Chapter XXX: The Epistles of Paul (2)

With the fourth chapter begins the _practical_ part of the epistle. He begins with an exhortation to unity, the argument for which cannot be abridged: "There is one body, and one Spirit, even as ye are called in one hope of your calling: one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all." Chap. 4:4-6. He next speaks of the diversity of gifts among believers, all of which come from Christ, and have for their end the unity of the church in faith and knowledge, and thus her stability (verses 7-16). Then follow earnest admonitions to shun the vices of their former state of heathenism, and cultivate all the graces of the Spirit. The mutual relations of life are then taken up, as in the epistle to the Colossians. Here occurs that grand digression in which the love of Christ towards his church is compared with that of the husband towards his wife. Chap. 5:23-32. The closing exhortation, in which the Christian is compared to a warrior wrestling not with flesh and blood but with the powers of darkness, and his heavenly panoply is described at length, is (with the exception of the brief figure, 1 Thess. 5:8) peculiar to this epistle and is very striking.

26. EPISTLE TO PHILEMON.--This short epistle is essentially of a private character. It was sent to Colosse by Onesimus at the same time with the epistle to the Colossians, of which Tychieus was the bearer. Col. 4:7-9. The epistle itself plainly indicates its object. It is a plea for Onesimus, the servant of Philemon, who had left his master and apparently defrauded him (verse 18), but now returns to him a Christian. As a model of Christian delicacy and courtesy it has been the admiration of all ages.

V. EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS.

27. The ancient name of Philippi was _Crenides_ (_Fountains_); but Philip of Macedon fortified the place and called it after his own name. It lay along the bank of a river on a plain in the eastern border of Proconsular Macedonia, and was made a colony by Augustus in memory of his victory gained there over Brutus and Cassius. Compare Acts 16:12. Its port was Neapolis on the Ægean sea about twelve Roman miles to the southeast of it. Philippi was the first place in Europe where the gospel was preached by Paul, who had been summoned across the sea to Macedonia by a vision. Acts 16:9. This was during his second missionary journey, about A.D. 53. A record of his labors and sufferings on that occasion is given in Acts 16:12-40. In his third missionary journey he twice visited Macedonia, sailing the second time from Philippi, that is, from its port Neapolis. Acts 20:1, 3-6.

28. The _occasion_ of this epistle seems to have been the contribution made by the Philippians to supply the apostle's necessities while a prisoner in Rome. Chap. 4:10-18. That he was a prisoner is plain from chap. 1:13, 14, 16. That the _place_ of imprisonment was Rome is inferred from the general tone of the epistle, which shows that the apostle was awaiting a decision of his case, in accordance with his appeal to Cæsar, with the confident expectation of a favorable result (chaps. 1:19-25; 2:23, 24), and especially from the mention of Cæsar's household (chap. 4:22). From chap. 2:23, 24 we infer, moreover, that the time for a decision of his case was at hand. The date of this epistle, then, was about A.D. 63.

The apostle speaks very confidently of a speedy release and
restoration to the work of his apostolic office. Chaps. 1:19,
25, 26; 2:24. This language is important in connection with the
two closely related questions, that of a second imprisonment at
Rome and that of the date of the pastoral epistles. See below,
No. 35.

29. The _character_ of this epistle answers well to its occasion. It is a free outpouring of the apostle's heart towards his beloved Philippians, who had remembered him in his bonds and sent Epaphroditus to supply his wants. He bestows upon them no censure, unless the suggestion to Euodias and Syntyche be regarded as such, but commends them for their liberality, exhorts them to steadfastness in the endurance of persecution, and admonishes them to maintain a deportment which shall be in all things such as becomes the gospel, the several parts of which he specifies in the course of the epistle, but not in any very exact order. It is in connection with these admonitions that the apostle, while insisting on the duty of humility and self-sacrificing love, brings in that sublime description of the Saviour's original glory and equality with God, which he laid aside for our redemption, taking upon himself the form of a servant and submitting to the death of the cross; for which act of self-abasement he is now exalted to be Lord of heaven and earth. Chap. 2:5-11. Intermingled with the above named commendations, exhortations, and counsels, are frequent notices respecting himself, introduced in the most natural and artless manner, and unfolding for our edification some of the deepest principles of Christian character.

His faith in Christ and love for His cause raise him above the sphere of human jealousies. He rejoices that Christ is preached, whether of good-will or of envy, knowing that this shall turn to his salvation through the prayers of the Philippians and the supply of Christ's Spirit. Chap. 2:15-19.

He knows that for himself personally it is better to depart and be with Christ: but to continue in the flesh is more needful for the Philippians. He cannot, therefore, choose between life and death. Chap. 1:21-25. How different this from the spirit of some, who think of death only in connection with their own personal comfort, and how much higher the type of religion which it reveals!

So far as outward advantages are concerned, no man can have more occasion than he to glory in the flesh. But all these he has renounced and counted loss for Christ. His one ambition is to know Christ, and be united with him in his death and resurrection. His present attainments he forgets in his single purpose of pressing towards the goal for the prize of God's heavenly calling in Christ Jesus. Chap. 3:4-14.

He warmly commends the Philippians for their liberality, but wishes them to understand that he does not speak in respect to personal want; for every where and in all things he has been taught the lesson of contentment with present circumstances. Chap. 4:10-14.

VI. EPISTLES TO THE THESSALONIANS.

30. The original name of Thessalonica was _Therme_, whence the gulf at the head of which it is situated, was called the Thermaic gulf. The modern name of the city is _Saloniki_, and of the gulf, the gulf of Saloniki. In the apostolic age it was a large and wealthy city, and the metropolis of the second district of Macedonia. At the present day it is second only to Constantinople in European Turkey. Then as now a large number of Jews resided in it. In his second missionary tour the apostle, when driven from Philippi, went through Amphipolis and Apollonia to Thessalonica. After his usual manner he first resorted to the Jewish synagogue "and three Sabbath days reasoned with them out of the Scriptures." After this a tumult was raised at the instigation of the unbelieving Jews, and the apostle was sent away by night to Berea. Acts 17:1-10. We cannot affirm that his stay at Thessalonica was limited to three weeks; yet it was very brief, and for this reason he was anxious to return again that he might impart further instruction and consolation to the converts there, who were undergoing a severe ordeal of temptation through persecution. Chaps. 2:17-3:5. His labors at Thessalonica were not confined to the Sabbath-day and the Jewish synagogue. He preached the gospel to the Gentiles also, and his chief success seems to have been among them. 1 Thess. 1:9; 2:14, 16.

31. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS was written during the apostle's _second_ missionary journey, the same journey in which he first visited Thessalonica. This we gather from the fact that Silvanus (Silas) was with him (chap. 1:1), for Silas was Paul's travelling companion only during that journey (Acts 15:40; 16:19, 25, 29; 17:4, 10, 14, 15; 18:5); also from the notice of his being at Athens (chap. 3:1 compared with Acts 17:15, 16). He did not, however, write from Athens, as the subscription erroneously states, but from _Corinth_; for it was at this place that Silas and Timotheus rejoined him, bringing good tidings from Macedonia respecting the church in Thessalonica. Chap. 3:1-6 compared with Acts 18:1-5. This is, then, _the earliest of Paul's epistles_, having been written about A.D. 53.

32. The epistle clearly indicates its _occasion_. In consideration of the brief time which the apostle had been able to spend at Thessalonica, and of the severe persecution to which the converts in that city were exposed, he was very desirous to make them a second visit. But having been twice frustrated in this purpose, he sent Timothy and Silas to learn the condition of the Thessalonian church and bring him word concerning it, which they did while he was at Corinth. Chaps. 2:17-3:6. The letter is an affectionate outpouring of his heart in view of the good tidings received through these brethren, into which are interwoven encouragements, instructions, and admonitions adapted to the circumstances of the brethren at Thessalonica, with abundant references to the apostle's own labors there. In the first chapter he commends, with devout thanksgiving to God, the faith and love and patience of the Thessalonian Christians. The second and third chapters are mainly occupied with a notice of his own labors and those of his colleagues at Thessalonica, of his strong desire to revisit them which he had thus far been hindered from carrying into execution, and of his joy at the good tidings brought by Timothy, the whole closed with a fervent prayer in their behalf. The two remaining chapters contain miscellaneous instructions suited to the condition of a church that had been recently gathered in great part from the ranks of heathenism. In the course of these he corrects an error into which the Thessalonian believers had fallen from the idea that they who should die before Christ's second coming might fail of their share in its glory and blessedness. Chap. 4:13-18. In both of the epistles he admonishes the Thessalonians against the neglect of their proper worldly business, a fault that was apparently connected with visionary ideas respecting the speedy second coming of our Lord, and which he rebukes in severe terms. 1 Thess. 4:11; 2 Thess. 3:10-12.

33. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS, like the first, is written in the name of "Paul, and Silvanus, and Timotheus," and seems to have been sent from _Corinth_ not many months after the first. The apostle's main _design_ was to correct a pernicious error respecting the time of our Lord's second advent, which some at Thessalonica seem to have been strenuously engaged in propagating, and to give them further instruction respecting this great doctrine and their duty in relation to it. After the apostolic salutation he expresses his gratitude to God for the growth of their Christian faith and love, and comforts them under the pressure of the persecution to which they were subjected with the assurance of our Lord's second coming in glory to destroy his and their enemies and give rest to his suffering servants; but proceeds in the second chapter to show that this day is not yet at hand, and cannot come till there has first been a great apostacy, the characteristic features of which he proceeds to give (verses 3-12). The remainder of the epistle is occupied with commendations and encouragements to perseverence, mingled with admonitions. The latter have special reference to certain idle and disorderly members of the church, whom the apostle describes as "some which walk among you disorderly, working not at all, but are busy bodies" (chap. 3:11), and who also set themselves in opposition to his apostolic authority (verse 14). These disorderly persons seem to have been the same as those who were engaged in propagating erroneous notions respecting the time of our Lord's second advent. Their visionary views on this subject made them self-conceited, talkative, and self-willed, and led them to neglect the sober duties of daily life.

The apostle beseeches the Thessalonians not to be soon shaken in
mind, or troubled, "neither by spirit, nor by word, nor by
letter as from us, as that the day of Christ is at hand." And he
adds: "Let no man deceive you in any way"--in any of the ways
specified or any other way. Chap. 2:2, 3. There were then
persons at Thessalonica busily occupied in misleading the
Thessalonians: (1) "by spirit," that is, by prophesies which
they professed to have received from the Holy Spirit; (2) "by
word," by oral teaching; (3) "by letter as from us," that is,
purporting to come from the apostle. Or, perhaps, we should
render: "nor by word nor by letter as from us:" that is, neither
by oral teaching nor by written communication alleged to have
come from me. We can well understand how the unwritten words of
the apostle should have been perverted by these false teachers.
The question remains: Did they pervert the meaning of his
language in the first epistle, or did they employ an epistle
forged in his name? The latter has been from ancient times a
common interpretation of this clause, and it is favored by the
words: "The salutation of Paul with mine own hand, which is the
token in every epistle: so I write." Chap. 3:17. Yet the
supposition of such a forged epistle is something so improbable
that many are inclined to adopt the former supposition.

The question respecting "the man of sin" belongs to the
commentator. In a brief introduction like the present, we cannot
enter upon it farther than to say that, though we are not
warranted in affirming that it has its exhaustive fulfilment in
the Papacy, yet its chief embodiment thus far has been in that
corrupt and persecuting power whose character answers so
remarkably to the apostle's description.

34. The epistles to the churches of Philippi and Thessalonica, both lying within the bounds of ancient Macedonia, have a remarkable agreement in their general tone and manner. In both cases we have the same affectionate outpouring of the apostle's heart towards the brethren to whom he writes, and the same abundant personal notices respecting himself and his ministry. Yet they differ precisely as we might suppose they would in view of the fact that the two to the Thessalonians are the earliest of Paul's writings, and are separated from that to the Philippians by an interval of ten eventful years. In writing to the Thessalonians he gives peculiar prominence to the doctrine of our Lord's second coming, perhaps because, in the persecutions which they were undergoing, they especially needed its strengthening and consolatory influence; perhaps also because in the continual maltreatment which he had encountered ever since he entered Macedonia--at Philippi (Acts 16:19-40; 1 Thess. 2:2), at Thessalonica (Acts 17:5-10), at Berea (Acts 17:13, 14), at Corinth (Acts 18:6-17)--he was staying his own soul on the same glorious hope. On the contrary, we find in these earlier epistles no mention of Judaizing Christians, nor any contrast between the two opposite systems of justification by faith and by the works of the Mosaic law, such as appears in his later epistles, that to the Philippians included. Phil. 3:4-9. His opponents at Thessalonica are not Judaizing Christians, but unconverted Jews, whose malignant opposition he describes in strong terms. 1 Thess. 2:15, 16. To the Thessalonians the apostle speaks of himself; but it is of his ministry, and the manner in which he has discharged its duties among them. To the Philippians he also speaks of himself; but then it is from a prison, with a trial for life or death before him, and the retrospect of a long ministry behind him. He unfolds, therefore, as is natural, his deep experiences as a Christian and an apostle of Christ. See above, No. 29. In this contrast between the earlier and the later epistles we have an evidence of their genuineness which is all the stronger because of its indirectness. It is such a mark of truth as no falsifier has power to imitate.

VII. THE PASTORAL EPISTLES.

35. The attempt to find for the pastoral epistles a place in Paul's ministry as far as recorded in the Acts of the Apostles is beset with difficulties which amount to impossibilities.

Among these difficulties are the following:

(1.) Whoever carefully studies these three epistles in their
connection with each other, and in contrast with the other
Pauline epistles, must be profoundly impressed with the
conviction that they all belong, as it respects style and tone
of thought, to the same period of the apostle's life; and, as it
respects subject-matter, to the same era when the churches were
troubled by the same forms of error. But if we assume that they
were written during that part of Paul's ministry of which Luke
has left us the record, the second to Timothy must be widely
separated from the other two. That was certainly written during
Paul's last imprisonment near the close of his life. But when he
wrote the first to Timothy and that to Titus he was at liberty
and prosecuting his missionary labors in Asia Minor and the
vicinity. It must have been then, upon this assumption, during
his third missionary tour (when Apollos appears for the first
time, Acts 18:24 compared with Titus 3:13), and before his last
recorded journey to Jerusalem, his arrest there, his two years'
imprisonment at Cesarea, his voyage to Rome, and his
imprisonment there for the space of at least two more years.

(2.) There is no part of Paul's history "between his first visit
to Ephesus and his Roman imprisonment, which satisfies the
historical conditions implied in the statements of any one of
these epistles." Conybeare and Howson, vol. 2, Appendix 1. The
student may see the arguments on one side in Davidson's
Introduction to the New Testament; and on the other in Alford,
and other critical commentators. Reference may also be made to
the biblical dictionaries.

(3.) Upon the assumption that the first epistle to Timothy, whom
Paul had left in charge of the Ephesian church, was written
_before_ his recorded imprisonments at Cesarea and Rome, it must
be earlier than his farewell address to the elders of Ephesus,
and also his epistle to the Ephesians. But the contents of the
epistle manifestly point to a later period, when the errors in
doctrine and practice which he had predicted (Acts 20:29, 30),
but of which he takes no notice in his epistle to the Ephesians,
had already begun to manifest themselves. The more one compares
with each other these two epistles, the deeper must his
conviction be that the first to Timothy is not the earlier but
the later of the two.

(4.) The peculiar tone and diction of the pastoral epistles and
the peculiar character of the errors combated in them all
indicate a later period in the apostle's life, and a later stage
in the history of the churches. To place the first and third of
these among those to the Galatians, Corinthians, and Romans, and
the second, among those to Philemon, the Colossians, Ephesians,
and Philippians, must appear forced and unnatural. It is much
easier to assume the lapse of some years. Even then the contrast
between these and the other epistles of Paul in respect to tone
and diction is very striking. But it may be explained partly
from the peculiar theme of the pastoral epistles, partly from
the change which the lapse of time with its manifold experiences
had brought to the apostle's style and diction.

We assume, therefore, that the apostle was released from the
Roman imprisonment recorded by Luke; and that, not very long
before his second imprisonment which was terminated by his
martyrdom at Rome, he wrote the three epistles now under
consideration. It is well known that this is in accordance with
ancient tradition. See the testimonies in Conybeare and Howson,
chap. 27; in Alford, and in other commentators.

Against this view is urged the apostle's declaration to the
elders of Ephesus that they should see his face no more;
whereas, according to the present supposition, he visited
Ephesus _again_ after his first imprisonment. As a fair offset
to this may be urged on the other side his equally strong
declaration to the Philippians that his present imprisonment
should have a favorable issue (Phil. 1:25); which was not the
case upon the hypothesis of a single imprisonment at Rome. Such
declarations, where no doctrine or fact of Christianity is
concerned, are not to be taken as revelations of the Spirit. We
know, for example, from Paul's own words, that he changed his
declared purpose respecting a visit to Corinth, for which his
enemies accused him of using lightness. 2 Cor. 1:15-18.

It is urged again that when Paul wrote the pastoral epistles
Timothy was a _young man_. 1 Tim. 4:12; 2 Tim. 2:22. But
according to ancient ideas one might be called a young man at
any age under thirty-five or even forty years. Paul found
Timothy in his second missionary journey, about A.D. 52. It is
not necessary to assume that he was then more than twenty years
old. At the time of Paul's martyrdom, then, about A.D. 67 or 68,
he may have been, for anything that appears to the contrary, a
young man in the ancient sense of the word.

36. The false teachers with whom the apostle deals in these epistles are corrupt in _practice_ as well as in doctrine. 1 Tim. 1:6; 6:5; 2 Tim. 2:16, 17; 3:6, 8; Titus 1:15, 16. They were chiefly Jews (1 Tim. 1:7; Titus 1:10, 14; 3:9); but not Jews who held to simple Phariseeism, like the false teachers among the Galatians. They more nearly resembled those who troubled the Colossians--Jews of a speculative turn of mind, who sought to bring into Judaism the semi-oriental philosophy of that day. They were not Gnostics; for Gnosticism was essentially anti-Judaistic, separating the God of the Jews from the God of Christianity, and placing the two in antagonism to each other. The speculations of these false teachers took a direction which was in some respects akin to the Gnosticism of the second century; but the allegation that they were themselves Gnostics rests upon the misinterpretation of certain passages in these epistles, or unwarrantable inferences from them.

37. The _genuineness_ of these epistles is sustained by the unanimous testimony of the ancient church. Only in modern times has it been called in question by certain writers, who rest their arguments wholly on alleged internal evidence.

So far as their objections are founded on the assumed early date
of the pastoral epistles--before the close of Paul's
imprisonment at Rome recorded by Luke, on their peculiar tone
and diction, or on the supposed references in them to the
Gnosticism of the second century, they have already been
considered. But it is further alleged:

(1.) That they reveal a _hierarchical spirit_ foreign to the
character of the apostle Paul. The answer is that no trace of
such a spirit is discernible in them. The churches had from the
first their officers--bishops or elders and deacons; and the
apostle simply gives the necessary directions for the selection
of these, with a few brief hints respecting the line of conduct
to be observed towards them. 1 Tim. 5:1, 17, 19, 22.

(2.) That the _institution of widows_ (1 Tim. 5:9-16) belongs to
a later age. Respecting the exact position of those who were
enrolled in the class of widows there have been different
opinions. One is that this class consisted of those who were to
receive relief from the funds of the church; another, that they
were matrons set apart for special service in the church,
performing for their own sex duties analogous to those which the
presbyters performed for the church generally. The latter
opinion is the more probable of the two, as it explains the
conditions insisted on by the apostle. But according to either
view there is no difficulty in admitting the existence in
apostolic times of such an arrangement.

38. In these pastoral epistles we have the affectionate counsels of the great apostle to the Gentiles, when he was now ripe in years and Christian experience and about to close his earthly ministry, addressed to two young men whom the Holy Ghost had made overseers of the churches. They are a rich storehouse of instruction for all to whom God has committed the ministry of reconciliation. Let them, as they hope at last to render up an account of their stewardship with joy and not with grief, prayerfully study and reduce to daily practice these precepts of heavenly wisdom given by the Holy Spirit through the pen of "Paul the aged."

39. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY.--The _time_ of this epistle lies, as we have seen, beyond the recorded history of the apostle, and before his second and final imprisonment at Rome, perhaps about A.D. 65 or 66. It was addressed to Timothy at Ephesus not long after the apostle had left that city to go into Macedonia (chap. 1:3), but whether from Macedonia or some other province of the Roman empire cannot be determined. The _occasion_ we learn from the epistle. Paul had left Timothy in charge of the Ephesian church, and, being apprehensive of a protracted absence, he sends him these written instructions relating partly to his own personal demeanor as a Christian minister, but chiefly to his office as the overseer of the Ephesian church. In the discharge of this office he is (1) to withstand and keep down the growing heresies of the day; (2) to superintend the government of the church in various particulars which the apostle specifies.

The _contents_ of the epistle though not arranged in systematic order, are in harmony with its occasion and design. Into the first chapter, which is of an introductory character, the apostle, in the free intercourse of confiding affection, inserts a personal notice of himself, which breathes the spirit of devout gratitude and deep humility. He then proceeds to give directions pertaining to the public worship of God--prayer, the costume of women, and their place in the public assembly (chap. 2); and to the choice of bishops and deacons (chap. 3). After a digression in the fourth chapter respecting the character of the coming apostacy foretold by the Spirit, which is followed by admonitions to Timothy of a personal character, he proceeds in the fifth chapter to give directions respecting the appointment and treatment of elders, of the elder and younger women, and especially of widows, with personal counsel to Timothy. Then follows an admonition to servants, a notice of the false teachers, a warning to the rich with further counsels to Timothy, and an animating glance at the second coming of our Lord.

Eunice, the mother of Timothy, was a Jewess distinguished for
her piety, as was also his grandmother Lois. Acts 16:1; 2 Tim.
1:5. By them he was carefully trained in the knowledge of the
holy Scriptures (2 Tim. 3:15), and had a good reputation among
the brethren when Paul found him at Derbe and Lystra (Acts 16:1,
2). His father being a Greek, he had never been subjected to the
rite of circumcision. But in consideration of his mixed descent
Paul, to allay the prejudices of his countrymen, "took and
circumcised him," while he would not allow this rite to be
imposed on Titus, who was of unmixed Gentile origin. Timothy was
one of the most trusty and beloved of Paul's fellow-laborers, as
we learn from these and his other epistles, and he naturally
desired the comfort and help of his presence in his final
imprisonment at Rome. 2 Tim. 4:9, 21. His health was feeble (1
Tim. 5:23), and there are in Paul's epistles some indications
that he was naturally timid and diffident (1 Cor. 16:10, 11; 2
Tim. 1:7, 8; 2:3). But grace made him faithful to the end.

40. THE EPISTLE TO TITUS which comes next in chronological order, has a remarkable agreement with the first to Timothy in both subject-matter and style. With the exception of what relates to widows and the demeanor of women in the public assemblies, it contains the same general precepts, with additional exhortations that young men be sober-minded, and that the Cretan Christians obey magistrates and be meek and gentle in their deportment. With these counsels the apostle interweaves, as in the first epistle to Timothy, exhortations to Titus of a personal character, and animating notices of God's grace in the gospel and of the second coming of our Lord.

Respecting the founding of the Cretan churches we have no
information in the Acts of the Apostles. The only time mentioned
by Luke when Paul touched at Crete was on his voyage to Rome as
a prisoner (Acts 27:8); and then he had neither time nor liberty
for the work of preaching the gospel in that island. Crete
contained many Jews, some of whom were present at Jerusalem on
the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11). The apostle's visit to Crete
referred to in this epistle we assume to have taken place
between his first and second imprisonment at Rome. Whether the
churches of the island were then founded for the first time or
had previously existed, it is certain that Paul left them in an
imperfect state of organization. For this reason he requested
Titus to remain, that he might set in order the things that were
wanting, and ordain elders in every city. Chap. 1:5.

It is remarkable that we have no notice of Titus in the Acts of
the Apostles. From the epistles of Paul we learn that he was his
companion in travel, and intrusted by him at different times
with missions to the churches. He accompanied Paul and Barnabas
to the so-called Council of the Apostles and Elders at
Jerusalem, where, being a Greek, he was exempted from the
necessity of circumcision. Gal. 2:1, 3. For other notices of him
see 2 Cor. 2:13; 7:6, 13, 14; 8:6, 16, 23; 12:18. His stay in
Crete was not to be permanent; for the apostle directs that upon
the arrival from him of Artemas or Tychicus he should rejoin him
at Nicopolis--probably Nicopolis in Epirus. Chap. 3:12.

41. SECOND EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY.--The first epistle to Timothy and that to Titus are in a certain sense official; that is, they are largely occupied with apostolic counsels and directions to these two men respecting the administration of the churches which Paul had committed to their care. The present epistle is of a more private and personal character. It was written from Rome when Paul was a prisoner there (chaps. 1:8, 16, 17; 2:9), and expecting soon to seal his testimony with his blood (chap. 4:6). In his extremity, when fidelity to him could be shown only at the hazard of life, many of his friends had forsaken him. Chaps. 1:15; 4:10. He needed the presence and help of Timothy, and wrote urging him to come speedily, and to bring certain articles which he had left at Troas. Feeling that his end was near, he improved the occasion to give Timothy his affectionate apostolic counsel and encouragement. Hence the present epistle differs strikingly in its preceptive part from the other two. They contain specific directions for ordaining officers and managing the affairs of the churches; for in them the apostle writes to men in charge of specific fields of labor. In the second epistle to Timothy, on the contrary, the apostle's exhortations are general, for he is summoning him away from his particular field to give attendance upon himself at Rome. But all three of the pastoral epistles agree remarkably, as well in their general style and diction as in their description of existing errors and false teachers. It is generally thought that Timothy was at Ephesus; and with this opinion agrees the salutation to "the household of Onesiphorus," who was at Ephesus. Chap. 4:19 compared with 1:18. The words of chap. 4:12, however, "Tychicus have I sent to Ephesus," do not favor this supposition. Hence some have thought that Timothy was not in that city, but only in its vicinity. The present is undoubtedly the last of Paul's epistles in the order of time. As such we cannot but peruse it with solemnity, as the closing testimony of one who has fought the good fight, finished the appointed course, and kept the faith; and who here instructs all, especially all preachers of the gospel, how they may do the same. "And thus we possess an epistle calculated for all ages of the church; and in which while the maxims cited and encouragements given apply to all Christians, and especially ministers of Christ, in their duties and difficulties--the affecting circumstances in which the writer himself is placed carry home to every heart his earnest and impassioned eloquence." Alford, Introduction to 2 Timothy.

VIII. EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS.

42. In regard to the _authorship_ of this epistle biblical scholars are not agreed. Each of the thirteen preceding epistles bears the name of Paul. But the present epistle is without either name or address, and it omits also at the beginning the apostolic salutation. Thus it commences in the form of an essay, though it closes in that of an epistle. These circumstances, in connection with its peculiar style and diction and the peculiar range of the topics discussed in it, have produced a diversity of opinion on the question whether Paul was its author, at least its author in the immediate sense in which he was the author of the preceding epistles. For the full discussion of the arguments on both sides the reader must be referred to the commentaries, some of which are accessible to all. Our limits will only permit us to indicate certain facts and principles which have a bearing on the authorship of the epistle and its canonical authority.

The unanimous belief of the _Eastern_ church, where we must suppose that it was first received and whence the knowledge of it was spread abroad, ascribed it to Paul as its author either immediately or virtually; for some, as Origen (in Eusebius' Hist. Eccl., 6. 14) accounted for its peculiar diction by the supposition that Paul furnished the thoughts, while they were reduced to form by the pen of some other person. Another opinion was that Paul wrote in Hebrew, and that our present canonical epistle is a translation into Greek (Eusebius' Hist. Eccl., 3. 38; Clement of Alexandria in Eusebius' Hist. Eccl., 6. 14). In the _Western_ church Clement of Rome did indeed refer to the epistle as authoritative, but without naming the author. Yet its Pauline authorship was not generally admitted, nor was it received as a part of the sacred canon till the fourth century, when here too the opinion of the Eastern church was adopted. The Muratorian canon, which represents the belief of the Western church before the fourth century, omits this epistle. The Syriac Peshito, on the other hand, inserts it in accordance with its uniform reception by the Eastern church. This uniformity of belief in the Eastern church must have had for its starting point the Hebrews to whom the epistle was sent; and it is a strong argument for the supposition that it did originally come to them under the sanction of Paul's name and authority; whether dictated to an amanuensis, as were most of his epistles, or written with his knowledge and approbation by some inspired man among his attendants and fellow-laborers who was thoroughly conversant with his views on the subjects treated of in the epistle. This is as far as we have any occasion to go, since we know that the gift of inspiration was not confined to the circle of the apostles.

As we cannot affirm that _all_ who were associated with the
apostles in the work of the ministry had the gifts needful for
the composition of writings that should be given to the churches
as the authoritative word of God, so neither can we deny to
_some_ the possession of these gifts, as is plain from the
examples of Mark and Luke. When men who stood in the second
grade of relation to Christ--_apostolic men_, as we may
conveniently call them--composed their works, it is not
necessary to assume that they wrote under a formal apostolic
supervision. The "discerning of spirits" is a gift which we must
concede to all of the apostles. If, then, an associate of one of
the apostles had such relations to him and wrote in such
circumstances that we cannot suppose it to have been done
without his knowledge and approbation formal or implied, we have
for his work all needful authority. What further connection the
apostle may have had with it in the way of suggestion or
supervision is a question which we may well leave undetermined.
In judging of this matter we consider first of all the testimony
of the early churches, since they enjoyed the best means of
ascertaining the origin of a writing; and then the character of
the writing itself. Proceeding in this way we come to the full
conviction of _the canonical authority_ of the epistle to the
Hebrews, whether we believe, with many, that Paul was its
immediate author, or, with Origen, that "the ancients not
without reason have handed it down as Paul's; but on the
question who wrote the epistle God only knows the truth."

43. That the apostle wrote for the instruction of Jewish Christians is manifest. The uniform tenor of the epistle indicates, moreover, that they were _Jewish Christians_ without any admixture of a Gentile element. The salutations at the end further imply that the epistle addresses not Hebrew Christians in general, but some particular community of them, which is most naturally to be sought in Palestine, perhaps in Jerusalem. As to the _time_ of the epistle, the manner in which it refers to the temple and its services makes it certain that the author wrote before the overthrow of Jerusalem, that is, before A.D. 70. The arguments adduced to show that Paul was its author, either immediately or virtually, carry it back beyond A.D. 67 or 68, when, according to ancient tradition, the apostle suffered martyrdom. It was probably written not many years before that event; but a more exact determination of the time is impossible. According to the most probable interpretation of chap. 13:24, the epistle was written from Italy. But that Timothy was not the bearer of it, as the subscription states, is plain from the preceding verse, in which he conditionally promises to come with Timothy at a future time.

The references in the epistle to the Levitical priesthood and
the temple services connected with it are in the _present_ or
perfect _tenses_--"is ordained," "is encompassed," "he ought,"
"taketh this honor," "have a commandment to take tithes"
"receive tithes" "_hath given attendance_ at the altar" (chap.
7:13), "_have become_" (chap. 7:21, 23), "maketh men high
priests," "who serve," "hath made the first old" (the references
in chap. 9:1-5 are to the ancient tabernacle), "_enter_ always
into the first tabernacle" (chap. 9:6), "which he _offers_"
(verse 7), "the Holy Ghost this signifying that the way into the
holiest places _has not yet been made manifest_, while the first
tabernacle _is as yet standing_" (verse 8), "gifts and
sacrifices _are offered_" (verse 9), "sanctifieth," "are by the
law purged," "can never," "standeth." It is to be regretted that
our version has not in all cases observed this distinction of
tenses.

44. The _central theme_ of this book is the superiority of the Christian over the Mosaic dispensation considered on the side of its divine Mediator and High-priest. In unfolding this great theme the writer dwells on the glory and dignity of Christ's person in contrast with the ancient prophets, with the angels, and with Moses, all of whom were connected with the first economy. He then proceeds to exhibit the divine efficacy of Christ's priesthood. This is the substance, of which the Levitical priesthood, with its altar, its offerings and all the temple-services connected with it, was only the shadow. In no book of the New Testament is our Lord's priestly office set forth with such fullness and rich variety of illustrations, always with reference to its divinely appointed type, the Levitical priesthood. This was especially needful to fortify the Hebrew Christians, who had been educated and lived under the constant impression of the splendid Mosaic ritual with its magnificent temple, against the danger of being turned from the simplicity of the gospel to reliance on the "carnal ordinances" of Judaism, which would have been virtual apostacy from Christ. This magnificent epistle constitutes in some sense a solemn requiem to the old temple service with its altar and priesthood, where the blood of bulls and goats that can never take away sin had flowed for so many centuries. This service had accomplished its end in prefiguring Christ the true "Lamb of God which taketh away the sin of the world," and it was destined soon to pass away forever "with tumult, with shouting, with the sound of the trumpet"--to pass away forever, that men might give their undivided faith to Christ, our great High-priest, who ministers for us in the heavenly tabernacle, presenting there before his Father's throne his own blood shed on Calvary to make propitiation for the sins of the world.

To the argumentative part of this epistle are appended exhortations (partly, indeed, anticipated in the preceding part) to constancy in the Christian profession, drawn from the awful doom that awaits apostates, from the examples of faith furnished by ancient worthies, and especially from the example of Christ himself and the glorious fellowship to which his gospel introduces us. To these are added some admonitions of a more special character. Thus the present epistle performs an office in the general system of revelation which is supplied by no other book of the Old or New Testament. To the book of Leviticus it may be said to hold the relation of substance to shadow, and it is its divinely appointed expositor.