Chapter X: Introduction: By L. H. Bailey (3)

It requires only a short time for the eggs to hatch. In warm weather two to four days are usually sufficient, but in the cool days of April it may require ten days. As the changes are so very rapid, the eggs ought to be carefully looked at two or three times a day to make sure that all the principal changes are seen. If a pocket lens or a reading glass is to be had it will add to the interest, as more of the details can be observed. But good sharp eyes are sufficient if no lens is available.

_Hatching._--Watch and see how long it is before the developing embryos commence to move. Note their change in form. As they elongate they move more vigorously till on the second or third day they wriggle out of the jelly surrounding them. This is hatching, and they are now free in the water and can swim about. It is curious to see them hang themselves up on the old egg string or on the edge of the dish (Fig. 112). They do this by means of a peculiar v-shaped organ on their heads.

How different the little creatures are, which have just hatched, from the grown up toad which laid the eggs! The difference is about as great as that between a caterpillar and a butterfly.

_Tadpoles, polliwogs._--We call the young of the frog, the toad and the tree toad, tadpoles or polliwogs. The toad tadpoles are black. As they increase in size they may become greyish. Those raised in the house are usually darker than those growing in nature.

The tadpoles will live for some time in clear water with apparently nothing to eat. This is because in each egg is some food, just as there is a large supply of food within the egg shell to give the chicken a good start in life. But when the food that the mother supplied in the egg is used up, the little tadpoles would die if they could not find some food for themselves. They must grow a great deal before they can turn into toads; and just like children and other young animals, to grow they must have plenty of food.

_Feeding the tadpoles._--To feed the tadpoles it is necessary to imitate nature as closely as possible. To do this, a visit to the pond where the eggs were found will give the clue. Many plants are present, and the bottom will be seen to slope gradually from the shore. The food of the tadpole is the minute plant life on the stones, the surface of the mud, or on the outside of the larger plants.

One must not attempt to raise too many tadpoles in the artificial pond in the laboratory or school-room or there will not be enough food, and all will be half starved, or some will get the food and the rest will starve to death. While there may be thousands of tadpoles in the natural pond, it will be readily seen that, compared with the amount of water present, there are really rather few.

Probably many more were hatched in the school-house than can be raised in the artificial pond. Return the ones not put in the artificial pond to the natural pond. It would be too bad to throw them out on the ground to die.

_Comparing the growth of the tadpoles._--Even when one does his best it is hard to make an artificial pond so good as the natural one for the tadpoles, and the teacher will find it very interesting and stimulating to compare the growth and change in the tadpoles at the school-house with those in the natural pond.

As growth depends on the supply of food and the suitability of the environment, it is easy to judge how nearly the artificial pond equals the natural pond for raising tadpoles. It will be worth while to take a tadpole from the natural pond occasionally and put it in with those at the school-house, so that the differences may be more strikingly shown. There is some danger in making a mistake here, however, for there may be three or four kinds of tadpoles in the natural pond. Those of the toad are almost jet black when young, while the others are more or less brownish. If one selects only the very black ones they will probably be toad tadpoles.

Every week or oftener, some water plants, and perhaps a small stone covered with the growth of microscopic plants, and some water, should be taken from the pond to the artificial pond. The water will supply the place of that which has evaporated, and the water plants will carry a new supply of food. If the water in the artificial pond in the school-room does not remain clear, it should be carefully dipped out and fresh clear water added. It is better to get the water from the pond where the eggs were laid, although any clear water will answer; but do not use distilled water.

The growth and changes in form should be looked for every day. Then it is very interesting to see what the tadpoles do, how they eat, and any signs of breathing.

All the changes from an egg to a little toad (Fig. 111), are passed through in one or two months, so that by the first of June the tadpoles will be found to have made great progress. The progress will be not only in size, but in form and action.

One of these actions should be watched with especial care, for it means a great deal. At first the little tadpoles remain under water all the time, and do not seem to know or care that there is a great world above the water. But as they grow larger and larger, they rush up to the surface once in awhile and then dive down again, as if their lives depended on it. The older they grow the oftener do they come to the surface. This is even more marked in the large tadpole of the bullfrog. What is the meaning of this? Probably most of the pupils can guess correctly; but it took scientific men a long time to find out just why this was done. The real reason is that the tadpole is getting ready to breathe the free air above the water when it turns into a toad and lives on the land. At first the little tadpoles breathe the air dissolved in the water, just as a fish does. This makes it plain why an artificial pond should have a broad surface exposed to the air. If one should use a narrow and deep vessel, like a fruit jar, only a small amount of air could be taken up by the water and the tadpoles would be half suffocated.

As the tadpoles grow older they go oftener to the surface to get the air directly from the limitless supply above the water, as they will have to do when they live wholly in the air.

_Disappearance of the tail._--From the first to the middle of June the tadpoles should be watched with especial care, for wonderful things are happening. Both the fore and hind legs will appear, if they have not already. The head will change in form and so will the body; the color will become much lighter, and, but for the tail, the tadpole will begin to look something like its mother.

If you keep an especially sharp lookout, do you think you will see the tail drop off? No, toad nature is too economical for that. The tail will not drop off, but it will be seen to get shorter and shorter every day; it is not dropping off, but is being carried into the tadpole. The tail is perfect at every stage; it simply disappears. How does this happen? This is another thing that it took scientific men a long time to find out.

It is now known that there are two great methods for removing parts of the body no longer needed. In the first method the living particles in the body which are able to wander all around, as if they were inspectors to see that everything is in order, may go to the part to be removed and take it up piece by piece. These living particles are known as white blood corpuscles, wandering cells, phagocytes, leucocytes and several other names. In the other method, the blood and the lymph going to the part to be removed dissolve it particle by particle. Apparently the toad tadpole's tail is dissolved by the blood and lymph rather than being eaten up by the phagocytes, although the phagocytes do a part of the work.

_HVLA--Natural size. Change in 24 hours; 28 mm. of tail absorbed in 24 hours; 1-1/6 mm. per hour. Common toad shortens the tail about 1/5 mm. per hour._]

Now, when the tadpole is ready to dispense with its tail, the blood and lymph and the phagocytes take it up particle by particle and carry it back into the body where it can be used just as any other good food would be. This taking in of the tail is done so carefully that the skin epithelium or epidermis is never broken, but covers up the outside perfectly all the time. Is not this a better way to get rid of a tail than to cut it off?

If you look at the picture of the disappearance of the tail in the toad tadpole (Fig. 115) and in the tree-toad tadpole (Fig. 114), you will get an idea how rapidly this takes place. It is easier to see the actual shortening if the tadpoles are put in a white dish of clear water without any water plants. The tadpoles do not eat anything while they are changing to toads, so they will not need to be fed.

_Beginning of the life on the land._--Now, when the legs are grown out, and the tail is getting shorter, the little tadpole likes to put its nose out of the water into the air; and sometimes it crawls half way out. When the tail gets quite short, often a mere stub, it will crawl out entirely and stay for some time in the air. It now looks really like a toad except that it is nearly smooth instead of being warty, and is only about as large as the end of a child's little finger (Fig. 115).

Finally, the time comes when the tadpole, now transformed into a toad, must leave the water for the land.

What queer feelings the little toad must have when the soft, smooth bottom of the pond and the pretty plants, and the water that supported it so nicely are all to be left behind for the hard, rough, dry land! But the little toad must take the step. It is no longer a tadpole, or half tadpole and half toad. It cannot again dive into the cool, soft water when the air and the sunshine dry and scorch it. As countless generations of little toads have done before, it pushes boldly out over the land and away from the water.

If one visits the natural pond at about this season (last half of June, first of July), he is likely to see many of the little fellows hopping away from the water. And so vigorously do they hop along that in a few days they may be as far as a mile from the pond where they were hatched. After a warm shower they are particularly active, and are then most commonly seen. Many think they rained down. "They were not seen before the rain, so they must have rained down." Is that good reasoning?

The little toad is careful and during the hot and sunny part of the day stays in the shade of the grass or leaves or in some other moist and shady place. If it staid out in the sun too long it would be liable to dry up.

_1-18. Changes and growth, April to November. 1-13. Development in 25 to 60 days._

_15-18. Different sizes, October 21, 1903. 9, 14. Different sizes, July 30, 1903._

_10, 11. The same tadpole,--11, 47 hours older than 10._

_12, 13. The same tadpole,--13, 47 hours older than 12._]

FOOD ON THE LAND.

In the water the tadpole eats vegetable matter; but when it becomes a toad and gets on the land it will touch nothing but animal food, and that must be so fresh that it is alive and moving. This food consists of every creeping, crawling or flying thing that is small enough to be swallowed. While it will not touch a piece of fresh meat lying on the ground, woe to moving snail, insect or worm that comes within its reach!

It is by the destruction of insects and worms that the toad helps men so greatly. The insects and worms eat the grain, the fruits and the flowers. They bite and sting the animals and give men no end of trouble. The toad is not partial, but takes any live thing that gets near it, whether it is caterpillar, fly, spider, centipede or thousand-legged worm; and it does not stop even there, but will gobble up a hornet or a yellow jacket without the least hesitation.

It is astonishing to see the certainty with which a toad can catch these flying or crawling things. The way the toad does this may be observed by watching one out of doors some summer evening or after a shower; but it is more satisfactory to have a nearer view. Put a large toad into a box, or better, into a glass dish with some moist sand on the bottom. In a little while, if one is gentle, the toad will become tame, and then if flies and other insects are caught with a sweep net and put into the dish and the top covered with mosquito netting one can watch the process of capture. It is very quickly accomplished, and one must look sharply. As shown in the little picture (Fig. 116), the toad's tongue is fastened at the front part of its mouth, not back in the throat as with men, dogs, cats and most animals. It is so nicely arranged that it can be extended for quite a distance. On it is a sticky secretion, and when, quick as a flash, the tongue is thrown out or extended, if it touches the insect, the insect is caught as if by sticky fly paper, and is taken into the mouth.

Think how many insects and worms a toad could destroy in a single summer. Practically every insect and worm destroyed adds to the produce of the garden and the farm, or takes away one cause of discomfort to men and animals. One observer reports that a single toad disposed of twenty-four caterpillars in ten minutes, and another ate thirty-five celery worms within three hours. He estimates that a good-sized toad will destroy nearly 10,000 insects and worms in a single summer.

ENEMIES--THE SHADOW SIDE OF LIFE.

So far nothing has been said about the troubles and dangers of the toad's life. Fig. 111 is meant to show the main phases in the life-history. If one looks at it perhaps he may wonder what becomes of all the tadpoles that first hatch, as only two toads are shown at the top. Is not this something like the other life-histories? How many little robins or chickens die and never become full-grown birds! Well, the dangers to the toad begin at once. Suppose the eggs are laid in a pond that dries up before the little toads can get ready to live on the land; in that case they all die. The mother toads sometimes do make the mistake of laying the eggs in ponds that dry up in a little while. You will not let the artificial pond at the school-house dry up, will you? Then sometimes there is an especially dry summer, and only those that transform very early from tadpoles to toads are saved.

In the little picture (Fig. 118) is shown another source of danger and cause for the diminution in numbers. The newts and salamanders find young tadpoles very good eating and they make way with hundreds of them. Some die from what are called natural causes, that is, diseases, or possibly they eat something that does not agree with them. So that while there were multitudes of eggs (1,000 or more from each toad), and of just hatched tadpoles, the number has become sadly lessened by the time the brood is ready to leave the water.

Then when they set foot on land, their dangers are not passed. They may be parched by summer's heat or crushed under the feet of men or cattle. Birds and snakes like them for food. Figs. 119 and 120 show some of these dangers. Is it a wonder, then, that of all the multitudes of tadpoles so few grow up to be large toads?

We have so few helpers to keep the noxious insects in check, it is not believed that any boy or girl who knows this wonderful story of a toad's life will join the crows, the snakes and the salamanders in worrying or destroying their good friends.

MOULTING AND HIBERNATION.

There are two very interesting things that happen in the life of many of the lower animals; they happen to the toad also. These are moulting, or change of skin, and hibernation, or winter sleep. Every boy and girl ought to know about these, and then, if on the lookout, some or all of the things will be seen.

_Moulting._--Probably everybody who lives in the country has seen a snake's skin without any snake in it. It is often very perfect. When the outside skin or cuticle of a snake or a toad gets old and dry or too tight for it, a new covering grows underneath, and the old one is shed. This is a very interesting performance, but the toad usually sheds it in a retired place, so the process is not often seen. Those who have seen it say that a long crack or tear appears along the back and in front. The toad keeps moving and wriggling to loosen the old cuticle. This peels the cuticle off the sides. Now, to get it off the legs and feet, the toad puts its leg under its arm, or front leg, and in that way pulls off the old skin as if it were a stocking. But when the front legs are to be stripped the mouth is used as is sometimes done by people in pulling off their gloves. Do you think it uses its teeth for this purpose? You might look in a toad's mouth sometime, and then you would know.

It is said that when the skin is finally pulled off the toad swallows it. This is true in some cases; at least it is worth while keeping watch for. It is certain that the toad sometimes swallows the cast skin; it is also certain that in some cases the cast skin is not swallowed. After a toad has shed his old skin, he looks a great deal brighter and cleaner than before, as if he had just got a new suit of clothes. If you see one with a particularly bright skin, you will now know what it means.

_Hibernation._--The toad is a cold-blooded animal. This means that the temperature of its blood is nearly like that of the surrounding air. Men, horses, cows, dogs, are said to be warm-blooded, for their blood is warm and of about the some temperature whether the surrounding air is cold or hot.

When the air is too cool, the toad becomes stupid and inactive. In September or October a few toads may be seen on warm days or evenings, but the number seen becomes smaller and smaller; and finally, as the cold November weather comes on, none are seen. Where are they? The toad seems to know that winter is coming, that the insects and worms will disappear, so that no food can be found. It must go into a kind of death-like sleep, in which it hardly moves or breathes. This winter sleep or hibernation must be passed in some safe and protected place. If the toad were to freeze and thaw with every change in the weather it would not wake up in the spring.

The wonderful foresight which instinct gives it, makes the toad select some comparatively soft earth in a protected place where it can bury itself. The earth chosen is moist, but not wet. If it were dry the toad would dry up before spring. It is not uncommon for farmers and gardeners to plough them up late in the fall or early in the spring. Also in digging cellars at about these times they are found occasionally.

In burying itself the toad digs with its hind legs and body, and pushes itself backward into the hole with the front legs. The earth caves in as the animal backs into the ground, so that no sign is left on the outside. Once in far enough to escape the freezing and thawing of winter, the toad moves around till there is a little chamber slightly larger than its body; then it draws its legs up close, shuts its eyes, puts its head down between or on its hands, and goes to sleep and sleeps for five months or more.

When the warm days of spring come it wakes up, crawls out of bed and begins to take interest in life again. It looks around for insects and worms, and acts as if it had had only a comfortable nap.

The little toad that you saw hatch from an egg into a tadpole and then turn to a toad, would hibernate for two or three winters, and by that time it would be quite a large toad. After it had grown up and had awakened from its winter sleep some spring, it would have a strong impulse to get back to the pond where it began life as an egg years before. Once there it would lay a great number of eggs, perhaps as many as a thousand or two, for a new generation of toads. And this would complete its life cycle.

While the toad completes its life cycle when it returns to the water and lays eggs for a new generation, it may live many years afterward and lay eggs many times, perhaps every year.

Many insects, some fish and other animals, die after laying their eggs. For such animals the completion of the life cycle ends the life-history also. But unless the toad meets with some accident it goes back to its land home after laying the eggs, and may live in the same garden or dooryard for many years, as many as eight years, and perhaps longer. (See Bulletin No. 46, Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.)

ERRONEOUS NOTIONS ABOUT THE TOAD.

If one reads in old books and listens to the fairy tales and other stories common everywhere, he will hear many wonderful things about the toad, but most of the things are wholly untrue.

One of the erroneous notions is that the toad is deadly poison. Another is that it is possessed of marvelous healing virtues, and still another, that hidden away in the heads of some of the oldest ones are the priceless toad-stones, jewels of inestimable value.

_Giving warts._--Probably every boy and girl living in the country has heard that if one takes a toad in his hands, or if a toad touches him anywhere he will "catch the warts." This is not so at all, as has been proved over and over again. If a toad is handled gently and petted a little it soon learns not to be afraid, and seems to enjoy the kindness and attention. If a toad is hurt or roughly handled a whitish, acrid substance is poured out of the largest warts. This might smart a little if it got into the mouth, as dogs find out when they try biting a toad. It cannot be very bad, however, or the hawks, owls, crows and snakes that eat the toad would give up the practice. The toad is really one of the most harmless creatures in the world, and has never been known to hurt a man or a child.

A boy might possibly have some warts on his hands after handling a toad; so might he after handling a jack-knife or looking at a steam engine; but the toad does not give the warts any more than the knife or the engine.

_Cows giving bloody milk._--It is a common belief in the country that if one kills a toad his cows will give bloody milk. Cows will give bloody milk if the udder is injured in any way, whether a toad is killed or not. There is no connection whatever between the bloody milk and a killed toad.

_Living without air and food._--Occasionally one reads or hears a story about a toad found in a cavity in a solid rock. When the rock is broken open it is said that the toad wakes up and hops around as if it had been asleep only half an hour. Just think for a moment what it would mean to find a live toad within a cavity in a solid rock. It must have been there for thousands, if not for millions of years, without food or air. The toad does not like a long fast, but can stand it for a year or so without food if it is in a moist place and supplied with air. It regularly sleeps four or five months every winter, but never in a place devoid of air. If the air were cut off the toad would soon die. Some careful experiments were made by French scientific men, and the stories told about toads living indefinitely without air or food were utterly disproved.

It is not difficult to see that one working in a quarry might honestly think that he had found a toad in a rock. Toads are not very uncommon in quarries. If a stone were broken open and a cavity found in it, and then a toad were seen hopping away, one might jump at the conclusion that the toad came out of the cavity in the rock. Is not this something like the belief that the little toads rain down from the clouds because they are most commonly seen after a shower?

SURVEYS AND MAPS.

In considering the suggestions made in this leaflet, we thought of the hundreds of schools throughout the state and wondered whether there might not be some difficulty in finding the ponds where the toads lay their eggs, and in finding some of the things described in the other leaflets.

The teachers and students in Cornell University found this difficulty in 1868 when the University opened. The great Louis Agassiz came to the University at the beginning to give a course of lectures on natural history. The inspiration of his presence and advice, and of those lectures, lasts to this day.

Agassiz, and the University teachers, who had many of them been his pupils, saw at once that the region around Ithaca must be full of interesting things; but they did not know exactly where to find them. Agassiz himself made some explorations, and the professors and students took hold of the work with the greatest enthusiasm. They explored the beautiful lake, the streams, hills, valleys, gorges, ponds and marshes. Careful notes were kept of the exact locality where every interesting thing was found and simple maps were made to aid in finding the places again. Finally, after several years, knowledge enough was gained to construct an accurate map for the use of all. A part of this map, showing only the most important features, is put into this leaflet to serve as a guide (Fig. 123).

It will be seen that the University is made the starting point. With a few hints it is believed that every school can make a good beginning this year on a natural history survey of the region near its school-house, and in the preparation of a map to go with the survey.

_U. Cornell University._

_U. L. University Lake in Fall Creek._

_R. Reservoir supplied from University Lake, and supplying the campus._

_E. P. East Pond where the eggs of the toad, tree toad, frogs and salamanders are found._

_F. P. Forest Home Pond. A very favorable place for eggs, tadpoles, etc._

_Inlet. The inlet of the lake. The lampreys are abundant near Fleming's meadow._]

_Preparation of the map._--It is well to have the map of good size. A half sheet of bristol board will answer, but a whole sheet is better. About the first thing to decide is the scale to which the map is to be drawn. It is better to have the scale large. Twelve inches to the mile would be convenient. Divide the map into squares, making the lines quite heavy. If so large a scale were used it would be advantageous for locating places to have the large squares divided into square inches, but much lighter lines should be used so that there will be no confusion with the lines representing the miles.

_Locating objects on the map._--The corner of the school-house containing the corner stone should be taken as the starting point. If there is no corner stone, select the most convenient corner. Put the school-house on the map anywhere you wish; probably the center of the map would be the best place. In the sample map the University is not in the center, as it was desired to show more of the country to the south and west than to the north and east.

The map should of course be made like other maps, so it will be necessary to know the four cardinal points of the compass before locating anything on it. Perhaps the school-house has been placed facing exactly north and south or east and west, that is, arranged with the cardinal points of the compass; if so, it will be the best guide. If you are not sure, determine with a compass. With it the points can be determined very accurately. Having determined the points of compass, commence to locate objects in the landscape on the map as follows: Get their direction from the starting point at the corner of the school-house, then measure the distance accurately by running a bicycle on which is a cyclometer, straight between the starting point and the object. The cyclometer will record the distance accurately and it can be read off easily. If no bicycle with a cyclometer is available, one can use a long measuring stick, a tape measure or even a measured string; but the bicycle and cyclometer are more convenient and accurate, especially when the distances are considerable.

Suppose the distance is found to be one-sixth of a mile due west. It should be located two inches west of the corner taken as the starting point. If the direction were south-west, then the two inches would be measured on the map in that direction and located accordingly. Proceed in this way for locating any pond or marsh, forest or glen. Now, when the places are located on the map, you can see how easy it would be for any one to find the places themselves. While the exact position should be determined if possible and located, one does not often take a bee-line in visiting them, but goes in roads, often a long distance around. In locating the objects on the map, every effort should be made to get them accurately placed, and this can be done most easily by knowing the distances in a straight line.

It is hoped that every school in the state will begin this year making a natural history survey and a map of the region around its school-house. The map will show but few locations, perhaps, but it can be added to from year to year, just as the University map has been added to; and finally each school will have a map and notes showing exactly where the toads lay their eggs, where fish and birds are; and where the newts and salamanders, the different trees and flowers, rocks and fossils may be found.

If the dates are kept accurately for the different years, one can also see how much variation there is. Indeed, such nature-study will give a sure foundation for appreciating and comprehending the larger questions in natural science, and it will make an almost perfect preparation for taking part in or for appreciating the great surveys of a state or a country. It is believed that if accurate information were collected and careful maps made by the different schools, the Empire State could soon have a natural history survey and map better than any now in existence in any state or country.

_To the Teacher:_

_It is the firm belief of those who advocate nature-study that it is not only valuable in itself, but that it will help to give enjoyment in other studies and meaning to them. Every pupil who follows out the work of this leaflet will see the need of a map of the region around the school-house. This will help in the appreciation of map work generally._

_So many of the beautiful and inspiring things in literature are concerning some phase of nature, that nature-study must increase the appreciation of the literature; and the noble thoughts in the literature will help the pupils to look for and appreciate the finer things in nature._

_It is suggested that as many of the following selections as possible be read in connection with the leaflet:_

_"The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz," by Longfellow._

_The "Prayer of Agassiz," by Whittier. Professor Wilder, who was present, assures the author that this describes an actual occurrence._

_This "Silent Prayer" is also mentioned in an inspiring paragraph by Henry Ward Beecher in the Christian Union, 1873._

_The first part of Bryant's "Thanatopsis," Coleridge's "Ancient_ _Mariner," Burns' "On Scaring Some Water Fowl in Loch-Turit," and "To a Mouse."_

_Cowpers "The Task," a selection from book vi., beginning with line 560. This gives a very just view of the rights of the lower animals._

_In connection with the disappearance of the tail, read Lowell's "Festina Lente," in the Biglow Papers. For older pupils, Shakespeare's picture of the seven ages in the human life cycle might be read. "As You Like It," Act II, Scene II, near the end, commencing, "All the world's a stage," etc._

_Kipling's Jungle Books, and the works of Ernest Thompson-Seton and William J. Long will help one to see how the world might look from the standpoint of the animals._

_One of the most satisfactory books to use in connection with nature-study is Animal Life, by President David Starr Jordan and Professor Kellogg. This gives the facts that every teacher ought to know in connection with the processes of reproduction._

_Attention is also called to A. H. Kirkland's Bulletin No. 46 of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and to the Nature-Study Leaflet on the Toad, by Dr. C. F. Hodge, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass._

LEAFLET XVII.

LIFE IN A TERRARIUM.[22]

BY ALICE I. KENT.

And Nature, the old nurse, took
The child upon her knee,
Saying: "Here is a story-book
Thy Father has written for thee."

--_Longfellow to Agassiz._

[22] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 8: Leaflet 21, January, 1901.

Fortunate are the children and the teachers who are so placed that Nature's story book is close at hand. But city children and their teachers need not despair, for Nature, the old nurse, is loving and bountiful and will rewrite, in living characters, many a page from the wondrous book, for those who care to read. One such a page may be a terrarium--a confined plot of earth on which things may live and grow (from _terra_, "earth," as aquarium is from _aqua_, "water"). Within its narrow confines, the whole drama of the beautiful life of many a tiny creature may be rewritten.

Here is a fragment of the drama, as written in one terrarium.

This terrarium was made from an old berry crate (Figs. 125, 126). When the children saw it first, last fall, this is what it looked like: a large rectangular box, grass-green in color, thirty-nine inches long, eighteen inches wide, and fifteen inches high. The long sides were of glass, the short sides and top of green wire netting. The top could be removed like the lid of a box. It stood upon a pedestal-table provided with castors. In the bottom of the terrarium were three inches of rich soil, covered with the delicate green of sprouting grass-seed. In one corner was a mossy nook, and in another a mass of thistles and clover. At one end, a small cabbage was planted and at the other lay several sprays of glossy pin-oak. Suspended from the top, was a large spray of purple thistles.

Among the thistles in the corner, ten pendants of vivid green, bright with golden points, could be seen. They were the chrysalids of the monarch, or milkweed, butterfly. Among the cabbage leaves, were many of the pale green eggs and several of the caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly. Among the sprays of oak in the corner, several oak caterpillars were feeding.

Before many days had passed, the drama of life began. One by one, the chrysalids of the milkweed butterfly paled in color and, becoming transparent, showed through their whitened walls the orange-colored wings of the developing butterflies within. They then burst, freeing their gorgeous tenants. This happened until there were seven butterflies in the terrarium. As two of these proved discontented with their new home, they were set free. The five others spent the little round of their aërial life seemingly happy and satisfied. They lived from three to six weeks and showed some individuality in their tastes and habits. Sometimes they chose the mossy corner for their resting place. On other occasions they preferred the netting at the ends and top of the terrarium. In fact, the netting at the ends of the terrarium was a source of pleasure to these butterflies, as it served as a secure resting place and an agreeable and convenient pathway to the top. One of them spent nearly all its life on the thistles suspended from the top. These thistles were kept fresh a long time by placing their stems in a large sponge which was frequently drenched with water.

The butterflies showed some individuality in their eating also. Thistle, clover, golden-rod, nasturtiums, and honey-suckle were offered to them. The thistle and the golden-rod were most frequently visited, and next to these the nasturtiums were most favored. Another fact noted was that most of the butterflies continued to visit the flower first chosen. When, however, a thick syrup of sugar and water was offered to them, the flowers were much neglected, only one butterfly persisting in flower-visiting. Golden-rod was its choice. If the syrup was fresh-made every morning and was placed in a convenient spot, the butterflies never failed to sip it. They generally slept clinging to the wire-netting at the ends or top of the terrarium.

In the meantime, the cabbage began to attract the watchful eyes of the wondering children. As it had industriously sent out many tiny roots, it proved a safe and satisfactory home for its hidden occupants. Soon, one by one, the caterpillars began to appear at the edges of the uppermost leaves. They began small tours in the vicinage of the cabbage, and, finally, as with the butterflies, the end wire nettings proved to be an easy pathway to the top of the terrarium. Here several found good resting places, and slowly changed to chrysalids.

One day a cabbage butterfly obligingly flew in at the open window. It was caught and placed in the terrarium. It, too, proved to be very fond of sugar syrup. One morning the syrup was accidentally spilled on the wooden ridge at the bottom of the terrarium outside of the netting. The butterfly was so hungry that it could not wait for food more conveniently placed; so it stretched its tongue out, full length, through the netting, and in that way obtained it. The children were surprised to find its tongue somewhat longer than its body.

At this time, the cabbage was removed so that the eggs and the remaining young caterpillars could be observed. The protecting coloring of the eggs and caterpillars was first noticed. One little boy at first announced that the caterpillars were green because they were not ripe, a good example surely of the danger of reasoning from analogy!

Very soon the inhabitants of this terrarium world began to increase. A father and two mother grasshoppers and a young one, with his "armor on," came to live there; also a "woolly bear," several other species of caterpillars, several species of beetles, a big horse-fly, some lady-bugs, and a cicada. About this time too, some very unwelcome immigrants appeared. These were the ichneumon flies. So numerous did they become in a very short time, that they threatened desolation to this prosperous community. Nature's methods were then scrutinized and the services of two tree-toads were sought. Their response was immediate and cordial. Soon not an ichneumon fly could be found.

The grasshoppers were partial to celery, over-ripe bananas, and moisture. Three days after they became inhabitants of this miniature world, the mother grasshopper dug a hole in the ground and laid eggs. The observing children then had before them living illustrations of the three stages of grasshopper life.

The tree-toads were both amusing and accommodating. They, too, liked the wire netting at the ends of the terrarium, and delighted the children by climbing up foot over foot, or hand over hand, like odd four-handed sailor boys (Fig. 127.) This brought into plain view the tiny suckers on their feet.

After the ichneumon flies had disappeared, a new difficulty arose. The ground became mouldy, and the grass died down. The terrarium was then placed by an open window and left there several hours for a number of days until it was thoroughly dried out. Then bird-seed was planted and the ground was watered thereafter with a small plant syringe. This gave sufficient, but not excessive moisture, and it was one of the pleasures of the children to imitate a rainy day in the terrarium world. And it was a pleasing experience, for there were splashes of water on the glass sides and many shining drops on the netting and verdure, which soon grew several inches tall; there was the same delightful odor of rich fresh earth that one enjoys during summer rains, and the sunshine touched with brilliancy the gay fall flowers and the gorgeous outspread wings of the butterflies.

At this time the terrarium had an annex in the shape of a wooden box, a foot square, with a gauze top. Here lived two mother spiders with their egg-balls carefully hung on the cobweb beams of their homes. One day a beautiful yellow silk egg-ball was found out of doors, and when it was carefully opened to show the eggs with which it was filled, the gratifying discovery was made that these eggs were hatching. They were very tiny and very numerous. They were inclosed in a silken pouch and were the exact color of its lining. When resting the little spiders seemed to hold their legs under the body, and they were so small and so like the egg in general appearance that if they had not run about when disturbed they would never have been discovered. As soon as the egg ball was opened they exploited their one talent, for they ran out on the fingers of the person who held the ball and then suspended themselves by almost invisible threads from all parts of the fingers. When they were to be returned to the egg-ball they were gently pushed up. They then obligingly ran back into their silken home, which was carefully closed as before. These little ones were kept a week or ten days and were then allowed to escape and establish homes for themselves. The life history of the spider was thus seen, although, unfortunately, our adult spiders did not belong to the same species as the young ones.

To return to the terrarium: It was now early in November and each day found one or more of the terrarium inhabitants missing. One of the caterpillars disappeared and a cocoon made of its own hair was found in its place; several chrysalids were found on the top of the terrarium; the butterflies and the grasshoppers, one by one, went into that sleep from which there is no awakening; and a number of the other creatures disappeared. The children finally concluded that the latter had gone to sleep in the ground. The grasshoppers and the tree-toads were the last to take their rest, but just before they answered Mother Nature's call to slumber, a large garden toad came to bear them company.

He was a very interesting toad for he bore signs of having lived through what must have been almost a tragedy. He had lost the lower half of one front leg and had the scar of a long gash on his throat. These disfigurements seemed not to cause him the least unhappiness, for he had a very bright wide-awake expression and was as plump and complacent as a toad should be. The loss of his leg caused him a little inconvenience, for he sometimes lost his balance when hopping and fell on his back. He occasionally found it difficult to right himself at once, but a few vigorous kicks and jumps generally placed him right side up. Three days after he became a member of the terrarium community, he, too, heard Mother Nature's call to bed, and partially buried himself. Each day he covered himself more completely, until finally only the top of his head and two sleepy eyes were to be seen. One day, about a week afterward, he disappeared entirely. He proved to be a very restless sleeper, and frequently showed himself during the sunniest parts of nearly every day all winter, occasionally coming entirely out of his earthy covering. He served as a sort of barometer all winter, appearing in bright and disappearing in gloomy weather. He never, however, left the spot he had chosen for his bed.

"Winter is the night of the year," and the little terrarium world indoors exemplifies it as truly as the great fields of Nature's domain out of doors. The soil is dry and hard in this miniature world and the verdure has dried down to palest green and brown. In its earthy bed, the caterpillars, beetles, and other creatures lie cosily asleep, and with the masses of tiny eggs, await the vivifying touch of spring.

LEAFLET XVIII.

DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.[23]

BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK.

[23] Teachers' Leaflet No. 7, June, 1897.

It is the purpose of this leaflet to give a few suggestions to aid those pupils of the secondary schools who desire to make collections of insects.

There are several good reasons why children should be encouraged to make collections of flowers, birds and insects; and the least of these reasons is the possession of such a collection on the part of the child. Making a collection of natural history specimens should only be the means to an end, _i. e._, training the child to observe. When eyes are opened to the wonders of nature, every roadside, brook and woodland is fraught with interest which is undreamed of by those who are nature-blind. It is sad to think of the hosts of people who go through this beautiful world having eyes but seeing not, having ears but hearing not. The eyes must be unsealed in youth, when the mind is alert and receptive if the man or woman is to find in later life that Nature is not only a resource and recreation but an ever faithful friend holding out comforting arms to those who are weary in soul and body.

Not only does the study of nature open the child's eyes, but it also teaches him the value of accuracy. The young naturalist soon understands that an observation is worth nothing unless it is truthful. On the other hand, nature-study cultivates the imagination. The wonders in the lives of insects, plants, and birds are so illimitable that almost anything _seems_ possible. Few indeed are the studies wherein the fire kindled by imaginative _seeming_ is guarded and checked by the facts of actual _seeing_.

There are a few points in favor of beginning with insects when the child first attempts making a collection of natural objects. Insects are to be found everywhere and are easily caught; it requires no technical skill to preserve them, as is the case with birds; they retain their natural forms and colors better than do flowers. To secure the desired results for the pupil when he is making his collection of insects, the teacher should take care that he makes his observations incidentally, thus subserving the true methods of nature-study, which is to teach the child while he remains unconscious of the fact that he is being taught. The teacher, therefore, should ask the young collector, "Where did you catch this butterfly?" "Where did you find this beetle?" "Upon what plant or flower did you find this bug?" "Did you hear this cricket chirp? If so, how did he do it?" etc., etc.; thus making him tell orally or in a written language lesson the things he has seen while collecting. The differences in the appearance and structure of the insects caught should also be brought out by questions. These questions may be adapted to pupils of any age, and the success of this part of the work must ever depend upon the interest and genius of the teacher.

The objection is sometimes raised that collecting and killing insects and birds incite the child to cruelty and wanton destruction of life. This seems good _a priori_ reasoning, but experience does not confirm it. We have always found that those who collect and take an interest in insect life are much more careful about killing or hurting insects than are other people; the entomologist of all men takes the greatest pains to avoid stepping upon the caterpillar or cricket in his path; also the young ornithologists who have come under our observation show the greatest devotion to the rights and interests of birds. Our experience is that as soon as the child begins to take an interest in insects he begins to see matters from their point of view, and this insures a proper regard for their right to life. It will be well, however, for the teacher to impress upon the pupil that he should kill no insect that is not desired for his collection.

The articles necessary for collecting insects are few and inexpensive. One net and one killing bottle may do service for a grade or an entire country school, thus reducing the expense to a minimum.

INSECT NET. FIG. 128.

_Materials required._

1. A handle about three feet long; an old broom handle will do.

2. A piece of tin three inches wide, long enough to reach around the handle.

3. A piece of No. 3 galvanized wire 3 feet 6 inches long.

4. One-sixth of a yard of heavy sheeting.

5. Three-quarters of a yard of cheese cloth.

Bend the wire into a ring about a foot in diameter and bend back about 3 inches of each end of the wire so they may be inserted into a hole drilled into the end of the handle. The piece of tin should be fastened around the end of the handle where the wire is inserted to hold it securely in place. If practicable, a tinsmith should be called upon to help in bending the wire and fastening it to the handle. After this is done, take the sheeting and fold it over the wire double, using only enough to fit around the wire without gathering; the object of this heavy cloth is to prevent the net from wearing out quickly. Make the cheese cloth into a bag with rounded bottom and just wide enough to fit the facing of sheeting, to which it should be sewed securely, and the net is finished.

HOW TO USE THE NET.

To be successful, the net must be swung swiftly. Insects have many eyes and are very wide awake and have no desire to be caught; therefore, the collector must be very active if he gets anything. One method of using the net is called "sweeping;" to do this take the handle about a foot and a half above the ring and pass the net quickly back and forth striking it against the grass in front of you as you walk through open fields; the net must be turned at each stroke and kept in rapid motion or the insects will escape. After a time the net should be examined and the insects put in the killing bottle.

Another method of using the net is called "beating." This method is used in collecting insects from bushes, and consists of lifting the net, mouth upward, and striking it sharply against the branches or leaves, thus jarring the insects into it.