Chapter I: Part 1

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CHALDEA

From the Earliest Times to the Rise of Assyria

(Treated As a General Introduction to the Study of Ancient History)

by

ZÉNAÏDE A. RAGOZIN

Member of the "Société Ethnologique" of Paris; of the "American Oriental Society"; Corresponding Member of the "Athénée Oriental" of Paris; Author of "Assyria," "Media," Etc.

"He (Carlyle) says it is part of his creed that history is poetry, could we tell it right."--EMERSON.

Fourth Edition

London T. Fisher Unwin Paternoster Square

New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons

MDCCCXCIII

TO THE MEMBERS OF

THE CLASS,

IN LOVING REMEMBRANCE OF MANY HAPPY HOURS, THIS
VOLUME AND THE FOLLOWING ONES ARE AFFECTIONATELY
INSCRIBED BY THEIR FRIEND.

THE AUTHOR.

IDLEWILD PLANTATION,
SAN ANTONIO,

CLASSIFIED CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

I.
PAGE
MESOPOTAMIA.--THE MOUNDS.--THE FIRST SEARCHERS 1-18

§ 1. Complete destruction of Nineveh.--§§ 2-4. Xenophon and the
"Retreat of the Ten Thousand." The Greeks pass the ruins of
Calah and Nineveh, and know them not.--§ 5. Alexander's passage
through Mesopotamia.--§ 6. The Arab invasion and rule.--§ 7.
Turkish rule and mismanagement.--§ 8. Peculiar natural
conditions of Mesopotamia.--§ 9. Actual desolate state of the
country.--§ 10. The plains studded with Mounds. Their curious
aspect.--§ 11. Fragments of works of art amidst the
rubbish.--§ 12. Indifference and superstition of the Turks and
Arabs.--§ 13. Exclusive absorption of European scholars in
Classical Antiquity.--§ 14. Forbidding aspect of the Mounds,
compared with other ruins.--§ 15. Rich, the first explorer.--§ 16.
Botta's work and want of success.--§ 17. Botta's great
discovery.--§ 18. Great sensation created by it.--§ 19.
Layard's first expedition.

II.

LAYARD AND HIS WORK 19-35

§ 1. Layard's arrival at Nimrud. His excitement and
dreams.--§ 2. Beginning of difficulties. The Ogre-like Pasha of
Mossul.--§ 3. Opposition from the Pasha. His malice and
cunning.--§ 4. Discovery of the gigantic head. Fright of the Arabs,
who declare it to be Nimrod.--§ 5. Strange ideas of the Arabs about
the sculptures.--§ 6. Layard's life in the desert.--§ 7.
Terrible heat of summer.--§ 8. Sand-storms and hot
hurricanes.--§ 9. Layard's wretched dwelling.--§ 10.
Unsuccessful attempts at improvement.--§ 11. In what the task
of the explorer consists.--§ 12. Different modes of carrying on
the work of excavation.

III.

THE RUINS 36-93

§ 1. Every country's culture and art determined by its
geographical conditions.--§ 2. Chaldea's absolute deficiency in
wood and stone.--§ 3. Great abundance of mud fit for the
fabrication of bricks; hence the peculiar architecture of
Mesopotamia. Ancient ruins still used as quarries of bricks for
building. Trade of ancient bricks at Hillah.--§ 4. Various
cements used.--§ 5. Construction of artificial platforms.--§ 6.
Ruins of Ziggurats; peculiar shape, and uses of this sort of
buildings.--§ 7. Figures showing the immense amount of labor
used on these constructions.--§ 8. Chaldean architecture
adopted unchanged by the Assyrians.--§ 9. Stone used for
ornament and casing of walls. Water transport in old and modern
times.--§ 10. Imposing aspect of the palaces.--§ 11.
Restoration of Sennacherib's palace by Fergusson.--§ 12.
Pavements of palace halls.--§ 13. Gateways and sculptured slabs
along the walls. Friezes in painted tiles.--§ 14. Proportions
of palace halls and roofing.--§ 15. Lighting of halls.--§ 16.
Causes of the kings' passion for building.--§ 17. Drainage of
palaces and platforms.--§ 18. Modes of destruction.--§ 19. The
Mounds a protection to the ruins they contain. Refilling the
excavations.--§ 20. Absence of ancient tombs in Assyria.--§ 21.
Abundance and vastness of cemeteries in Chaldea.--§ 22. Warka
(Erech) the great Necropolis. Loftus' description.--§ 23.
"Jar-coffins."--§ 24. "Dish-cover" coffins.--§ 25. Sepulchral
vaults.--§ 26. "Slipper-shaped" coffins.--§ 27. Drainage of
sepulchral mounds.--§ 28. Decoration of walls in painted
clay-cones.--§ 29. De Sarzec's discoveries at Tell-Loh.

IV.

THE BOOK OF THE PAST.--THE LIBRARY OF NINEVEH 94-115

§ 1. Object of making books.--§ 2. Books not always of
paper.--§ 3. Universal craving for an immortal name.--§ 4.
Insufficiency of records on various writing materials.
Universal longing for knowledge of the remotest past.--§ 5.
Monumental records.--§ 6. Ruins of palaces and temples, tombs
and caves--the Book of the Past.--§§ 7-8. Discovery by Layard
of the Royal Library at Nineveh.--§ 9. George Smith's work at
the British Museum.--§ 10. His expeditions to Nineveh, his
success and death.--§ 11. Value of the Library.--§§ 12-13.
Contents of the Library.--§ 14. The Tablets.--§ 15. The
cylinders and foundation-tablets.

CHALDEA.

I.

NOMADS AND SETTLERS.--THE FOUR STAGES OF CULTURE. 116-126

§ 1. Nomads.--§ 2. First migrations.--§ 3. Pastoral life--the
second stage.--§ 4. Agricultural life; beginnings of the
State.--§ 5. City-building; royalty.--§ 6. Successive
migrations and their causes.--§ 7. Formation of nations.

II.

THE GREAT RACES.--CHAPTER X. OF GENESIS 127-142

§ 1. Shinar.--§ 2. Berosus.--§ 3. Who were the settlers in
Shinar?--§ 4. The Flood probably not universal.--§§ 5-6. The
blessed race and the accursed, according to Genesis.--§ 7.
Genealogical form of Chap. X. of Genesis.--§ 8. Eponyms.--§ 9.
Omission of some white races from Chap. X.--§ 10. Omission of
the Black Race.--§ 11. Omission of the Yellow Race.
Characteristics of the Turanians.--§ 12. The Chinese.--§ 13.
Who were the Turanians? What became of the Cainites?--§ 14.
Possible identity of both.--§ 15. The settlers in
Shinar--Turanians.

III.

TURANIAN CHALDEA--SHUMIR AND ACCAD.--THE BEGINNINGS OF RELIGION 146-181

§ 1. Shumir and Accad.--§ 2. Language and name.--§ 3. Turanian
migrations and traditions.--§ 4. Collection of sacred
texts.--§ 5. "Religiosity"--a distinctively human characteristic.
Its first promptings and manifestations.--§ 6. The Magic Collection
and the work of Fr. Lenormant.--§ 7. The Shumiro-Accads' theory
of the world, and their elementary spirits.--§ 8. The
incantation of the Seven Maskim.--§ 9. The evil spirits.--§ 10.
The Arali.--§ 11. The sorcerers.--§ 12. Conjuring and
conjurers.--§ 13. The beneficent Spirits, Êa.--§ 14.
Meridug.--§ 15. A charm against an evil spell.--§ 16. Diseases
considered as evil demons.--§ 17. Talismans. _The
Kerubim._--§ 18. More talismans.--§ 19. The demon of the South-West
Wind.--§ 20. The first gods.--§ 21. _Ud_, the Sun.--§ 22.
_Nin dar_, the nightly Sun.--§ 23. _Gibil_, Fire.--§ 24. Dawn of
moral consciousness.--§ 25. Man's Conscience divinized.--§§ 26-28.
Penitential Psalms.--§ 29. General character of Turanian
religions.

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III. 181-183

Professor L. Dyer's poetical version of the Incantation against
the Seven Maskim.

IV.

CUSHITES AND SEMITES--EARLY CHALDEAN HISTORY 184-228

§ 1. Oannes.--§ 2. Were the second settlers Cushites or
Semites?--§ 3. Cushite hypothesis. Earliest migrations.--§ 4.
The Ethiopians and the Egyptians.--§ 5. The Canaanites.--§ 6.
Possible Cushite station on the islets of the Persian
Gulf.--§ 7. Colonization of Chaldea possibly by Cushites.--§ 8.
Vagueness of very ancient chronology.--§ 9. Early dates.--§ 10.
Exorbitant figures of Berosus.--§ 11. Early Chaldea--a nursery
of nations.--§ 12. Nomadic Semitic tribes.--§ 13. The tribe of
Arphaxad.--§ 14. Ur of the Chaldees.--§ 15. Scholars divided
between the Cushite and Semitic theories.--§ 16. History
commences with Semitic culture.--§ 17. Priestly rule. The
_patesis_.--§§ 18-19. Sharrukin I. (Sargon I) of Agadê.--§§
20-21. The second Sargon's literary labors.--§§ 22-23. Chaldean
folk-lore, maxims and songs.--§ 24. Discovery of the elder
Sargon's date--3800 B.C.--§ 25. Gudêa of Sir-gulla and Ur-êa of
Ur.--§ 26. Predominance of Shumir. Ur-êa and his son Dungi
first kings of "Shumir and Accad."--§ 27. Their inscriptions
and buildings. The Elamite invasion.--§ 28. Elam.--§§ 29-31.
Khudur-Lagamar and Abraham.--§ 32. Hardness of the Elamite
rule.--§ 33. Rise of Babylon.--§ 34. Hammurabi.--§ 35. Invasion
of the Kasshi.

V.

BABYLONIAN RELIGION 229-257

§ 1. Babylonian calendar.--§ 2. Astronomy conducive to
religious feeling.--§ 3. Sabeism.--§ 4. Priestcraft and
astrology.--§ 5. Transformation of the old religion.--§ 6.
Vague dawning of the monotheistic idea. Divine emanations.--§ 7.
The Supreme Triad.--§ 8. The Second Triad.--§ 9. The five
Planetary deities.--§§ 10-11. Duality of nature. Masculine and
feminine principles. The goddesses.--§ 12. The twelve Great
Gods and their Temples.--§ 13. The temple of Shamash at Sippar
and Mr. Rassam's discovery.--§ 14. Survival of the old Turanian
superstitions.--§ 15. Divination, a branch of Chaldean
"Science."--§§ 16-17. Collection of one hundred tablets on
divination. Specimens.--§ 18. The three classes of "wise men."
"Chaldeans," in later times, a by-word for "magician," and
"astrologer."--§ 19. Our inheritance from the Chaldeans: the
sun-dial, the week, the calendar, the Sabbath.

VI.

LEGENDS AND STORIES 258-293

§ 1. The Cosmogonies of different nations.--§ 2. The antiquity
of the Sacred Books of Babylonia.--§ 3. The legend of Oannes,
told by Berosus. Discovery, by Geo. Smith, of the Creation
Tablets and the Deluge Tablet.--§§ 4-5. Chaldean account of the
Creation.--§ 6. The Cylinder with the human couple, tree and
serpent.--§ 7. Berosus' account of the creation.--§ 8. The
Sacred Tree. Sacredness of the Symbol.--§ 9. Signification of
the Tree-Symbol. The Cosmic Tree.--§ 10. Connection of the
Tree-Symbol and of Ziggurats with the legend of Paradise.--§ 11.
The Ziggurat of Borsippa.--§ 12. It is identified with the
Tower of Babel.--§§ 13-14. Peculiar Orientation of the
Ziggurats.--§ 15. Traces of legends about a sacred grove or
garden.--§ 16. Mummu-Tiamat, the enemy of the gods. Battle of
Bel and Tiamat.--§ 17. The Rebellion of the seven evil spirits,
originally messengers of the gods.--§ 18. The great Tower and
the Confusion of Tongues.

VII.

MYTHS.--HEROES AND THE MYTHICAL EPOS 294-330

§ 1. Definition of the word Myth.--§ 2. The Heroes.--§ 3. The
Heroic Ages and Heroic Myths. The National Epos.--§ 4. The
oldest known Epic.--§ 5. Berosus' account of the Flood.--§ 6.
Geo. Smith's discovery of the original Chaldean narrative.--§ 7.
The Epic divided into books or Tablets.--§ 8. Izdubar the
Hero of the Epic.--§ 9. Erech's humiliation under the Elamite
Conquest. Izdubar's dream.--§ 10. Êabâni the Seer. Izdubar's
invitation and promises to him.--§ 11. Message sent to Êabâni
by Ishtar's handmaidens. His arrival at Erech.--§ 12. Izdubar
and Êabâni's victory over the tyrant Khumbaba.--§ 13. Ishtar's
love message. Her rejection and wrath. The two friends' victory
over the Bull sent by her.--§ 14. Ishtar's vengeance. Izdubar's
journey to the Mouth of the Rivers.--§ 15. Izdubar sails the
Waters of Death and is healed by his immortal ancestor
Hâsisadra.--§ 16. Izdubar's return to Erech and lament over
Êabâni. The seer is translated among the gods.--§ 17. The
Deluge narrative in the Eleventh Tablet of the Izdubar
Epic.--§§ 18-21. Mythic and solar character of the Epic
analyzed.--§ 22. Sun-Myth of the Beautiful Youth, his early
death and resurrection.--§§ 23-24. Dumuzi-Tammuz, the husband
of Ishtar. The festival of Dumuzi in June.--§ 25. Ishtar's
Descent to the Land of the Dead.--§ 26. Universality of the
Solar and Chthonic Myths.

VIII.

RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.--IDOLATRY AND ANTHROPOMORPHISM.--THE CHALDEAN LEGENDS AND THE BOOK OF GENESIS.--RETROSPECT 331-336

§ 1. Definition of Mythology and Religion, as distinct from
each other.--§§ 2-3. Instances of pure religious feeling in the
poetry of Shumir and Accad.--§ 4. Religion often stifled by
Mythology.--§§ 5-6. The conception of the immortality of the
soul suggested by the sun's career.--§ 7. This expressed in the
Solar and Chthonic Myths.--§ 8. Idolatry.--§ 9. The Hebrews,
originally polytheists and idolators, reclaimed by their
leaders to Monotheism.--§ 10. Their intercourse with the tribes
of Canaan conducive to relapses.--§ 11. Intermarriage severely
forbidden for this reason.--§ 12. Striking similarity between
the Book of Genesis and the ancient Chaldean legends.--§ 13.
Parallel between the two accounts of the creation.--§ 14.
Anthropomorphism, different from polytheism and idolatry, but
conducive to both.--§§ 15-17. Parallel continued.--§§ 18-19.
Retrospect.

PRINCIPAL WORKS READ OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS VOLUME.

BAER, Wilhelm. DER VORGESCHICHTLICHE MENSCH. 1 vol., Leipzig: 1874.

BAUDISSIN, W. von. STUDIEN ZUR SEMITISCHEN RELIGIONSGESCHICHTE. 2 vols.

BUDGE, E. A. Wallis. BABYLONIAN LIFE AND HISTORY. ("Bypaths of Bible Knowledge" Series, V.) 1884. London: The Religious Tract Society. 1 vol.

---- HISTORY OF ESARHADDON. 1 vol.

BUNSEN, Chr. Carl Jos. GOTT IN DER GESCHICHTE, oder Der Fortschritt des Glaubens an eine sittliche Weltordnung. 3 vols. Leipzig: 1857.

CASTREN, Alexander. KLEINERE SCHRIFTEN. St. Petersburg: 1862. 1 vol.

CORY. ANCIENT FRAGMENTS. London: 1876. 1 vol.

DELITZSCH, Dr. Friedrich. WO LAG DAS PARADIES? eine Biblisch-Assyriologische Studie. Leipzig: 1881. 1 vol.

---- DIE SPRACHE DER KOSSÄER. Leipzig: 1885 (or 1884?). 1 vol.

DUNCKER, Max. GESCHICHTE DES ALTERTHUMS. Leipzig: 1878. Vol. 1st.

FERGUSSON, James. PALACES OF NINEVEH AND PERSEPOLIS RESTORED. 1 vol.

HAPPEL, Julius. DIE ALTCHINESISCHE REICHSRELIGION, vom Standpunkte der Vergleichenden Religionsgeschichte. 46 pages, Leipzig: 1882.

HAUPT, Paul. DER KEILINSCHRIFTLICHE SINTFLUTBERICHT, eine Episode des Babylonischen Nimrodepos. 36 pages. Göttingen: 1881.

HOMMEL, Dr. Fritz. GESCHICHTE BABYLONIENS UND ASSYRIENS (first instalment, 160 pp., 1885; and second instalment, 160 pp., 1886). (Allgemeine Geschichte in einzelnen Darstellungen, Abtheilung 95 und 117.)

---- DIE VORSEMITISCHEN KULTUREN IN ÆGYPTEN UND BABYLONIEN. Leipzig: 1882 and 1883.

LAYARD, Austen H. DISCOVERIES AMONG THE RUINS OF NINEVEH AND BABYLON. (American Edition.) New York: 1853. 1 vol.

---- NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. London: 1849. 2 vols.

LENORMANT, François. LES PREMIÈRES CIVILISATIONS. Êtudes d'Histoire et d'Archéologie. 1874. Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie. 2 vols.

---- LES ORIGINES DE L'HISTOIRE, d'après la Bible et les Traditions des Peuples Orientaux. Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie. 3 vol. 1er vol. 1880; 2e vol. 1882; 3e vol. 1884.

---- LA GENÈSE. Traduction d'après l'Hébreu. Paris: 1883. 1 vol.

---- DIE MAGIE UND WAHRSAGEKUNST DER CHALDÄER. Jena, 1878. 1 vol.

---- IL MITO DI ADONE-TAMMUZ nei Documenti cuneiformi. 32 pages. Firenze: 1879.

---- SUR LE NOM DE TAMMOUZ. (Extrait des Mémoires du Congrès international des Orientalistes.) 17 pages. Paris: 1873.

---- A MANUAL OF THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST. Translated by E. Chevallier. American Edition. Philadelphia: 1871. 2 vols.

LOFTUS. CHALDEA AND SUSIANA. 1 vol. London: 1857.

LOTZ, Guilelmus. QUÆSTIONES DE HISTORIA SABBATI. Lipsiae: 1883.

MAURY, Alfred L. F. LA MAGIE ET L'ASTROLOGIE dans l'antiquité et en Moyen Age. Paris: 1877. 1 vol. Quatrième édition.

MASPERO, G. HISTOIRE ANCIENNE DES PEUPLES DE L'ORIENT. 3e édition, 1878. Paris: Hachette & Cie. 1 vol.

MÉNANT, Joachim. LA BIBLIOTHÈQUE DU PALAIS DE NINIVE. 1 vol. (Bibliothèque Orientale Elzévirienne.) Paris: 1880.

MEYER, Eduard. GESCHICHTE DES ALTERTHUMS. Stuttgart: 1884. Vol. 1st.

MÜLLER, Max. LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. 2 vols. American edition. New York: 1875.

MÜRDTER, F. KURZGEFASSTE GESCHICHTE BABYLONIENS UND ASSYRIENS, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Alten Testaments. Mit Vorwort und Beigaben von Friedrich Delitzsch. Stuttgart: 1882. 1 vol.

OPPERT, Jules. L'IMMORTALITÉ DE L'AME CHEZ LES CHALDÉENS. 28 pages. (Extrait des Annales de Philosophie Chrètienne, 1874.) Perrot et Chipiez.

QUATREFAGES, A. de. L'ESPÈCE HUMAINE. Sixième edition. 1 vol. Paris: 1880.

RAWLINSON, George. THE FIVE GREAT MONARCHIES OF THE ANCIENT EASTERN WORLD. London: 1865. 1st and 2d vols.

RECORDS OF THE PAST. Published under the sanction of the Society of Biblical Archæology. Volumes I. III. V. VII. IX. XI.

SAYCE, A. H. FRESH LIGHT FROM ANCIENT MONUMENTS. ("By-Paths of Bible Knowledge" Series, II.) 3d edition, 1885. London: 1 vol.

---- THE ANCIENT EMPIRES OF THE EAST. 1 vol. London, 1884.

---- BABYLONIAN LITERATURE. 1 vol. London, 1884.

SCHRADER, Eberhard. KEILINSCHRIFTEN und Geschichtsforschung. Giessen: 1878. 1 vol.

---- DIE KEILINSCHRIFTEN und das Alte Testament. Giessen: 1883. 1 vol.

---- ISTAR'S HÖLLENFAHRT. 1 vol. Giessen: 1874.

---- ZUR FRAGE NACH DEM URSPRUNG DER ALTBABYLONISCHEN KULTUR. Berlin: 1884.

SMITH, George. ASSYRIA from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Nineveh. ("Ancient History from the Monuments" Series.) London: 1 vol.

TYLOR, Edward B. PRIMITIVE CULTURE. Second American Edition. 2 vols. New York: 1877.

ZIMMERN, Heinrich. BABYLONISCHE BUSSPSALMEN, umschrieben, übersetzt und erklärt. 17 pages, 4to. Leipzig: 1885.

Numerous Essays by Sir Henry Rawlinson, Friedr. Delitzsch, E. Schrader and others, in Mr. Geo. Rawlinson's translation of Herodotus, in the Calwer Bibellexikon, and in various periodicals, such as "Proceedings" and "Transactions" of the "Society of Biblical Archæology," "Jahrbücher für Protestantische Theologie," "Zeitschrift für Keilschriftforschung," "Gazette Archéologique," and others.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE SHAMASH THE SUN-GOD. _From a tablet in the British Museum._ _Frontispiece._ 1. CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS _Ménant._ 10 2. TEMPLE OF ÊA AT ERIDHU _Hommel._ 23 3. VIEW OF EUPHRATES NEAR BABYLON _Babelon._ 31 4. MOUND OF BABIL _Oppert._ 33 5. BRONZE DISH _Perrot and Chipiez._ 35 6. BRONZE DISH (RUG PATTERN) _Perrot and Chipiez._ 37 7. SECTION OF BRONZE DISH _Perrot and Chipiez._ 39 8. VIEW OF NEBBI-YUNUS _Babelon._ 41 9. BUILDING IN BAKED BRICK. _Perrot and Chipiez._ 43 10. MOUND OF NINEVEH _Hommel._ 45 11. MOUND OF MUGHEIR (ANCIENT UR) _Taylor._ 47 12. TERRACE WALL AT KHORSABAD _Perrot and Chipiez._ 49 13. RAFT BUOYED BY INFLATED SKINS (ANCIENT) _Kaulen._ 51 14. RAFT BUOYED BY INFLATED SKINS (MODERN) _Kaulen._ 51 15. EXCAVATIONS AT MUGHEIR (UR) _Hommel._ 53 16. WARRIORS SWIMMING ON INFLATED SKINS _Babelon._ 55 17. VIEW OF KOYUNJIK _Hommel._ 57 18. STONE LION AT ENTRANCE OF A TEMPLE _Perrot and Chipiez._ 59 19. COURT OF HAREM AT KHORSABAD. RESTORED _Perrot and Chipiez._ 61 20. CIRCULAR PILLAR BASE _Perrot and Chipiez._ 63 21. INTERIOR VIEW OF HAREM CHAMBER _Perrot and Chipiez._ 65 22, 23. COLORED FRIEZE IN ENAMELLED TILES _Perrot and Chipiez._ 67 24. PAVEMENT SLAB _Perrot and Chipiez._ 69 25. SECTION OF ORNAMENTAL DOORWAY, KHORSABAD _Perrot and Chipiez._ 71 26. WINGED LION WITH HUMAN HEAD _Perrot and Chipiez._ 73 27. WINGED BULL _Perrot and Chipiez._ 75 28. MAN-LION _Perrot and Chipiez._ 77 29. FRAGMENT OF ENAMELLED BRICK _Perrot and Chipiez._ 79 30. RAM'S HEAD IN ALABASTER _British Museum._ 81 31. EBONY COMB _Perrot and Chipiez._ 81 32. BRONZE FORK AND SPOON _Perrot and Chipiez._ 81 33. ARMENIAN LOUVRE _Botta._ 83 34, 35. VAULTED DRAINS _Perrot and Chipiez._ 84 36. CHALDEAN JAR-COFFIN _Taylor._ 85 37. "DISH-COVER" TOMB AT MUGHEIR _Taylor._ 87 38. "DISH-COVER" TOMB _Taylor._ 87 39. SEPULCHRAL VAULT AT MUGHEIR _Taylor._ 89 40. STONE JARS FROM GRAVES _Hommel._ 89 41. DRAIN IN MOUND _Perrot and Chipiez._ 90 42. WALL WITH DESIGNS IN TERRA-COTTA _Loftus._ 91 43. TERRA-COTTA CONE _Loftus._ 91 44. HEAD OF ANCIENT CHALDEAN _Perrot and Chipiez._ 101 45. SAME, PROFILE VIEW _Perrot and Chipiez._ 101 46. CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTION _Perrot and Chipiez._ 107 47. INSCRIBED CLAY TABLET _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 109 48. CLAY TABLET IN ITS CASE _Hommel._ 111 49. ANTIQUE BRONZE SETTING OF CYLINDER _Perrot and Chipiez._ 112 50. CHALDEAN CYLINDER AND IMPRESSION _Perrot and Chipiez._ 113 51. ASSYRIAN CYLINDER 113 52. PRISM OF SENNACHERIB _British Museum._ 115 53. INSCRIBED CYLINDER FROM BORSIP _Ménant._ 117 54. DEMONS FIGHTING _British Museum._ 165 55. DEMON OF THE SOUTH-WEST WIND _Perrot and Chipiez._ 169 56. HEAD OF DEMON _British Museum._ 170 57. OANNES _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 187 58. CYLINDER OF SARGON FROM AGADÊ _Hommel._ 207 59. STATUE OF GUDÊA _Hommel._ 217 60. BUST INSCRIBED WITH NAME OF NEBO _British Museum._ 243 61. BACK OF TABLET WITH ACCOUNT OF FLOOD _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 262 62. BABYLONIAN CYLINDER _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 266 63. FEMALE WINGED FIGURES AND SACRED TREES _British Museum._ 269 64. WINGED SPIRITS BEFORE SACRED TREE _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 270 65. SARGON OF ASSYRIA BEFORE SACRED TREE _Perrot and Chipiez._ 271 66. EAGLE-HEADED FIGURE BEFORE SACRED TREE _Perrot and Chipiez._ 273 67. FOUR-WINGED HUMAN FIGURE BEFORE SACRED TREE _Perrot and Chipiez._ 275 68. TEMPLE AND HANGING GARDENS AT KOYUNJIK _British Museum._ 277 69. PLAN OF A ZIGGURAT _Perrot and Chipiez._ 278 70. "ZIGGURAT" RESTORED _Perrot and Chipiez._ 279 71. BIRS-NIMRUD _Perrot and Chipiez._ 281 72, 73. BEL FIGHTS DRAGON _Perrot and Chipiez._ 289 74. BATTLE BETWEEN BEL AND DRAGON _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 291 75. IZDUBAR AND LION _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 306 76. IZDUBAR AND LION _British Museum._ 307 77. IZDUBAR AND ÊABÂNI _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 309 78. IZDUBAR AND LION _Perrot and Chipiez._ 310 79. SCORPION-MAN _Smith's Chald. Gen._ 311 80. STONE OBJECT FOUND AT ABU-HABBA 312

INTRODUCTION.

I.

MESOPOTAMIA.--THE MOUNDS.--THE FIRST SEARCHERS.

1. In or about the year before Christ 606, Nineveh, the great city, was destroyed. For many hundred years had she stood in arrogant splendor, her palaces towering above the Tigris and mirrored in its swift waters; army after army had gone forth from her gates and returned laden with the spoils of conquered countries; her monarchs had ridden to the high place of sacrifice in chariots drawn by captive kings. But her time came at last. The nations assembled and encompassed her around. Popular tradition tells how over two years lasted the siege; how the very river rose and battered her walls; till one day a vast flame rose up to heaven; how the last of a mighty line of kings, too proud to surrender, thus saved himself, his treasures and his capital from the shame of bondage. Never was city to rise again where Nineveh had been.

2. Two hundred years went by. Great changes had passed over the land. The Persian kings now held the rule of Asia. But their greatness also was leaning towards its decline and family discords undermined their power. A young prince had rebelled against his elder brother and resolved to tear the crown from him by main force. To accomplish this, he had raised an army and called in the help of Grecian hirelings. They came, 13,000 in number, led by brave and renowned generals, and did their duty by him; but their valor could not save him from defeat and death. Their own leader fell into an ambush, and they commenced their retreat under the most disastrous circumstances and with little hope of escape.

3. Yet they accomplished it. Surrounded by open enemies and false friends, tracked and pursued, through sandy wastes and pathless mountains, now parched with heat, now numbed with cold, they at last reached the sunny and friendly Hellespont. It was a long and weary march from Babylon on the Euphrates, near which city the great battle had been fought. They might not have succeeded had they not chosen a great and brave commander, Xenophon, a noble Athenian, whose fame as scholar and writer equals his renown as soldier and general. Few books are more interesting than the lively relation he has left of his and his companions' toils and sufferings in this expedition, known in history as "The Retreat of the Ten Thousand"--for to that number had the original 13,000 been reduced by battles, privations and disease. So cultivated a man could not fail, even in the midst of danger and weighed down by care, to observe whatever was noteworthy in the strange lands which he traversed. So he tells us how one day his little army, after a forced march in the early morning hours and an engagement with some light troops of pursuers, having repelled the attack and thereby secured a short interval of safety, travelled on till they came to the banks of the Tigris. On that spot, he goes on, there was a vast desert city. Its wall was twenty-five feet wide, one hundred feet high and nearly seven miles in circuit. It was built of brick with a basement, twenty feet high, of stone. Close by the city there stood a stone pyramid, one hundred feet in width, and two hundred in height. Xenophon adds that this city's name was Larissa and that it had anciently been inhabited by Medes; that the king of Persia, when he took the sovereignty away from the Medes, besieged it, but could not in any way get possession of it, until, a cloud having obscured the sun, the inhabitants forsook the city and thus it was taken.

4. Some eighteen miles further on (a day's march) the Greeks came to another great deserted city, which Xenophon calls Mespila. It had a similar but still higher wall. This city, he tells us, had also been inhabited by Medes, and taken by the king of Persia. Now these curious ruins were all that was left of Kalah and Nineveh, the two Assyrian capitals. In the short space of two hundred years, men had surely not yet lost the memory of Nineveh's existence and rule, yet they trod the very site where it had stood and knew it not, and called its ruins by a meaningless Greek name, handing down concerning it a tradition absurdly made up of true and fictitious details, jumbled into inextricable confusion. For Nineveh had been the capital of the Assyrian Empire, while the Medes were one of the nations who attacked and destroyed it. And though an eclipse of the sun--(the obscuring cloud could mean nothing else)--did occur, created great confusion and produced important results, it was at a later period and on an entirely different occasion. As to "the king of Persia," no such personage had anything whatever to do with the catastrophe of Nineveh, since the Persians had not yet been heard of at that time as a powerful people, and their country was only a small and insignificant principality, tributary to Media. So effectually had the haughty city been swept from the face of the earth!

5. Another hundred years brought on other and even greater changes. The Persian monarchy had followed in the wake of the empires that had gone before it and fallen before Alexander, the youthful hero of Macedon. As the conqueror's fleet of light-built Grecian ships descended the Euphrates towards Babylon, they were often hindered in their progress by huge dams of stone built across the river. The Greeks, with great labor, removed several, to make navigation more easy. They did the same on several other rivers,--nor knew that they were destroying the last remaining vestige of a great people's civilization,--for these dams had been used to save the water and distribute it into the numerous canals, which covered the arid country with their fertilizing network. They may have been told what travellers are told in our own days by the Arabs--that these dams had been constructed once upon a time by Nimrod, the Hunter-King. For some of them remain even still, showing their huge, square stones, strongly united by iron cramps, above the water before the river is swollen with the winter rains.

6. More than one-and-twenty centuries have rolled since then over the immense valley so well named Mesopotamia--"the Land between the Rivers,"--and each brought to it more changes, more wars, more disasters, with rare intervals of rest and prosperity. Its position between the East and the West, on the very high-road of marching armies and wandering tribes, has always made it one of the great battle grounds of the world. About one thousand years after Alexander's rapid invasion and short-lived conquest, the Arabs overran the country, and settled there, bringing with them a new civilization and the new religion given them by their prophet Mohammed, which they thought it their mission to carry, by force of word or sword, to the bounds of the earth. They even founded there one of the principal seats of their sovereignty, and Baghdad yielded not greatly in magnificence and power to Babylon of old.

7. Order, laws, and learning now flourished for a few hundred years, when new hordes of barbarous people came pouring in from the East, and one of them, the Turks, at last established itself in the land and stayed. They rule there now. The valley of the Tigris and Euphrates is a province of the Ottoman or Turkish Empire, which has its capital in Constantinople; it is governed by pashas, officials sent by the Turkish government, or the "Sublime Porte," as it is usually called, and the ignorant, oppressive, grinding treatment to which it has now been subjected for several hundred years has reduced it to the lowest depth of desolation. Its wealth is exhausted, its industry destroyed, its prosperous cities have disappeared or dwindled into insignificance. Even Mossul, built by the Arabs on the right bank of the Tigris, opposite the spot where Nineveh once stood, one of their finest cities, famous for the manufacturing of the delicate cotton tissue to which it gave its name--(_muslin_, _mousseline_)--would have lost all importance, had it not the honor to be the chief town of a Turkish district and to harbor a pasha. And Baghdad, although still the capital of the whole province, is scarcely more than the shadow of her former glorious self; and her looms no longer supply the markets of the world with wonderful shawls and carpets, and gold and silver tissues of marvellous designs.

8. Mesopotamia is a region which must suffer under neglect and misgovernment even more than others; for, though richly endowed by nature, it is of a peculiar formation, requiring constant care and intelligent management to yield all the return of which it is capable. That care must chiefly consist in distributing the waters of the two great rivers and their affluents over all the land by means of an intricate system of canals, regulated by a complete and well-kept set of dams and sluices, with other simpler arrangements for the remoter and smaller branches. The yearly inundations caused by the Tigris and Euphrates, which overflow their banks in spring, are not sufficient; only a narrow strip of land on each side is benefited by them. In the lowlands towards the Persian Gulf there is another inconvenience: the country there being perfectly flat, the waters accumulate and stagnate, forming vast pestilential swamps where rich pastures and wheat-fields should be--and have been in ancient times. In short, if left to itself, Upper Mesopotamia, (ancient Assyria), is unproductive from the barrenness of its soil, and Lower Mesopotamia, (ancient Chaldea and Babylonia), runs to waste, notwithstanding its extraordinary fertility, from want of drainage.

9. Such is actually the condition of the once populous and flourishing valley, owing to the principles on which the Turkish rulers carry on their government. They look on their remoter provinces as mere sources of revenue for the state and its officials. But even admitting this as their avowed and chief object, they pursue it in an altogether wrong-headed and short-sighted way. The people are simply and openly plundered, and no portion of what is taken from them is applied to any uses of local public utility, as roads, irrigation, encouragement of commerce and industry and the like; what is not sent home to the Sultan goes into the private pouches of the pasha and his many subaltern officials. This is like taking the milk and omitting to feed the cow. The consequence is, the people lose their interest in work of any kind, leave off striving for an increase of property which they will not be permitted to enjoy, and resign themselves to utter destitution with a stolid apathy most painful to witness. The land has been brought to such a degree of impoverishment that it is actually no longer capable of producing crops sufficient for a settled population. It is cultivated only in patches along the rivers, where the soil is rendered so fertile by the yearly inundations as to yield moderate returns almost unasked, and that mostly by wandering tribes of Arabs or of Kurds from the mountains to the north, who raise their tents and leave the spot the moment they have gathered in their little harvest--if it has not been appropriated first by some of the pasha's tax-collectors or by roving parties of Bedouins--robber-tribes from the adjoining Syrian and Arabian deserts, who, mounted on their own matchless horses, are carried across the open border with as much facility as the drifts of desert sand so much dreaded by travellers. The rest of the country is left to nature's own devices and, wherever it is not cut up by mountains or rocky ranges, offers the well-known twofold character of steppe-land: luxuriant grassy vegetation during one-third of the year and a parched, arid waste the rest of the time, except during the winter rains and spring floods.

10. A wild and desolate scene! Imposing too in its sorrowful grandeur, and well suited to a land which may be called a graveyard of empires and nations. The monotony of the landscape would be unbroken, but for certain elevations and hillocks of strange and varied shapes, which spring up, as it were, from the plain in every direction; some are high and conical or pyramidal in form, others are quite extensive and rather flat on the summit, others again long and low, and all curiously unconnected with each other or any ridge of hills or mountains. This is doubly striking in Lower Mesopotamia or Babylonia, proverbial for its excessive flatness. The few permanent villages, composed of mud-huts or plaited reed-cabins, are generally built on these eminences, others are used as burying-grounds, and a mosque, the Mohammedan house of prayer, sometimes rises on one or the other. They are pleasing objects in the beautiful spring season, when corn-fields wave on their summits, and their slopes, as well as all the surrounding plains, are clothed with the densest and greenest of herbage, enlivened with countless flowers of every hue, till the surface of the earth looks, from a distance or from a height, as gorgeous as the richest Persian carpet. But, on approaching nearer to these hillocks or mounds, an unprepared traveller would be struck by some peculiar features. Their substance being rather soft and yielding, and the winter rains pouring down with exceeding violence, their sides are furrowed in many places with ravines, dug by the rushing streams of rain-water. These streams of course wash down much of the substance itself and carry it far into the plain, where it lies scattered on the surface quite distinct from the soil. These washings are found to consist not of earth or sand, but of rubbish, something like that which lies in heaps wherever a house is being built or demolished, and to contain innumerable fragments of bricks, pottery, stone evidently worked by the hand and chisel; many of these fragments moreover bearing inscriptions in complicated characters composed of one curious figure shaped like the head of an arrow, and used in every possible position and combination,--like this:

11. In the crevices or ravines themselves, the waters having cleared away masses of this loose rubbish, have laid bare whole sides of walls of solid brick-work, sometimes even a piece of a human head or limb, or a corner of sculptured stone-slab, always of colossal size and bold, striking execution. All this tells its own tale and the conclusion is self-apparent: that these elevations are not natural hillocks or knolls, but artificial mounds, heaps of earth and building materials which have been at some time placed there by men, then, collapsing and crumbling to rubbish from neglect, have concealed within their ample sides all that remains of those ancient structures and works of art, clothed themselves in verdure, and deceitfully assumed all the outward signs of natural hills.

12. The Arabs never thought of exploring these curious heaps. Mohammedan nations, as a rule, take little interest in relics of antiquity; moreover they are very superstitious, and, as their religious law strictly forbids them to represent the human form either in painting or sculpture lest such reproduction might lead ignorant and misguided people back to the abominations of idolatry, so they look on relics of ancient statuary with suspicion amounting to fear and connect them with magic and witchcraft. It is, therefore, with awe not devoid of horror that they tell travellers that the mounds contain underground passages which are haunted not only by wild beasts, but by evil spirits--for have not sometimes strange figures carved in stone been dimly perceived in the crevices? Better instructed foreigners have long ago assumed that within these mounds must be entombed whatever ruins may be preserved of the great cities of yore. Their number formed no objection, for it was well known how populous the valley had been in the days of its splendor, and that, besides several famous cities, it could boast no end of smaller ones, often separated from each other by a distance of only a few miles. The long low mounds were rightly supposed to represent the ancient walls, and the higher and vaster ones to have been the site of the palaces and temples. The Arabs, though utterly ignorant of history of any kind, have preserved in their religion some traditions from the Bible, and so it happens that out of these wrecks of ages some biblical names still survive. Almost everything of which they do not know the origin, they ascribe to Nimrod; and the smaller of the two mounds opposite Mosul, which mark the spot where Nineveh itself once stood, they call "Jonah's Mound," and stoutly believe the mosque which crowns it, surrounded by a comparatively prosperous village, to contain the tomb of Jonah himself, the prophet who was sent to rebuke and warn the wicked city. As the Mohammedans honor the Hebrew prophets, the whole mound is sacred in their eyes in consequence.

13. If travellers had for some time been aware of these general facts concerning the Mounds, it was many years before their curiosity and interest were so far aroused as to make them go to the trouble and expense of digging into them, in order to find out what they really contained. Until within the last hundred years or so, not only the general public, but even highly cultivated men and distinguished scholars, under the words "study of antiquity," understood no more than the study of so-called "_Classical_ Antiquity," i.e., of the language, history and literature of the Greeks and Romans, together with the ruins, works of art, and remains of all sorts left by these two nations. Their knowledge of other empires and people they took from the Greek and Roman historians and writers, without doubting or questioning their statements, or--as we say now--without subjecting their statements to any criticism. Moreover, European students in their absorption in and devotion to classical studies, were too apt to follow the example of their favorite authors and to class the entire rest of the world, as far as it was known in ancient times, under the sweeping and somewhat contemptuous by-name of "Barbarians," thus allowing them but a secondary importance and an inferior claim to attention.

14. Things began greatly to change towards the end of the last century. Yet the mounds of Assyria and Babylonia were still suffered to keep their secret unrevealed. This want of interest may be in part explained by their peculiar nature. They are so different from other ruins. A row of massive pillars or of stately columns cut out on the clear blue sky, with the desert around or the sea at their feet,--a broken arch or battered tombstone clothed with ivy and hanging creepers, with the blue and purple mountains for a background, are striking objects which first take the eye by their beauty, then invite inspection by the easy approach they offer. But these huge, shapeless heaps! What labor to remove even a small portion of them! And when that is done, who knows whether their contents will at all repay the effort and expense?

15. The first European whose love of learning was strong enough to make him disregard all such doubts and difficulties, was Mr. Rich, an Englishman. He was not particularly successful, nor were his researches very extensive, being carried on entirely with his private means; yet his name will always be honorably remembered, for he was _the first_ who went to work with pickaxe and shovel, who hired men to dig, who measured and described some of the principal mounds on the Euphrates, thus laying down the groundwork of all later and more fruitful explorations in that region. It was in 1820 and Mr. Rich was then political resident or representative of the East India Company at Baghdad. He also tried the larger of the two mounds opposite Mosul, encouraged by the report that, a short time before he arrived there, a sculpture representing men and animals had been disclosed to view. Unfortunately he could not procure even a fragment of this treasure, for the people of Mosul, influenced by their _ulema_--(doctor of the law)--who had declared these sculptures to be "idols of the infidels," had walked across the river from the city in a body and piously shattered them to atoms. Mr. Rich had not the good luck to come across any such find himself, and after some further efforts, left the place rather disheartened. He carried home to England the few relics he had been able to obtain. In the absence of more important ones, they were very interesting, consisting in fragments of inscriptions, of pottery, in engraved stone, bricks and pieces of bricks. After his death all these articles were placed in the British Museum, where they formed the foundation of the present noble Chaldea-Assyrian collection of that great institution. Nothing more was undertaken for years, so that it could be said with literal truth that, up to 1842, "a case three feet square inclosed all that remained, not only of the great city Nineveh, but of Babylon itself!"[A]

16. The next in the field was Mr. Botta, appointed French Consul at Mosul in 1842. He began to dig at the end of the same year, and naturally attached himself specially to the larger of the two mounds opposite Mosul, named KOYUNJIK, after a small village at its base. This mound is the Mespila of Xenophon. He began enthusiastically, and worked on for over three months, but repeated disappointments were beginning to produce discouragement, when one day a peasant from a distant village happened to be looking on at the small party of workmen. He was much amused on observing that every--to him utterly worthless--fragment of alabaster, brick or pottery, was carefully picked out of the rubbish, most tenderly handled and laid aside, and laughingly remarked that they might be better repaid for their trouble, if they would try the mound on which his village was built, for that lots of such rubbish had kept continually turning up, when they were digging the foundations of their houses.

17. Mr. Botta had by this time fallen into a rather hopeless mood; yet he did not dare to neglect the hint, and sent a few men to the mound which had been pointed out to him, and which, as well as the village on the top of it, bore the name of KHORSABAD. His agent began operations from the top. A well was sunk into the mound, and very soon brought the workmen to the top of a wall, which, on further digging, was found to be lined along its base with sculptured slabs of some soft substance much like gypsum or limestone. This discovery quickly brought Mr. Botta to the spot, in a fever of excitement. He now took the direction of the works himself, had a trench dug from the outside straight into the mound, wide and deep, towards the place already laid open from above. What was his astonishment on finding that he had entered a hall entirely lined all round, except where interruptions indicated the place of doorways leading into other rooms, with sculptured slabs similar to the one first discovered, and representing scenes of battles, sieges and the like. He walked as in a dream. It was a new and wonderful world suddenly opened. For these sculptures evidently recorded the deeds of the builder, some powerful conqueror and king. And those long and close lines engraved in the stone, all along the slabs, in the same peculiar character as the short inscriptions on the bricks that lay scattered on the plain--they must surely contain the text to these sculptured illustrations. But who is to read them? They are not like any known writing in the world and may remain a sealed book forever. Who, then, was the builder? To what age belong these structures? Which of the wars we read about are here portrayed? None of these questions, which must have strangely agitated him, could Mr. Botta have answered at the time. But not the less to him remains the glory of having, first of living men, entered the palace of an Assyrian king.

18. Mr. Botta henceforth devoted himself exclusively to the mound of Khorsabad. His discovery created an immense sensation in Europe. Scholarly indifference was not proof against so unlooked-for a shock; the revulsion was complete and the spirit of research and enterprise was effectually aroused, not to slumber again. The French consul was supplied by his government with ample means to carry on excavations on a large scale. If the first success may be considered as merely a great piece of good fortune, the following ones were certainly due to intelligent, untiring labor and ingenuous scholarship. We see the results in Botta's voluminous work "Monuments de Ninive"[B] and in the fine Assyrian collection of the Louvre, in the first room of which is placed, as is but just, the portrait of the man to whose efforts and devotion it is due.

19. The great English investigator Layard, then a young and enthusiastic scholar on his Eastern travels, passing through Mosul in 1842, found Mr. Botta engaged on his first and unpromising attempts at Koyunjik, and subsequently wrote to him from Constantinople exhorting him to persist and not give up his hopes of success. He was one of the first to hear of the astounding news from Khorsabad, and immediately determined to carry out a long-cherished project of his own, that of exploring a large mound known among the Arabs under the name of NIMRUD, and situated somewhat lower on the Tigris, near that river's junction with one of its chief tributaries, the Zab. The difficulty lay in procuring the necessary funds. Neither the trustees of the British Museum nor the English Government were at first willing to incur such considerable expense on what was still looked upon as very uncertain chances. It was a private gentleman, Sir Stratford Canning, then English minister at Constantinople, who generously came forward, and announced himself willing to meet the outlay within certain limits, while authorities at home were to be solicited and worked upon. So Mr. Layard was enabled to begin operations on the mound which he had specially selected for himself in the autumn of 1845, the year after that in which the building of Khorsabad was finally laid open by Botta. The results of his expedition were so startlingly vast and important, and the particulars of his work on the Assyrian plains are so interesting and picturesque, that they will furnish ample materials for a separate chapter.

FOOTNOTES:

[A] Layard's "Discoveries at Nineveh," Introduction.

[B] In five huge folio volumes, one of text, two of inscriptions, and two of illustrations. The title shows that Botta erroneously imagined the ruins he had discovered to be those of Nineveh itself.

II.

LAYARD AND HIS WORK.

1. In the first part of November, 1845, we find the enthusiastic and enterprising young scholar on the scene of his future exertions and triumphs. His first night in the wilderness, in a ruinous Arab village amidst the smaller mounds of Nimrud, is vividly described by him:--"I slept little during the night. The hovel in which we had taken shelter, and its inmates, did not invite slumber; but such scenes and companions were not new to me; they could have been forgotten, had my brain been less excited. Hopes, long-cherished, were now to be realized, or were to end in disappointment. Visions of palaces underground, of gigantic monsters, of sculptured figures, and endless inscriptions floated before me. After forming plan after plan for removing the earth, and extricating these treasures, I fancied myself wandering in a maze of chambers from which I could find no outlet. Then again, all was reburied, and I was standing on the grass-covered mound."

2. Although not doomed to disappointment in the end, these hopes were yet to be thwarted in many ways before the visions of that night became reality. For many and various were the difficulties which Layard had to contend with during the following months as well as during his second expedition in 1848. The material hardships of perpetual camping out in an uncongenial climate, without any of the simplest conveniences of life, and the fevers and sickness repeatedly brought on by exposure to winter rains and summer heat, should perhaps be counted among the least of them, for they had their compensations. Not so the ignorant and ill-natured opposition, open or covert, of the Turkish authorities. That was an evil to which no amount of philosophy could ever fully reconcile him. His experiences in that line form an amusing collection. Luckily, the first was also the worst. The pasha whom he found installed at Mosul was, in appearance and temper, more like an ogre than a man. He was the terror of the country. His cruelty and rapacity knew no bounds. When he sent his tax-collectors on their dreaded round, he used to dismiss them with this short and pithy instruction: "Go, destroy, eat!" (i.e. "plunder"), and for his own profit had revived several kinds of contributions which had been suffered to fall into disuse, especially one called "tooth-money,"--"a compensation in money, levied upon all villages in which a man of such rank is entertained, for the wear and tear of his teeth in masticating the food he condescends to receive from the inhabitants."

3. The letters with which Layard was provided secured him a gracious reception from this amiable personage, who allowed him to begin operations on the great mound of Nimrud with the party of Arab workmen whom he had hired for the purpose. Some time after, it came to the Pasha's knowledge that a few fragments of gold leaf had been found in the rubbish and he even procured a small particle as sample. He immediately concluded, as the Arab chief had done, that the English traveller was digging for hidden treasure--an object far more intelligible to them than that of disinterring and carrying home a quantity of old broken stones. This incident, by arousing the great man's rapacity, might have caused him to put a stop to all further search, had not Layard, who well knew that treasure of this kind was not likely to be plentiful in the ruins, immediately proposed that his Excellency should keep an agent at the mound, to take charge of all the precious metals which might be discovered there in the course of the excavations. The Pasha raised no objections at the moment, but a few days later announced to Layard that, to his great regret, he felt it his duty to forbid the continuation of the work, since he had just learned that the diggers were disturbing a Mussulman burying-ground. As the tombs of true believers are held very sacred and inviolable by Mohammedans, this would have been a fatal obstacle, had not one of the Pasha's own officers confidentially disclosed to Layard that the tombs were _sham ones_, that he and his men had been secretly employed to fabricate them, and for two nights had been bringing stones for the purpose from the surrounding villages. "We have destroyed more tombs of true believers," said the Aga,--(officer)--"in making sham ones, than ever you could have defiled. We have killed our horses and ourselves in carrying those accursed stones." Fortunately the Pasha, whose misdeeds could not be tolerated even by a Turkish government, was recalled about Christmas, and succeeded by an official of an entirely different stamp, a man whose reputation for justice and mildness had preceded him, and whose arrival was accordingly greeted with public rejoicings. Operations at the mound now proceeded for some time rapidly and successfully. But this very success at one time raised new difficulties for our explorers.

4. One day, as Layard was returning to the mound from an excursion, he was met on the way by two Arabs who had ridden out to meet him at full speed, and from a distance shouted to him in the wildest excitement: "Hasten, O Bey! hasten to the diggers! for they have found Nimrod himself. It is wonderful, but it is true! we have seen him with our eyes. There is no God but God!" Greatly puzzled, he hurried on and, descending into the trench, found that the workmen had uncovered a gigantic head, the body to which was still imbedded in earth and rubbish. This head, beautifully sculptured in the alabaster furnished by the neighboring hills, surpassed in height the tallest man present. The great shapely features, in their majestic repose, seemed to guard some mighty secret and to defy the bustling curiosity of those who gazed on them in wonder and fear. "One of the workmen, on catching the first glimpse of the monster, had thrown down his basket and run off toward Mossul as fast as his legs could carry him."