connection with the battle of Padmanabham in the Vizagapatam district, in 1794, that "no correct list of the wounded was ever procured, but no less than three hundred and nine were killed. Of these two hundred and eight were Rajputs, and the bodies of forty Rajputs, of the first rank in the country, formed a rampart round the corpse of Viziarama Razu. Padmanabham will long be remembered as the Flodden of the Rajputs of Vizianagram."

Rakshasa (a mythological giant).--An exogamous sept of Toreya.

Ralla (precious stones).--A sub-division of Balijas who cut, polish, and trade in precious stones. A further sub-division into Mutiala (pearl) and Kempulu (rubies) is said to exist.

Ramadosa (Cucumis Melo: sweet melon).--A sept of Viramushti.

Rama Kshatri.--A synonym of Servegara.

Ramanuja.--Satanis style themselves people of the Ramanuja Matham (religious sect) in reference to Ramanuja, the Tamil Brahman, who founded the form of Vaishnavism which prevails in Southern India.

Ranaratod.--An exogamous sept of the Kuruvikkarans, who call themselves Ratodi.

Ranaviran.--A name, meaning a brave warrior, returned by some Chakkiliyans.

Randam Parisha (second party).--A section of Elayad.

Rangari.--The Rangaris are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, as being "a caste of dyers and tailors found in almost all the Telugu districts. They are of Maratha origin, and still speak that language. They worship the goddess Ambabhavani. The dead are either burned or buried. Their title is Rao."

In an account of the Rangaris of the North Arcot district, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes that "Rangari is a caste of dyers, chiefly found in Walajapet. They claim to be Kshatriyas, who accompanied Rama in his conquest of Ceylon, from which fact one of their names, Langari (lanka, the island, i.e., Ceylon), is said to be derived. Rama, for some reason or other, became incensed against, and persecuted them. Most were destroyed, but a respectable Kshatriya lady saved her two sons by taking off their sacred threads and causing one to pretend that he was a tailor sewing, and the other that he was a dyer, colouring his thread with the red betel nut and leaf, which she hurriedly supplied out of her mouth. The boys became the progenitors of the caste, the members of which now wear the thread. The descendants of the one brother are tailors, and of the other, the most numerous, dyers. Their chief feasts are the Dassara and Kaman, the former celebrated in honour of the goddess Tuljabhavani and the latter of Manmada, the Indian Cupid, fabled to have been destroyed by the flame of Siva's third eye. During the Kaman feast, fires of combustible materials are lighted, round which the votaries gather, and, beating their mouths, exclaim 'laba, laba', lamenting the death of Cupid. In this feast Rajputs, Mahrattas, Bondilis, and Guzeratis also join. The Rangaris speak Marathi, which they write in the northern character, and name Poona and Sholapur as the places in which they originally resided. In appearance they do not at all resemble the other claimants to Kshatriya descent, the Razus and Rajputs, for they are poorly developed and by no means handsome. Widow remarriage is permitted where children have not been born, but remarried widows are prohibited from taking part in religious processions, which seems a sign that the concession has been reluctantly permitted. In most of their customs they differ but little from the Razus, eating meat and drinking spirits, but not keeping their women gosha."

All the Rangaris examined by me at Adoni in the Bellary district were tailors. Like other Maratha classes they had a high cephalic index (av. 79; max. 92), and it was noticeable that the breadth of the head exceeded 15 cm. in nine out of thirty individuals.

In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Bahusagara, Malla or Mulla, and Namdev are given as synonyms, and Chimpiga (tailor) and Unupulavadu (dyer) as sub-castes of Rangari.

Raniyava.--The Raniyavas are Canarese-speaking Holeyas, who are found near Kap, Karkal, Mudibidri, and Mulki in South Canara. They consider themselves to be superior to the Tulu-speaking Holeyas, such as the Mari and Mundala Holeyas.

The Raniyavas regard Virabadra Swami as their tribal deity, and also worship Mari, to whom they sacrifice a buffalo periodically. The bhuta (devil), which is most commonly worshipped, is Varthe. They profess to be Saivites, because they are the disciples of the Lingayat priest at Gurupur.

Marriage is, as a rule, infant, though the marriage of adult girls is not prohibited. The marriage rites are celebrated beneath a pandal (booth) supported by twelve pillars. As among the Tulu castes, the chief item in the marriage ceremony is the pouring of water over the united hands of the bridal couple, who are not, like the Canarese Holeyas in Mysore, separated by a screen.

Women who are found guilty of adultery, or of illicit intercourse before marriage, are not allowed to wear bangles, nose-screw, or black bead necklaces, and are treated like widows. Men who have been proved guilty of seduction are not allowed to take part in the caste council meetings.

On the occasion of the first menstrual period, a girl is under pollution for twelve days. Eleven girls pour water over her head daily. On the thirteenth day, the castemen are fed, and, if the girl is married, consummation takes place.

Married men and women are cremated, and unmarried persons buried. On the day of death, toddy must be given to those who assemble. Cooked meat and food are offered to the deceased on the third, seventh, and thirteenth days, and, on the seventh day, toddy must be freely given.

Rao.--The title of Desastha Brahmans, and various Maratha classes, Jains, and Servegaras. Some Perikes, who claim Kshatriya origin, have also assumed Rao (=Raya, king) instead of the more humble Anna or Ayya as a title.

Rarakkar.--The Rarakkars or Vicharakkars are exorcisers for the Kuravans of Travancore.

Rati (stone).--A sub-division of Odde.

Ratna (precious stones).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba. The equivalent Ratnala is a synonym of Ralla Balijas, who deal in precious stones.

Rattu.--A sub-division of Kaikolan.

Ravari.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a trading section of the Nayars. The word is said to be a corruption of Vyapari, meaning trader. The equivalent Raveri occurs as a class inhabiting the Laccadive islands.

Ravi Chettu (pipal tree: Ficus religiosa).--An exogamous sept of Kalingi. The pipal or aswatha tree may be seen, in many South Indian villages, with a raised platform round it, before which Hindus remove their shoes, and bow down. On the platform, village council meetings are often held. It is believed that male offspring will be given to childless couples, if they celebrate a marriage of the pipal with the nim tree (Melia Azadirachta).

Ravulo.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "there are three castes of temple servants among the Oriyas, the Ravulos, the Malis and the Munis. The Ravulos blow conches (shells of Turbinella rapa) in the Saivite temples and at Brahmans' weddings, sell flowers, and regard themselves as superior to the other two. The Malis do service in Saivite or Vaishnavite temples and sell flowers, but the Munis are employed only in the temples of the village goddesses. Among the Ravulos, infant marriage is compulsory, but widow marriage is allowed, and also divorce in certain cases. A curious account is given of the punishment sometimes inflicted by the caste panchayat (council) on a man who ill-treats and deserts his wife. He is made to sit under one of the bamboo coops with which fish are caught, and his wife sits on the top of it. Five pots of water are then poured over the pair of them in imitation of the caste custom of pouring five pots of water over a dead body before it is taken to the burning-ground, the ceremony taking place in the part of the house where a corpse would be washed. The wife then throws away a ladle, and breaks a cooking-pot just as she would have done had her husband really been dead, and further breaks her bangles and tears off her necklace, just as would have been done if she was really a widow. Having thus signified that her husband is dead to her, she goes straight off to her parents' house, and is free to marry again. Some Ravulos wear the sacred thread. They employ Brahmans as priests for religious and ceremonial purposes. They eat fish and meat, though not beef or fowls, but do not drink alcohol. Nowadays many of them are earth-workers, cart-drivers, bricklayers, carpenters and day labourers." It is further noted, in the Census Report, that Mali is "an Oriya caste of vegetable growers and sellers, and cultivators. Also a caste belonging to Bengal and Orissa, the people of which are garland makers and temple servants. The statistics confuse the two." In an account of the Ravulos, as given to me, Ravulos, Munis, and Malis are not three castes, but one caste. The Munis are said to worship, among others, Munis or Rishis, Sakti, Siva, and Ganesa. A Muni, named Sarala Doss, was the author of the most popular Oriya version of the Mahabharata, and he is known as Sudra Muni, the Sudra saint.

Ravulo occurs further as a title of Kurumos who officiate as priests in Siva temples in Ganjam, and Muni as a title of the Sipiti temple servants.

Ravutan.--Ravutan, or Rowthan, is a title used by Labbai, Marakkayar, and Jonagan Muhammadans. The equivalent Ravut or Raut has been recorded as a sub-caste of Balija, and a title of Kannadiyan.

Raya Rauturu.--The name of certain chunam [lime] burners in Mysore.

Rayan.--A title assumed by some Pallis or Vanniyans, who wear the sacred thread, and claim to be Kshatriyas.

Rayi (stone).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Razu.--The Razus, or Rajus, are stated, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, to be "perhaps descendants of the military section of the Kapu, Kamma, and Velama castes. At their weddings they worship a sword, which is a ceremony which usually denotes a soldier caste. They say they are Kshatriyas, and at marriages use a string made of cotton and wool, the combination peculiar to Kshatriyas, to tie the wrist of the happy couple. But they eat fowls, which a strict Kshatriya would not do, and their claims are not universally admitted by other Hindus. They have three endogamous sub-divisions, viz., Murikinati, Nandimandalam, and Suryavamsam, of which the first two are territorial." According to another version, the sub-divisions are Surya (sun), Chandra (moon), and Nandimandalam. In a note on the Razus of the Godavari district, the Rev. J. Cain sub-divides them into Suryavamsapu, Chandravamsapu, Veliveyabadina, or descendants of excommunicated Suryavamsapu and Razulu. It may be noted that some Konda Doras call themselves Raja (= Razu) Kapus or Reddis, and Suryavamsam (of the solar race). "In the Godavari delta," Mr. Cain writes, "there are several families called Basava Razulu, in consequence, it is said, of their ancestors having accidentally killed a basava or sacred bull. As a penalty for this crime, before a marriage takes place in these families, they are bound to select a young bull and young cow, and cause these two to be duly married first, and then they are at liberty to proceed with their own ceremony."

Of the Razus, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [125] that "this is a Telugu caste, though represented by small bodies in some of the Tamil districts. They are most numerous in Cuddapah and North Arcot, to which districts they came with the Vijayanagar armies. It is evident that Razu has been returned by a number of individuals who, in reality, belong to other castes, but claim to be Kshatriyas. The true Razus also make this claim, but it is, of course, baseless, unless Kshatriya is taken to mean the military class without any reference to Aryan origin. In religion they are mostly Vaishnavites, and their priests are Brahmans. They wear the sacred thread, and in most respects copy the marriage and other customs of the Brahmans." The Razus, Mr. Stuart writes further, [126] are "the most numerous class of those who claim to be Kshatriyas in North Arcot. They are found almost entirely in the Karvetnagar estate, the zemindar being the head of the caste. As a class they are the handsomest and best developed men in the country, and differ so much in feature and build from other Hindus that they may usually be distinguished at a glance. They seem to have entirely abandoned the military inclinations of their ancestors, never enlist in the native army, and almost wholly occupy themselves in agriculture. Their vernacular is Telugu, since they are immigrants from the Northern Circars, from whence most of them followed the ancestors of the Karvetnagar zamindar within the last two centuries. In religion they are mostly Vaishnavites, though a few follow Siva, and the worship of village deities forms a part of the belief of all. Their peculiar goddess is called Nimishamba who would seem to represent Parvati. She is so called because in an instant (nimisham) she once appeared at the prayer of certain rishis, and destroyed some rakshasas or giants who were persecuting them. Claiming to be Kshatriyas, the Razus of course assume the sacred thread, and are very proud and particular in their conduct, though flesh-eating is allowed. In all the more well-to-do families the females are kept in strict seclusion."

In the Vizagapatam district Razus are recognised as belonging to two classes, called Konda (hill) and Bhu (plains) Razu. The former are further divided into the following sections, to which various zamindars belong:--Konda, Kodu, Gaita, Muka, Yenati. The Konda Razus are believed to be hill chiefs, who have, in comparatively recent times, adopted the title of Razu.

For the following note on the Razus of the Godavari district, I am indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. "They say they are Kshatriyas, wear the sacred thread, have Brahmanical gotras, decline to eat with other non-Brahmans, and are divided into the three classes, Surya (sun), Chandra (moon), and Machi (fish). Of these, the first claim to be descended from the kings of Oudh, and to be of the same lineage as Rama; the second, from the kings of Hastinapura, of the same line as the Pandavas; and the third, from Hanuman (the monkey god) and a mermaid. Their women observe a very strict rule of gosha, and this is said to be carried so far that a man may not see his younger brother's wife, even if she is living in the same house, without violating the gosha rule. The betrothal ceremony is called nirnaya bhojanam, or meal of settlement. Written contracts of marriage (subha reka) are exchanged. The wedding is performed at the bride's house. At the pradanam ceremony, no bonthu (turmeric thread) is tied round the bride's neck. The bridegroom has to wear a sword throughout the marriage ceremonies, and he is paraded round the village with it before they begin. The gosha rule prevents his womenfolk from attending the marriage, and the bride has to wear a veil. The ceremonies, unlike those of other castes, are attended with burnt offerings of rice, etc. Among other castes, the turmeric-dyed thread (kankanam), which is tied round the wrists of the contracting couple, is of cotton; among the Razus it is of wool and cotton. The Razus are chiefly employed in cultivation. Some of them are said to attain no small proficiency in Telugu and Sanskrit scholarship. Zamindars of this caste regard Kali as their patron deity. The Razus of Amalapuram specially adore Lakshmi. Some peculiarities in their personal appearance may be noted. Their turbans are made to bunch out at the left side above the ear, and one end hangs down behind. They do not shave any part of their heads, and allow long locks to hang down in front of the ears."

A colony of Razus is settled at, and around Rajapalaiyam in the Tinnevelly district. They are said to have migrated thither four or five centuries ago with a younger brother of the King of Vizianagram, who belonged to the Pusapati exogamous sept. To members of this and the Gottimukkula sept special respect is paid on ceremonial occasions. The descendants of the original emigrants are said to have served under southern chieftains, especially Tirumala Naick. Concerning the origin of the village Rajapalaiyam the following legend is narrated. One Chinna Raju, a lineal descendant of the Kings of Vizianagram, settled there with others of his caste, and went out hunting with a pack of hounds. When they reached the neighbouring hill Sanjiviparvatham, they felt thirsty, but could find no water. They accordingly prayed to Krishna, who at once created a spring on the top of the hill. After quenching their thirst thereat, they proceeded westward to the valley, and the god informed them that there was water there, with which they might again quench their thirst, and that their dogs would there be attacked by hares. At this spot, which they were to consider sacred ground, they were to settle down. The present tank to the westward of Rajapalaiyam, and the chavadi (caste meeting-place) belonging to the Pusapatis are said to indicate the spot where they originally settled.

The Rajapalaiyam Razus have four gotras, named after Rishis, i.e., Dhananjaya, Kasyapa, Kaundinya and Vasishta, which are each sub-divided into a number of exogamous septs, named after villages, etc. They are all Vadagalai or Tengalai Vaishnavites, but also worship Ayanar, and send kavadi (portable canopy) to Palni in performance of vows. Their family priests are Brahmans.

The betrothal ceremony of the Razus of Rajapalaiyam is generally carried out at the house of the girl. On a raised platform within a pandal (booth), seven plates filled with plantain fruits, betel, turmeric, cocoanuts, and flowers are placed. A plate containing twenty-five rupees, and a ravike (female cloth), is carried by a Brahman woman, and set in front of the girl. All the articles are then placed in her lap, and the ceremony is consequently called odi or madi ninchadam (lap-filling).

The girl's hair is decked with flowers, and she is smeared with sandal and turmeric. A certain quantity of paddy (unhusked rice) and beans of Phaseolus Mungo are given to the Brahman woman, a portion of which is set apart as sacred, some of the paddy being added to that which is stored in the granary. The remainder of the paddy is husked in a corner of the pandal, and the beans are ground in a mill. On the marriage morning, the bride's party, accompanied by musicians, carry to the house of the bridegroom a number of baskets containing cocoanuts, plantains, betel, and a turban. The bridegroom goes with a purohit (priest), and men and women of his caste, to a well, close to which are placed some milk and the nose-screw of a woman closely related to him. All the women sprinkle some of the milk over his head, and some of them draw water from the well. The bridegroom bathes, and dresses up. Just before their departure from the well, rice which has been dipped therein is distributed among the women. At the bridegroom's house the milk-post, usually made from a branch of the vekkali (Anogeissus latifolia) tree, is tied to a pillar supporting the roof of the marriage dais. To the top of the milk-post a cross-bar is fixed, to one arm of which a cloth bundle containing a cocoanut, betel and turmeric, is tied. The post is surmounted by leafy mango twigs. Just before the milk-post is set up, cocoanuts are offered to it, and a pearl and piece of coral are placed in a hole scooped out at its lower end. The bundle becomes the perquisite of the carpenter who has made the post. Only Brahmans, Razus and the barber musicians are allowed to sit on the dais. After the distribution of betel, the bridegroom and his party proceed to the house of the bride, where, in like manner, the milk-post is set up. They then return to his house, and the bridegroom has his face and head shaved, and nails pared by a barber, who receives as his fee two annas and the clothes which the bridegroom is wearing. After a bath, the bridegroom is conducted to the chavadi, where a gaudy turban is put on his head, and he is decorated with jewels and garlands. In the course of the morning, the purohit, holding the right little finger of the bridegroom, conducts him to the dais, close to which rice, rice stained yellow, rice husk, jaggery (crude sugar), wheat bran, and cotton seed are placed. The Brahmanical rites of punyahavaachanam (purification), jatakarma (birth ceremony), namakaranam (name ceremony), chaulam (tonsure), and upanayanam (thread ceremony) are performed. But, instead of Vedic chants, the purohit recites slokas specially prepared for non-Brahman castes. At the conclusion of these rites, the bridegroom goes into the house, and eats a small portion of sweet cakes and other articles, of which the remainder is finished off by boys and girls. This ceremony is called pubanthi. The Kasiyatra (mock flight to Benares) or Snathakavritham is then performed. Towards evening the bridegroom, seated in a palanquin, goes to the bride's house, taking with him a tray containing an expensive woman's cloth, the tali tied to gold thread, and a pair of gold bracelets. When they reach the house, the women who have accompanied the bridegroom throw paddy over those who have collected at the entrance thereto, by whom the compliment is returned. The bridegroom takes his seat on the dais, and the bride is conducted thither by her brothers. A wide-meshed green curtain is thrown over her shoulders, and her hands are pressed over her eyes, and held there by one of her brothers, so that she cannot see. Generally two brothers sit by her side, and, when one is tired, the other relieves him. The purohit invests the bridegroom with a second thread as a sign of marriage. Damp rice is scattered from a basket all round the contracting couple, and the tali, after it has been blessed by Brahmans, is tied round the neck of the bride by the bridegroom and her brothers. At the moment when the tali is tied, the bride's hands are removed from her face, and she is permitted to see her husband. The pair then go round the dais, and the bride places her right foot thrice on a grindstone. Their little fingers are linked, and their cloths tied together. Thus united, they are conducted to a room, in which fifty pots, painted white and with various designs on them, are arranged in rows. In front of them, two pots, filled with water, are placed, and, in front of the two pots, seven lamps. Round the necks of these pots, bits of turmeric are tied. They are called avareti kundalu or avireni kundalu, and are made to represent minor deities. The pots are worshipped by the bridal couple, and betel is distributed among the Brahmans and Razus, of whom members of the Pusapati and Gottimukkala septs take precedence over the others. On the following day, the purohit teaches the sandyavandhanam (morning and evening ablutions), which is, however, quite different from the Brahmanical rite. On the morning of the third or nagavali day, a quantity of castor-oil seed is sent by the bride's people to the bridegroom's house, and returned. The bride and bridegroom go, in a closed and open palanquin, respectively, to the house of the former. They take their seats on the dais, and the bride is once more blindfolded. In front of them, five pots filled with water are arranged in the form of a quincunx. Lighted lamps are placed by the side of each of the corner pots. On the lids of the pots five cocoanuts, plantains, pieces of turmeric, and betel are arranged, and yellow thread is wound seven times round the corner pots. The pots are then worshipped, and the bridegroom places on the neck of the bride a black bead necklace, which is tied by the Brahman woman. In front of the bridegroom some salt, and in front of the bride some paddy is heaped up. An altercation arises between the bridegroom and the brother of the bride as to the relative values of the two heaps, and it is finally decided that they are of equal value. The bridal pair then enter the room, in which the avireni pots are kept, and throw their rings into one of the pots which is full of water. The bridegroom has to pick out therefrom, at three dips, his own ring, and his brother-in-law that of the bride. The purohit sprinkles water over the heads of the pair, and their wrist-threads (kankanam) are removed. They then sit in a swing on the pandal for a short time, and the ceremonies conclude with the customary waving of coloured water (arati) and distribution of betel. During the marriage ceremony, Razu women are not allowed to sit in the pandal. The wives of the more well-to-do members of the community remain gosha within their houses, and, strictly speaking, a woman should not see her husband during the daytime. Many of the women, however, go freely about the town during the day, and go to the wells to fetch water for domestic purposes.

The Razus of Rajapalaiyam have Razu as the agnomen, and, like other Telugu classes, take the gotra for the first name, e.g., Yaraguntala Mudduswami Razu, Gottimukkala Krishna Razu. The women adhere with tenacity to the old forms of Telugu jewelry. The Razus, in some villages, seem to object to the construction of a pial in front of their houses. The pial, or raised platform, is the lounging place by day, where visitors are received. The Razus, as has been already stated, claim to be Kshatriyas, so other castes should not sit in their presence. If pials were constructed, such people might sit thereon, and so commit a breach of etiquette.

In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Rajamakan is given as a Tamil synonym for Razu, and Razu is returned as a title of the Bagata fishermen of Vizagapatam. Razu is, further, a general name of the Bhatrazus.

Reddi.--See Kapu.

Reddi Bhumi (Reddi earth).--A sub-division of Mala, Mangala, and Tsakala.

Rela (fig. Ficus, sp.).--A gotra of Medara.

Relli.--See Haddi.

Rendeddu.--A sub-division of Ganigas or Gandlas, who use two bullocks for their oil-pressing mill.

Rokkam (ready money).--An exogamous sept of Komati.

Rolan.--Rolan, or Roli Cheruman, is a sub-division of Cheruman.

Rona.--The Ronas are a class of Oriya-speaking hill cultivators, who are said [127] to "hold a position superior in the social scale to the Parjas (Porojas), from whom, by compulsion and cajolery, they have gotten unto themselves estates. They are not of very long standing (in Jeypore). Every Parja village head is still able to point out the fields that have been taken from him to form the Rona hamlet; and, if he is in antagonism with a neighbouring Parja village on the subject of boundaries, he will include the fields occupied by the Rona as belonging de jure to his demesne." In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is noted that "the Ronas are supposed to be the descendants of Ranjit, the great warrior of Orissa. In social status they are said to be a little inferior to the so-called Kshatriyas. Some of them serve as armed retainers and soldiers of the native chiefs, and some are engaged in trade and cultivation."

For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The word rona means battle. According to a tradition current among the Ronas, their ancestors, who were seven brothers, came many generations ago to Nundapur, the former capital of the Rajas of Jeypore, and made their first settlement in Borra.

The caste is divided into four endogamous divisions, viz.:--

(1) Rona Paiko. (2) Odiya Paiko, said to rank a little higher than the preceding. (3) Kottiya Paiko, the descendants of Rona Paikos and women of hill tribes. (4) Pattiya Paik, the descendants of Kottiya Paikos and women of hill tribes.

As examples of septs among the Ronas, the following may be cited:--Kora (sun), Bhag (tiger), Nag (cobra), Khinbudi (bear), and Matsya (fish).

When a girl reaches puberty, she is placed apart in a portion of the house where she cannot be seen by males, even of the household, and sits in a space enclosed by seven arrows connected together by a thread. On the seventh day she bathes, and is presented with a new cloth. It is customary for a man to marry his paternal uncle's daughter. At the time of marriage, the bridegroom's party repair to the house of the bride with a sheep, goat, rice, and a female cloth with a rupee placed on it, and four quarter-anna bits inserted within its fold. The cloth and money are taken by the bride's mother, and the animals and rice are used for a feast. On the following day, the bride goes to the house of the bridegroom, in front of which a pandal (booth), made out of nine poles of the neredu tree (Eugenia Jambolana) has been set up. At the auspicious hour, which has been fixed by the Desari who officiates, in the absence of a Brahman, at the marriage rites, the bride and bridegroom take their seats in the pandal with a curtain between them. The Desari joins their hands together, and ties to the ends of their cloths a new cloth to which a quarter-anna piece is attached, betel leaves and nuts, and seven grains of rice. The curtain is then removed, and the pair enter the house. The knotted new cloth is removed, and kept in the house during the next two days, being untied and re-tied every morning. On the third day, the couple again come within the pandal, and the new cloth is again tied to them. They are bathed together in turmeric water, and the cloth is then untied for the last time. The rice is examined to see if it is in a good state of preservation, and its condition is regarded as an omen for good or evil. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger brother usually marries the widow of his elder brother.

There is for all the Ronas a headman of their caste, called Bhatho Nayako, at Nundapur, who decides offences, such as eating in the house of a man of inferior caste, and performs the ceremonial cleansing of a man who has been beaten with a shoe. Divorce and civil suits are settled by a caste council.

The Ronas worship the deity Takurani. They wear the sacred thread, and are said to have bought the right to do so from a former Raja of Jeypore. They also wear a necklace of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) beads. The necklace is first tied on by Oriya Brahmans from Orissa, or Vaishnava Brahmans from Srikurmam in Ganjam, who pay periodic visits to the community, and receive presents of money and food. Rona Paikos will eat at the hands of Brahmans only, whereas Puttiya Paikos will eat in the houses of Koronos, Malis, Kummaras, and Gaudos. All eat animal food, beef and pork excepted.

Some Ronas are still the armed retainers of the Jeypore Rajas, and their forefathers were versed in the use of the matchlock. Some Ronas at the present day use bows and arrows. The caste title is Nayako.

Ronguni.--The Rongunis are Oriya dyers and weavers. The caste name is derived from rangu, dye. A noticeable fact is that they do not eat flesh of any kind, but are vegetarians, pure and simple. They have various titles, e.g., Behara, Daso, Prushti, and Sahu, of which some practically constitute exogamous septs.

Rottala (bread).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Rowthan.--See Ravutan.

Rudra.--One of the various names of Siva. A sub-division of Palli.

Rudrakshala (the drupe of Elæocarpus Ganitrus).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sales. The drupes are polished, and worn as a rosary or necklet by Saivite Brahmans, Pandarams, Nattukottai Chettis, and others. They are supposed to be the tears of ecstasy which Siva (Rudra) once shed, and are consequently sacred to him. They have a number of lobes (or faces), varying from one to six, divided externally by deep furrows. Those with five lobes are the most common, but those with one (eka mukha) or six (shan mukha) are very rare, and have been known to be sold for a thousand rupees. One form of the drupe is called Gauri shanka, and is worn in a golden receptacle by Dikshitar Brahmans at Chidambaram, and by some Pandarams who are managers of matams (religious institutions). The plate represents a Telugu Saivite Vaidiki Brahman clad in a coat of rudraksha beads, wearing a head-dress of the same, and holding in his hand wooden castanets, which are played as an accompaniment to his songs. Until he became too old to bear the weight, he wore also a loin-cloth made of these beads.

Runzu.--Runzu, Runza, or Runja is the name of a class of Telugu mendicants, who beat a drum called runjalu, and beg only from Kamsalas (q.v.).

S

Sachchari.--A synonym of Relli. Another form of the word Chachchadi.

Sadaru.--A sub-division of Lingayats, found mainly in the Bellary and Anantapur districts, where they are largely engaged in cultivation. Some Bedars or Boyas, who live amidst these Lingayats, call themselves Sadaru. It is noted in the Mysore Census Reports that the Sadas are "cultivators and traders in grain. A section of these Sadas has embraced Lingayatism, while the others are still within the pale of Hinduism."

Saddikudu (cold rice or food).--An exogamous sept of Golla.

Sadhana Surulu.--Sadhanasura is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a synonym of Samayamuvadu. In a note on this class of itinerant mendicants, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao states that, unlike the Samayamuvaru, they are attached only to the Padma Sale section of the Sale caste. "They say," he writes, "that their name is an abbreviated form of Renuka Sakthini Sadhinchinavaru, i.e., those who conquered Renuka Sakthi. According to tradition, Renuka was the mother of Parasurama, one of the avatars of Vishnu, and is identified with the goddess Yellamma, whom the Padma Sales revere. The Sadhana Surulu are her votaries. Ages ago, it is said, they prayed to her on behalf of the Padma Sales, and made her grant boons to them. Since that time they have been treated with marked respect by the Padma Sales, who pay them annually four annas, and see to their marriages."

Sadhu (meek or quiet).--A sub-division or exogamous sept of Ganiga and Padma Sale. The equivalent Sadhumatam has been recorded, at times of census, by Janappans. The name Sadhu is applied to ascetics or Bairagis.

Sagarakula.--A synonym of the Upparas, who claim descent from a king Sagara Chakravarthi of the Mahabharata.

Sahavasi.--The Sahavasis are described, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891, as "immigrants like the Chitpavanas. Sahavasi means co-tenant or associate, and the name is said to have been earned by the community in the following manner. In remote times a certain Brahman came upon hidden treasure, but, to his amazement, the contents appeared in his eye to be all live scorpions. Out of curiosity, he hung one of them outside his house. A little while after, a woman of inferior caste, who was passing by the house, noticed it to be gold, and, upon her questioning him about it, the Brahman espoused her, and by her means was able to enjoy the treasure. He gave a feast in honour of his acquisition of wealth. He was subsequently outcasted for his mésalliance with the low caste female, while those that ate with him were put under a ban, and thus acquired the nickname."

Sahu.--A title of Bolasis, Godiyas, and other Oriya castes.

Saindla (belonging to the death-house).--A sub-division of Mala.

Sajjana (good men).--A synonym of Lingayat Ganigas.

Sajje (millet: Setaria italica).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Sakala.--See Tsakala.

Sakkereya.--Some Upparas style themselves Mel (western) Sakkereya-varu. Their explanation is that they used to work in salt, which is more essential than sugar, and that Mel Sakkare means superior sugar.

Sakuna Pakshi.--For the following note on the Sakuna Pakshi (prophetic bird) mendicant caste of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The name of the caste is due to the fact that the members of the caste wear on their heads a plume composed of the feathers of a bird called palagumma, which is probably Coracias indica, the Indian roller, or "blue jay" of Europeans. This is one of the birds called sakuna pakshi, because they are supposed to possess the power of foretelling events, and on their movements many omens depend. Concerning the roller, Jerdon writes [128] that "it is sacred to Siva, who assumed its form, and, at the feast of the Dasserah at Nagpore, one or more used to be liberated by the Rajah, amidst the firing of cannon and musketry, at a grand parade attended by all the officers of the station. Buchanan Hamilton also states that, before the Durga Puja, the Hindus of Calcutta purchase one of these birds, and, at the time when they throw the image of Durga into the river, set it at liberty. It is considered propitious to see it on this day, and those who cannot afford to buy one discharge their matchlocks to put it on the wing."

According to their own account, the Sakuna Pakshis are Telagas who emigrated to Vizagapatam from Peddapuram in the Godavari district.

A member of the caste, before proceeding on a begging expedition, rises early, and has a cold meal. He then puts the Tengalai Vaishnava namam mark on his forehead, slings on his left shoulder a deer-skin pouch for the reception of the rice and other grain which will be given him as alms, and takes up his little drum (gilaka or damaraka) made of frog's skin. It is essential for a successful day's begging that he should first visit a Mala house or two, after which he begs from other castes, going from house to house.

The members combine with begging the professions of devil-dancer, sorcerer, and quack doctor. Their remedy for scorpion sting is well-known. It is the root of a plant called thella visari (scorpion antidote), which the Sakuna Pakshis carry about with them on their rounds. The root should be collected on a new-moon day which falls on a Sunday. On that day, the Sakuna Pakshi bathes, cuts off his loin-string, and goes stark naked to a selected spot, where he gathers the roots. If a supply thereof is required, and the necessary combination of moon and day is not forthcoming, the roots should be collected on a Sunday or Wednesday.

Salangukaran.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Salangaikaran is returned as a synonym of Karaiyan or Sembadavan fishermen. The word salangu or slangu is used for pearl fisheries, and Salangukaran is, I imagine, a name applied to pearl divers.

Salapu.--The Salapus are a small caste of Telugu weavers in Vizagapatam, for the following note on whom I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The name Salapu seems to be a corruption of Saluppan, a caste which formerly engaged in the manufacture of gunny-bags and coarse cloths. The Salapus at the present day make such cloths, commonly called gamanchalu. Like some other weaving castes, they claim descent from Markandeya rishi, who was remarkable for his austerities and great age, and is also known as Dirghayus. The Salapus will not eat, or intermarry with Sales. The caste is governed by a headman called Senapati. He decides disputes, and, on occasions of marriage, receives the first share of betel and sandal, and is the first to touch the sathamanam (marriage badge) when it is passed round to be blessed by those assembled. He is, at marriages, further presented with a rupee. At caste feasts, it is his privilege to partake of food first.

Like other Telugu castes, the Salapus have intiperulu, or exogamous septs. Girls are generally married before puberty. The custom of menarikam, by which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter, is in force. The turmeric ceremony takes place some months before marriage. Some male and female relations of the future bridegroom repair to the house of the girl, taking with them a few rupees as the bride-price (voli). The girl bathes, and daubs herself with turmeric paste. A solid silver bangle is then put on her right wrist. The remarriage of widows and divorce are permitted.

The Salapus are divided into Lingavantas and Vaishnavas, who intermarry. The former bury their dead in a sitting posture, and the latter practice cremation. Jangams officiate for the Lingavantas, and Satanis for Vaishnavas. Both sections observe the chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies.

The caste title is generally Ayya.

Salapu.--A form of Sarapu, an occupational term for those who deal in coins, jewelry, coral, etc.

Sale.--The Sales are the great weaver class among the Telugus, for the following note on whom I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.

The name is derived from Sanskrit, Salika, a weaver. The Sales call themselves Senapati (commander-in-chief), and this is further the title of the caste headman. They are divided into two main endogamous sections, Padma or lotus, and Pattu or silk. Between them there are three well-marked points of difference, viz., (1) the Pattu Sales wear the sacred thread, whereas the Padma Sales do not; (2) the Pattu Sales do not take food or water at the hands of any except Brahmans, whereas the Padma Sales will eat in Kapu, Golla, Telaga, Gavara, etc., houses; (3) the Pattu Sales weave superfine cloths, and, in some places, work in silk, whereas Padma Sales weave only coarse cloths. Each section is divided into a number of exogamous septs or intiperulu. Both speak Telugu, and are divided into Vaishnavites and Saivites. These religious distinctions are no bar to intermarriage and interdining.

It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district (1907), that "on the plains, cotton cloths are woven in hundreds of villages by Sales, Padma Sales, Pattu Sales, Devangas, and Salapus. The ryots often spin their own cotton into thread, and then hand it over to the weavers to be made into cloths, but large quantities of machine-made yarn are used. In the south, the chief weaving centres are Nakkapalli and Payakaraopeta in Sarvasiddhi taluk, the Pattu Sales in the latter of which turn out fabrics of fine thread, enriched with much gold and silver 'lace,' which are in great demand in the Godavari and Ganjam districts. At Razam, coloured cloths for women are the chief product, and in the country round this place the white garments so universal everywhere give place to coloured dress. The cloths are sold locally, and also sent in large quantities to Berhampur, Cuttack, and even Calcutta. Most of the weaving is in the hands of Devangas, but the dyeing of the thread is done with imported aniline and alizarine colours by the Balijas of Sigadam in Chipurupalle taluk and Balijapeta in Bobbili. In Siripuram and Ponduru, the Pattu Sales make delicate fabrics from especially fine thread, called Pattu Sale nulu, or silk-weaver's thread, which the women of their caste spin for them, and which is as fine as imported 1508. These are much valued by well-to-do natives for their softness and durability. The weaving industry is on the decline throughout the district, except perhaps in Razam, and the weaver castes are taking to other means of livelihood. Round Chipurupalle, for example, the Pattu Sales have become experts in tobacco-curing, and have made such profits that they are able to monopolise much of the trade and money-lending of the locality."

Concerning the origin of the Sale caste, it is stated, in the Andhrapada Parijatamu, that it is the result of an union between a Kamsala man and a potter woman. According to a current legend, the celestials (devatas), being desirous of securing clothing for themselves and their dependents, asked Markandeya Rishi to supply them with it. He went to Vishnu, and prayed to him. The god directed him to make a sacrificial offering to Indra, the celestial king. Markandeya accordingly performed a great sacrifice, and from the fire issued Bhavana Rishi, with a ball of thread in his hands, which he had manufactured, under Vishnu's direction, from the fibre of the lotus which sprang from the god's navel. With this ball of thread he proceeded to make cloths for the celestials. He subsequently married Bhadravathi, the daughter of Surya (the sun), who bore him a hundred and one sons, of whom a hundred became the ancestors of the Padma Sales, while the remaining man was the ancestor of the Pattu Sales.

The caste worships Bhavana Rishi. At the close of the year, the caste occupation is stopped before the Sankramanam for ten days. Before they start work again, the Pattu Sales meet at an appointed spot, where they burn camphor, and wave it before a ball of thread, which represents Bhavana Rishi. A more elaborate rite is performed by the Padma Sales. They set apart a special day for the worship of the deified ancestor, and hold a caste feast. A special booth is erected, in which a ball of thread is placed. A caste-man acts as pujari (priest), and fruits, flowers, camphor, etc., are offered to the thread.

The Telugu Padma Sales, and Marathi-speaking Sukun and Suka Sales, are, as will be seen from the following table, short of stature, with high cephalic index:--

Stature. cm. Cephalic index.

Padma Sale 159.9 78.7
Suka Sale 161.1 81.8
Sukun Sale 160.3 82.2

The Padma and Karna Sales are dealt with in special articles.

Writing in the eighteenth century, Sonnerat remarks that the weaver fixes his loom under a tree before his house in the morning, and at night takes it home. And this observation holds good at the present day. Weaving operations, as they may be seen going on at weaving centres in many parts of Southern India, are thus described by Mr. H. A. Stuart. [129] "The process of weaving is very simple. The thread is first turned off upon a hand-spindle, and then the warp is formed. Bamboo sticks, 120 in number, are fixed upright in the ground, generally in the shade of a tope or grove, at a distance of a cubit from one another, and ten women or children, carrying ratnams (spindles) in their hands, walk up and down this line, one behind the other, intertwining the thread between the bamboos, until 1,920 threads of various colours, according to the pattern desired, are thus arranged. For this work each gets half an anna--a small remuneration for walking four miles. To form a warp sufficient for eight women's cloths, forty miles have thus to be traversed. In weaving silk cloths or the finer fabrics, the length of the warp is less than sixty yards. As soon as the threads have been arranged, the bamboos are plucked up, and rolled together with the threads upon them. Trestles are then set out in the tope, and upon them the warp with the bamboos is stretched horizontally, and sized by means of large long brushes with ragi starch, and carried along by two men. This having dried, the whole is rolled up, and placed in the loom in the weaver's house. The weaving room is a long, narrow, dark chamber, lighted by one small window close to where the workman sits. The loom is constructed on the simplest principles, and can be taken to pieces in a few minutes, forming a light load for a man. The alternate threads of the warp are raised and depressed, to receive the woof in the following manner. Two pairs of bamboos are joined together by thin twine loops, and, being suspended from the roof, are also joined to two pedals near the floor. Through the joining loops of one pair of bamboos run half the threads, and through those of the other run the other half. Thus, by depressing one pedal with the foot and raising the other, one set of threads is depressed, and the other raised so as to admit of the woof thread being shot across. This thread is forced home by a light beam suspended from the roof, and then, the position of the pedals being reversed, the woof thread is shot back again between the reversed threads of the warp. In this way about three yards can be woven in a day." Further Mr. J. D. Rees writes as follows. [130] "As you enter a weaver's grove, it appears at first sight as if those occupied in this industry were engaged in a pretty game. Rows of women walk up and down the shady aisles, each holding aloft in the left hand a spindle, and in the right a bamboo wand, through a hook at the end of which the thread is passed. Alongside are split bamboos reaching as high as their hips, and, as they pass, they unwind the thread from the spindle by means of the wand, and pass it over each alternate upright. The threads, thus separated, are subsequently lifted with their bamboo uprights from the ground, and, while extended from tree to tree in a horizontal position, are washed with rice-water, and carefully brushed. The threads are now ready to be made into cloth, and the actual weaving is carried on by means of primitive hand looms inside the houses."

Weavers, like many other classes in Southern India, are eminently conservative. Even so trifling an innovation as the introduction of a new arrangement for maintaining tension in the warp during the process of weaving gave rise a short time ago to a temporary strike among the hand-loom weavers at the Madras School of Arts.