Chapter XIV: Introduction: By L. H. Bailey (7)

A peculiar thing happened when the fruit was growing at 2. Two side buds started out, instead of one, and both of them grew the next year. But one of the little branchlets fell sick and died, or a bug nipped off its end, or it starved to death; and its memory is preserved by the little stick standing up at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and eventually bore apples at 4, 5, 6, and 7.

I have said that these fruit-spurs bear only every other year; then, if this branch has borne six apples consecutively, it must be twelve years old. The truth is that it is about twenty years old, for some years it failed to bear; but the age cannot be traced out in the picture, although any little boy or girl with bright eyes could soon learn to trace out yearly rings on the shoot itself.

IV.

The last shoot that I got that day has a whole volume of history in it, and I cannot begin to tell its story unless I should write a small book. But we will trace out its birthdays and see how many apples it has borne. It is shown in Fig. 219, and because it is so long I have had to break it into several pieces to get it on the page. It begins at A, and is continued at B, C, D, E, and F.

Let us count the yearly rings and see how old the whole limb is. These rings are at 28, 26, D, 12, 1,--five of them; and as the shoot grew one year before it made any ring, and another year made no increase in length--as we shall presently see--the whole branch must be seven years old. That is, the limb probably started in 1890.[43] Let us begin, then, at A, and follow it out.

[43] It is really impossible to tell whether the shoot started from the limb A in 1889 or 1890, without knowing the age of A; for the spur may have developed its blossom bud at the end in either the first or second year of its life. That is, young fruit-spurs sometimes make a blossom bud the very year they start, but they oftener "stand still" the second year and delay the blossom bud until that time.

1890. Started as a spur from the main branch, A, and grew to 1.

1891. Apple borne at 1. This apple did not mature, however, as we can readily see by the smallness of the scar. In this year, two side buds developed to continue the spur the next year.

1892. Ceased to be a fruit-spur, and made a strong growth on to 12. For some reason, it had a good chance to grow. Perhaps the farmer pruned the tree, and thereby gave the shoot an opportunity; or perhaps he plowed and fertilized the land.

In the meantime, one of the side buds grew to 3, and the other to 7, and each made a fruit-bud at its end.

1893. Shoot grew lustily,--on to D.

The fruit-bud at 3 bore an apple, which probably matured, as shown by the scar 2. Two side buds were formed beneath this apple, to continue the spur next year.

The fruit-bud at 7 bloomed, but the apple fell early, as shown by the small scar. Two side buds were formed.

The buds upon the main shoot--1 to 12--all remained dormant.

1894. Shoot grew from D to beyond E.

Side bud of 2 grew to 4, and made a fruit-bud on its end; the other side bud grew on to 5, and there made a fruit-bud.

Side bud of 7 grew on to 10, and the other one to 8, each ending in a fruit-bud.

Buds on old shoot--1 to 12--still remained dormant.

Some of the buds on the 1893 growth--12 to D,--remained dormant; but some of them made fruit-spurs,--14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23.

1895. Shoot grew from beyond E to 28.

Flowers were borne at 4 and 5; but at 4 the fruit fell early, for the five or six scars of the flowers can be seen, showing that no one of them developed more strongly than the other; that is, none of the flowers "set." A fairly good fruit was probably borne at 5. At the base of each, a bud started to continue the spur next year.

Upon the other spur, flowers were borne both at 8 and 10. At 10 none of the flowers set fruit, but a side bud developed. At 8 the fruit partially matured, and a side bud was also developed.

The buds upon the old stem from 1 to 12 still remained dormant.

Some of the spurs on the 1893 growth--12 to D--developed fruit-buds for bearing in 1896.

Some of the buds on the 1894 growth--D to beyond E--remained dormant, but others developed into small fruit-spurs. One of these buds, near the top of the 1894 growth, threw out a long shoot, starting from E; and the bud at 26 also endeavored to make a long branch, but failed.

1896. Main shoot grew from 28 to the end.

The side bud below 4 (where the fruit was borne the year before) barely lived, not elongating, as seen above 3. This branch of the spur is becoming weak and will never bear again. The side bud of 5, however, made a fairly good spur and developed a fruit-bud at its end, as seen at 6.

The side bud of 10 grew somewhat, making the very short spur 11. This branchlet is also getting weak. The bud of 8, however, developed a strong spur at 9. Both 11 and 9 bear fruit-buds, but that on 11 is probably too weak ever to bear fruit again. In fact, the entire spurs, from 1 to 6 and 1 to 9, are too weak to be of much account for fruit-bearing.

This year several of the spurs along the 1893 growth--12 to D--bore flowers. Flowers were borne from two buds on the first one (at 13 and 14), but none of the flowers "set." One of the little apples that died last June still clings to the spur at 14. A side bud (15) formed to continue the spur in 1897. Flowers were borne at 16, 20, 21, and 23, but no apples developed. Upon 16 and 20 the flowers died soon after they opened, as seen by the remains of them. Upon 23, one of the flowers set an apple, but the apple soon died. The spurs 17 and 18 are so weak that they have never made fruit-buds, and they are now nearly dead. The spurs 19 and 22 have behaved differently. Like the others, they grew in 1894 and would have made terminal fruit-buds in 1895, and would have borne fruit in 1896; but the terminal buds were broken off in the fall or winter of 1894, so that two side buds developed in 1895, and each of these developed a fruit-bud at its end in 1896 in the spur 19, but only one of them developed such a bud in 22. Upon these spurs, therefore, the bearing year has been changed.

Upon the growth of 1894--D to beyond E--only three spurs have developed, nos. 24, 25, 26. These started out in 1895, and two of them--25 and 26--have made large fat buds which are evidently fruit-buds. The shoot at E grew on to EE, and all the buds on its lower two-year-old portion remained dormant.

On the 1895 growth--from beyond E to 28--all the buds remained dormant save one, and this one--27--made only a very feeble attempt to grow into a spur.

The buds upon the 1892 growth--1 to 12--are still dormant and waiting for an opportunity to grow.

What an eventful history this apple twig has had! And yet in all the seven years of its life, after having made fifteen efforts to bear fruit, it has not produced a single good apple! The fault, therefore, does not lie in the shoot. It has done the best it could. The trouble has been that the farmer either did not give the tree enough food to enable it to support the fruit, or did not prune the tree so as to give the twig light and room, or allowed apple-scab or some other disease to kill the young apples as they were forming. I am wondering, therefore, whether, when trees fail to bear, it is not quite as often the fault of the farmer as it is of the trees?

LEAFLET XXXII.

THE BURST OF SPRING.[44]

BY L. H. BAILEY.

[44] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 4, Leaflet 17, March, 1900.

Spring is coming! The buds will burst and the birds will sing!

How do the buds burst? Watch them as the spring opens; or, if you are impatient, cut long twigs and place them in bottles of water in a living-room, and the buds will swell. First, notice what the winter buds are like,--that they are spherical, or oblong, or conical bodies lying close to the limb and tightly covered with scales. Notice that there is a mark or scar beneath the bud, showing where a leaf was borne.

It is excellent practice to collect winter twigs of different kinds of trees and bushes, and to compare the form and color of the shoots, and the size, shape, color, and make-up of the buds. Lay the twigs side by side on the table and notice how one differs from the other. What part of the twig grew last year? Notice the "ring" at the base of the last year's growth. After all the differences are noted, put the twigs in water, as you would a bouquet. Sometimes flowers and leaves will appear. If the twigs are two or three feet long, the buds are more likely to grow, for then there is sufficient supply of food in them. Change the water frequently, and cut off the lower ends of the twigs so that a fresh surface will be exposed to the water. It will be two to five weeks before the buds open, depending mostly on the kind of plant.

Mark one bud on a maple, or apple, or lilac, or other plant, by tying a string about the twig. Look at it carefully from day to day: observe how it opens, and what comes out of it.

The pupil should know that a winter twig has interest.

* * * * *

The bud may be peach or apricot. Soon the bud begins to swell at its top. The scales open. A white lining appears. This lining soon protrudes (Fig. 220). Soon the lining opens. We see that it is a flower. Or perhaps the peach bud sends out a green shoot rather than a flower. There must be two kinds of peach and apricot buds,--a flower-bud and a leaf-bud. Can you tell them apart? The flower-bud is thicker and rounder. Usually one stands on either side of a leaf-bud. But the leaf-bud may stand alone. Find one: any peach tree or apricot tree will have leaf-buds, but all may not have flower-buds. As the bud expands and the flower or leaf appears, notice that the bud-scales fall away. Do these scales leave scars? And do not these scars, standing together, make the "ring" which marks the beginning of the new growth?

* * * * *

Observe a pear bud. Notice that the scales elongate as the bud swells. You can see the white bases of the scales, marking the new growth (Fig. 221). If it is a leaf-bud the scales may become three-fourths of an inch long before they fall. But sooner or later, they are cast, and their places are marked by scars. If it is a flower-bud, notice that several flowers come out of it. In the apricot and peach, there is only one flower in each bud. Each of these little pear flowers is closed up like a bud and elevates itself on a stalk before it opens: and this stalk becomes the stem of the pear fruit. But this pear flower-bud contains leaves as well as flowers. Fig. 222 shows what comes out of a pear bud. This, then, is a mixed flower-bud,--it contains both leaves and flowers. The apricot and the peach bear true or simple flower-buds.

* * * * *

Watch apple buds. The scales do not elongate as in the pear, but the flower-buds are mixed. Fig. 223 shows the expanding cluster from an apple flower-bud. Four flowers will open; and there are six leaves. If the buds are made to open in the house on severed twigs, the leaves do not grow so large before the flowers expand, for the twig does not contain sufficient food. Fig. 224 is a photograph of an apple twig which I had in my window one winter's day.

* * * * *

Examine a hickory twig. The illustration (Fig. 225) shows the "ring" marking the beginning of the annual growth. See the large leaf-scars. Notice that the terminal bud is much the largest. It is the one which will grow. The other buds will remain dormant unless they are forced into growth by the death of the terminal bud or by other unusual circumstances. Notice that buds differ in size on shoots of all plants; consider that not all the buds are to grow: there is a struggle for existence. When the hickory bud expands, some of the scales fall away; but some of the inner parts enlarge into leaf-like bodies, as shown in Fig. 226. In some hickories these bodies become two or three inches long before they fall. Hickories open very late in the season. The Norway maple, commonly planted on lawns, behaves in a similar way. Observe the sugar maple.

* * * * *

A twig of the common elm is shown in Fig. 227. Notice the "ring." See the two kinds of buds. We suspect that the three larger ones are flower-buds. With the very first warm days--before the robin has built her nest--these three buds will burst; soon the red-brown tassels will hang on the leafless twigs. Each tassel is a flower. Several flowers come from each bud. We see them in Fig. 228; and the leaf-buds have elongated somewhat. Watch for the fruits or seeds that blow about the walks so early in spring; and note how the leaves come out.

* * * * *

With the first breath of spring, the "pussy willows" come. And what are the "pussies"? They are clusters of flowers. So snugly are the little flowers wrapped in wool, that the "pussies" are silken-soft as they begin to expand. Fig. 229 is a willow shoot. Find one when the buds first begin to burst. Notice the big brown-black scale that covers the bud as a shield and falls when the "pussy" first begins to appear.

* * * * *

And now what is a winter bud? It is a miniature shoot or flower, resting for the time, and snugly wrapped for the long winter. It was made last season. It is ready to leap into growth the moment the warm rain of spring wakens it. A good hand lens will show the embryo branch, if a section is made of the bud.

This bud is not only ready-formed but is ready-fed. The winter shoots contain starch. On a cut surface of a dormant twig, apply a drop of tincture of iodine; note the bluish color, which is indicative of starch. This starch is insoluble; but with the first awakening of life, it changes into sugar, which is soluble and is transferred to the growing part. The burst of spring is made possible by means of this stored food. Notice the azalea in the florist's window (Fig. 230). The large flower-buds were formed the year before, and it is a short operation to "force" them into bloom. The flowers come in advance of the leaves; therefore these leaves could not have made the food required for the bloom. The blooming of the apple twig (Fig. 224) in the winter shows that the food is in the twig and buds. Once I drew a branch of a tree into a room and fastened it there. It made leaves and began to grow while the tree to which it was attached was perfectly dormant (Fig. 231).

* * * * *

Not only are the buds ready-formed and ready-fed, but they are covered. Snugly is the tender, growing part protected. Pull away the scales of a winter bud one by one. Observe how closely they are placed. Often the chinks are filled with a packing of wool, or are sealed with varnish. Dip the bud in water: then see whether the water permeates the covering. The chief value of the bud covering is not to protect from freezing, as commonly supposed, but to prevent the soft growing parts from drying out.

The plants are waiting for spring. They are ready.

LEAFLET XXXIII.

EVERGREENS AND HOW THEY SHED THEIR LEAVES.[45]

BY H. P. GOULD.

[45] Teacher's Leaflet No. 13, February, 1899.

[Sidenote: _Note to the teacher._--This leaflet has two particular objects: to teach how evergreens shed their leaves, and to enable you to distinguish a few of the evergreens which are most commonly met. These studies (and those suggested in Leaflet No. XXIX) should be the means of adding much cheer to the winter. Encourage pupils to make collections of cones, to observe when they shed their seeds, and how long (how many seasons) they remain attached to the branch. Remember that mere identification of the kinds of trees is not the highest type of nature-study.

Cones are good subjects for free-hand drawing. Beginners should draw them in outline, omitting the shading. Encourage pupils to draw single leaf-clusters of the different pines, cautioning them to show the right number of leaves in each case.]

Cone-bearing evergreens are familiar to everyone; yet this familiarity is usually with the trees as entire objects. We do not often stop to analyze a tree in order to find out what gives it its characteristic appearance or to see what makes it look as it does.

We shall often find, if we stop to look, that much of the character of a tree,--that is, its general appearance or the way in which it impresses us,--is due to the leaves and to their arrangement on the branches. This is true of many of the evergreen trees.

Why are certain kinds of trees called evergreen in distinction from those which are said to be deciduous? The reason is obvious. One kind is always green from the presence of foliage, while the other sheds all of its leaves every season. The evergreen trees, like the pines and the spruces and the firs, always appear to be well covered with foliage; hence it does not often occur to us that these trees shed their leaves. And yet perhaps we can recall happy hours when we used to play beneath some large pine tree where the ground was carpeted with pine "needles."

The falling of the leaves of the maple trees or the oaks is a familiar sight, but who has seen the spruce leaves fall, and who can tell when the pine needles drop?

That the evergreen trees do shed their foliage, as truly as the maples and the elms do, we will not question, for we can see the fallen leaves under any tree. Look up into the top of a spruce or pine. See that the interior is bare of foliage. The leaves are towards the ends of the branches, where they receive sunlight. Yet the branches which are now in the interior once bore leaves, for we can see the leaf-scars.

It will be interesting to find out something about the leaves of our common evergreens. Let us look at some of them.

THE WHITE PINE.

In Fig. 232 is shown a white pine branch. Notice that the leaves are borne in bunches or clusters of five. Each bunch of leaves is produced in the axil (or angle) of a minute scale-like body, but this scale can best be seen and studied on the very young growth. It has been worn away or broken from the older growth by the wind and the rain and the other forces of nature.

Another strange fact should be well observed. The leaves of the maples and other deciduous trees are borne only on the present season's growth; but this is not the case in the pines, and kindred trees. If we trace back the growth of the past two or three years, we may find that there are as many leaves on the wood that is two years old as there are on the last season's growth; and in many cases we can find leaves on the part of the branch that is three years old. This means that the pine leaves or needles are two and sometimes three years old when they fall. The Fig. 232 shows the falling of the leaves from the different years' growth. The part of the branch between the tip and A is the last season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; the part between B and C is three years old. The part that grew four seasons ago--beyond C--has no leaves.

The different seasons' growth is indicated not by distinct "rings" as in the case of deciduous trees, but by the branching. Each whorl of branches about a limb represents the end of a season's growth. A young pine tree, or the younger limbs of an old tree, shows this character very plainly.

Do the leaves of the pines and of the other evergreen trees fall at the end of the growing season, as the leaves of most of the deciduous trees do? Or do they gradually become lifeless and fall at any season, from the force of the wind and other natural forces? Tie a large sheet of cloth in the top of some evergreen tree, in such a way as to form a receptacle to catch the leaves. Do you catch leaves in winter as well as in summer? Do you find leaves on the snow?

As there are several different kinds of pines, we must picture carefully in our minds the foliage of the white pine, for it is different from that of any others. The leaves are soft and very slender, and from three to four inches long. The base of each cluster of leaves is at first surrounded by a small sheath. A scar is left when the leaves drop and these scars can often be seen on parts of the branches that are eight or ten years old. Do the leaves of other kinds of trees make a scar when they fall?

The white pine cones, in which the seeds are borne, are conspicuous objects. They are five or six inches long and slightly curved. It will be interesting to find out whether the seeds ripen the same year in which they are formed. Perhaps a cone still containing seeds can be secured. Carefully tear it apart and see where the seeds are attached. Red squirrels sometimes eat the pine seeds. A white pine cone, which has shed its seeds, is shown in Fig. 233.

This kind of pine is found widely scattered in New England, New York, and westward to Minnesota and Iowa and along the Alleghany Mountains as far south as Georgia; also in some parts of Canada. It is a valuable lumber tree.

THE PITCH PINE.

This kind of pine is very different, in many respects, from the white pine. Let us find some of the differences. Instead of having leaves in bunches of five, it has them in clusters of three, and the base of each cluster is inclosed by a scaly sheath which does not fall away as in the case of the white pine; neither does the little scale-like body upon the branch, in the axil of which the leaf-cluster is borne, fall away, but it may be found just below the leaf, and even on branches that are several years old. Sometimes a sheath is found with only two leaves. We shall want to know, too, how old the leaves are when they fall. Do they remain on the tree longer than the white pine leaves do?

Again, instead of being soft and slender as the white pine leaves are, we shall find that these leaves are rigid and thick in comparison, and stand out straight from the branches. The shape of the leaves is also distinct from that of the white pine needles. See whether you can find any other differences.

A pitch pine branch is shown in Fig. 234. The part between the tip and A is the past season's growth. Observe the foliage on the part that is two years old. Part of it has fallen. We often find it on growth which is older than this; but in this specimen there are no leaves on the three-year wood.

The cone of the pitch pine is very unlike that of the white pine. Fig. 235 gives a good idea of one that has shed its seeds. Compare this with Fig. 233; or, better, examine the two kinds of cones side by side. The pitch pine cones are sometimes borne in clusters of two or more and they persist,--that is, remain on the tree for several years after the seeds have ripened and scattered.

Notice how the new cones are borne with reference to last season's growth. Are they attached to the tip of a branchlet? Or are they closely attached to the side of a branch? Figs. 236 and 237 will help us answer this question. The little cones in Fig. 237 near the tip of the twig, are just beginning to form.

The pitch pine usually grows in sandy or rocky soil and is found in the United States along the Atlantic coast to Virginia, along the mountains to Georgia, westward to Western New York, Eastern Ohio, Kentucky, and Eastern Tennessee. It has little value as timber, because it does not grow large enough.

SCOTCH AND AUSTRIAN PINES.

In the same manner other pines may be studied. Fig. 238 shows a cone and a bit of foliage of the Scotch pine, and Fig. 239 the Austrian pine. These cones grew the past season and are not yet mature. After they ripen and shed the seeds which they contain, they will look somewhat like the cone in Fig 235. The Scotch pine has short and blue-green needles. The Austrian pine is coarser, and has long dark-green needles.

There are but two leaves in a cluster on these kinds of pines and we shall find that the sheath which incloses the base of the leaf-cluster is more conspicuous than in either the white or the pitch pine. Do the leaves persist in the Scotch and Austrian pines longer than they do in the others we have examined? Study the cones of these and other pines.

The Scotch and Austrian pines are not native to this country, but are much grown for ornament. They can be found in almost any park and in many other places where ornamental trees are grown.

THE NORWAY SPRUCE.

The leaves of spruce trees are borne very differently from those of the pines. Instead of being in clusters of two or more, they are single and without a sheath at the base; neither are there scale-like bodies on the branches where the leaves are borne. Notice, too, that the leaves have a very short stem or petiole.

The leaves of the Norway spruce are about one inch long, although the length varies more or less in different parts of the tree and in different trees. They are rather stiff and rigid and sharp-pointed. In a general way, the leaves are four-sided, though indistinctly so.

It will be interesting to study the position which the leaves take on the branches. A hasty glance might give us the impression that the leaves are not produced on the under side of the branches; but a more careful examination will convince us that there are nearly as many on the under side as on the upper. The leaves are all pointing outward from the branch and as nearly upward as is possible. In other words, the leaves grow toward the light.

We must not forget to see how long the leaves of the Norway spruce persist and to find out when the leaf-scars disappear. We can find leaves that must surely be six or seven years old and sometimes we can find them even older than this. The leaf scars, too, remain a long time. The falling of the leaves is illustrated in Fig. 240. It shows the extremities of a limb which is eight years old. The part between the tip and A is last season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; and beyond B is a part that grew three seasons ago. The section beyond C is six years old; from C to D is seven years of age. The four years' growth of this limb not shown in the drawing was as densely covered with foliage as is the part shown in the upper figure; but there are not many leaves between C and D (seven years old) and none on the eight-year-old wood (except those on the branchlets, and these are younger).

The cone of the Norway spruce is nearly as long as that of the white pine, but it is not so rough and coarse as the white pine cone is. The cones are usually borne on the tips of small branchlets, although occasionally one is borne in the manner shown in Fig. 241. The cones usually fall the first winter.

The Norway spruce is not a native of this country, but like the Scotch and Austrian pines, it was introduced from Europe and is grown very widely as an ornamental tree. It is the commonest evergreen in yards and parks.

THE BLACK SPRUCE AND ITS KIN.

There are several different kinds of spruces which we find growing in our forests and swamps, and sometimes these are planted for ornament. A sprig of foliage and a cone of one of these,--the black spruce,--is shown in Fig. 242. The foliage is not very unlike that of the Norway spruce, but the cones are very small in comparison. They are about one inch long, though they vary considerably in size. Before they open they are oval or plum-shaped; but when mature and the scales of the cone have expanded, they are nearly globular. They are often borne in clusters, as well as singly, and persist for many years after the seeds have fallen. The position of the cones will depend upon their age. When young they point upward, but they gradually turn downward.

In general appearance the white spruce resembles the black very closely. The leaves of the white spruce have a whitish or dusty looking tinge of color and when crushed or bruised give forth a peculiar, disagreeable odor. The cones vary in length from an inch to two inches, and in shape are more cylindrical or finger-shaped than the cone of the black spruce.

The foliage of the red spruce lacks the whitish tinge of color of the white spruce and the cones, which are from one inch to two inches in length, are obovate in shape--that is, the widest place is through the upper part of the cone, and from this point it gradually tapers to the tip. They seldom persist longer than the second summer.

The leaves of all these different kinds of spruces vary greatly in length, thickness, and sharpness of point, according to the part of the tree on which they grow, and their surroundings. The shedding of the leaves on these or other spruces can be determined as easily as in the Norway spruce.

These three spruces like a cold climate and grow in many sections of the northern United States and Canada and farther south in the mountains. They are sometimes all found growing together, but the black spruce likes best the damp, cold swamps, while the others grow best on the drier and better drained lands. The black spruce is commonest. The red spruce is least known.

THE BALSAM FIR.

This is another evergreen tree which grows naturally in the cold, damp grounds of the northern United States and Canada, and to some extent in the eastern states as far south as West Virginia.

The foliage is borne in much the same manner as that of the spruces; yet there are interesting differences in the characters of these two kinds of leaves. Perhaps the most noticeable difference is in the shape; and the color of the fir leaves will attract our attention because the under side is a silvery color, while the upper side is green. What is the nature of the tip of the leaf and how does it compare with the pines and spruces in this respect? Does the leaf have a stem or petiole or is it attached directly to the branch without any stem? How are the leaves shed?

The cones are about three inches long and present a rather delicate appearance. It will be interesting to determine the position of the cones, that is, the direction in which they point, and to learn whether it is the same when they are young as it is after they have matured.

The grayish colored bark of the trunk and limbs bears many "blisters" from which Canada balsam is obtained.

THE HEMLOCK.

A hemlock twig is an interesting object. It may have many characters in common with the spruce and fir; yet the impression which we get from it, or from a large hemlock tree, is entirely distinct. The arrangement of the leaves and the gracefulness of the drooping branchlets are most pleasing. We are led to examine it more closely. We notice that the leaves appear to be borne in two more or less regular rows,--one on each side of the branch or twig; but in reality they come from all sides of the branch, and it is the position which the leaves assume that gives this two-rowed appearance.

The leaves have a short stalk or petiole, and this stalk rests along the side of the branchlet in such a direction that the leaves are placed in single rows on either side of the branch. The petioles of the leaves are nearly parallel with the branch while the leaves often make a decided angle with the petiole. This fact can best be brought out by carefully examining a small twig.

While we are noting the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets, we should also notice the points of similarity and difference between these leaves and those of the spruces and firs. We shall find that there is more in common, at least so far as shape and color are concerned, between the hemlock and the fir than between the hemlock and the spruce.

The small, delicate cones, borne on the tips of the branchlets, will also attract our attention (Fig. 243.) We may wonder at their small size, for they are only about three-quarters of an inch long, and very delicate; yet a second glance at the tree will impress us with the number of cones which the tree bears, and we conclude that, although the cones may be small, yet there are so many of them that there will be no lack of seeds.

It is more difficult to trace the age of a hemlock limb than of many other kinds of trees, yet we can easily determine that many of the leaves are several years old when they fall.

The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning hides for leather. The tree is much used for lumber. Where does it grow?

THE ARBOR-VITÆ.

One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vitæ (often, but wrongly, called the white cedar) has any leaves at all. It does possess them, however, but they are very different in size and shape from any of the others that we have examined. They are small scale-like bodies, closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets, in four rows. Leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to be "appressed." The leaves of the arbor-vitæ are so close together that they overlap one another. The leaves are of two distinct shapes, sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves. The former are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the branchlets, while the latter are on the sides or edges. See Fig. 244.

If we carefully look at the leaves, we shall notice a raised spot near the point or tip. This is said to be a resin gland. This gland can be seen more plainly on the surface leaves that are two years old.

Most of the leaves persist for at least two and sometimes three years; but even older ones can be found. These older leaves, however, exist not as green, active leaves, but merely as dried and lifeless scales. These lifeless leaves are probably detached from the branches by the forces of nature.

The cones are even smaller than the hemlock cones. They are borne in the axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branchlets and are not conspicuous unless one is close to the tree.

The arbor-vitæ is much planted for hedges and screens, as well as for other ornamental purposes. There are many horticultural varieties. The tree is abundant in a wild state in New York.

SUMMARY OF THE KINDS OF COMMON EVERGREENS.

_The white pine_ (Pinus Strobus).--Leaves in clusters of five, soft and slender; cones five or six inches long, slightly curved; bark smooth except on the trunks and larger limbs of old trees, where it is fissured.

_The pitch pine_ (Pinus rigida).--Leaves in clusters of three, from three to four inches long, rather rigid; cones two to three inches long, often in clusters of two or more but frequently borne singly, persisting long after the seeds have been shed; bark more or less rough on the young growth and deeply fissured on the trunks of old trees.

_The Scotch pine_ (Pinus sylvestris).--Leaves usually in clusters of two, from two to four inches long, rigid, of a bluish-green hue when seen in a large mass on the tree; cones two to three inches long and the scales tipped with a beak or prickle.

_The Austrian pine_ (Pinus Austriaca).--Leaves in clusters of two, five or six inches long and somewhat rigid, dark green in color, and persisting for four or five years; cones about three inches long, conical in shape; and scales not beaked or pointed as in the Scotch pine.

_The Norway spruce_ (Picea excelsa).--Leaves borne singly, about one inch long, dark green, four-sided; cones about six inches long, and composed of thin scales, and usually borne on the tips of branchlets. The small branches mostly drooping.

_The black spruce_ (Picea nigra).--In general appearance, this is not very unlike the Norway spruce, but the small branches stand out more horizontally and the cones are only one or one and one-half inches long, recurving on short branches. The cones persist for several years after shedding the seed.

_The white spruce_ (Picea alba).--Leaves about one inch long, having a glaucous or whitish tinge; twigs stout and rigid, of a pale greenish-white color; cones from one to two and one-half inches long, more or less cylindrical or "finger-shaped," and easily crushed when dry.

_The red spruce_ (Picea rubra).--The foliage lacks the whitish tinge of the white spruce and is of a dark or dark yellowish color; twigs stouter than those of the black spruce and not so much inclined to droop; cones about one inch long, obovate, and usually falling by the second summer.

_The hemlock_ (Tsuga Canadensis).--Leaves about one-half inch long, flat with rounded point, green on the upper side, whitish beneath, and borne on short appressed petioles; cones about three-quarters of an inch long, oval or egg-shaped, and borne on the ends of small branchlets and often persisting for some time.

_The balsam fir_ (Abies balsamea).--Leaves narrow, less than one inch long, borne singly, very numerous and standing out from the branchlets in much the way of the spruce; cones about three inches long, cylindrical, composed of thin scales, and standing upright on the branches, or recurved; bark smooth, light green with whitish tinge.

_The arbor-vitæ_ (Thuya occidentalis).--Leaves very small, scale-like, and over-lapping one another in four rows, adhering closely to the branchlets; the cones oblong and small,--a half-inch or less in length,--and composed of but few scales.

LEAFLET XXXIV.

THE CLOVERS AND THEIR KIN.[46]

BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK.

The pedigree of honey does not concern the bee,
A clover any time to him is aristocracy.

--EMILY DICKINSON.

[46] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 8, May, 1904.

There is a deep-seated prejudice that usefulness and beauty do not belong together;--a prejudice based obviously on human selfishness, for if a thing is useful to us we emphasize that quality so much that we forget to look for its beauty. Thus it is that the clover suffers great injustice; it has for centuries been a most valuable forage crop, and, therefore, we forget to note its beauty, or to regard it as an object worthy of æsthetic attention. This is a pitiful fact; but it cheats us more than it does the clover, for the clover blossoms not for us, but for the bees and butterflies as well as for itself. As I remember the scenes which have impressed me most, I find among them three in which clover was the special attraction. One was a well-cultivated thrifty orchard carpeted with the brilliant red of the crimson clover in bloom. One was a great field of alfalfa spread near the shore of the Great Salt Lake, which met our eyes as we came through the pass in the Wasatch Mountains after days of travel in dust-colored lands; the brilliant green of that alfalfa field in the evening sunlight refreshed our eyes as the draught of cold water refreshes the parched throat of the traveller in a desert. And another was a gently undulating field in our own State stretching away like a sea to the west, covered with the purple foam of the red clover in blossom; and the fragrance of that field settled like a benediction over the acres that margined it. But we do not need landscapes to teach us the beauty of clover. Just one clover blossom studied carefully and looked at with clear-seeing eyes, reveals each floweret beautiful in color, interesting in form, and perfect in its mechanism for securing pollination.

The clover is especially renowned for its partnerships with members of the animal kingdom. It readily forms a partnership with man, thriftily growing in his pastures and meadows, while he distributes its seed. For ages it has been a special partner of the bees, giving them honey for carrying its pollen. Below the ground it has formed a mysterious partnership with microbes, and the clover seems to be getting the best of the bargain.

For many years clover was regarded as a crop helpful to the soil, and one reason given was the great length of the roots. Thus the roots of red clover often reach the depth of several feet, even in heavy soil, which they thus aerate and drain, especially when they decay and leave channels. But this is only half the story; for a long time people had noted that on clover roots were little swollen places or nodules, which were supposed to have come from some disease or insect injury. The scientists became interested in the supposed disease, and they finally ascertained that these nodules are filled with bacteria, which are the underground partners of the clovers and other legumes. These bacteria are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air, and make it available for plant-food. As nitrogen is the most expensive of the fertilizers, any agency which can extract it from the free air for the use of plants is indeed a valuable aid to the farmer. Thus it is that in the modern agriculture, clover or some other legume is put on the land once in three or four years in the regular rotation of crops, and it brings back to the soil the nitrogen which other crops have exhausted. An interesting fact about the partnership between the root bacteria and the clover-like plants is that the plants do not flourish without this partnership, and investigators have devised a method by which these bacteria may be scattered in the soil on which some kinds of clover are to be planted, and thus aid in growing a crop. This method is to-day being used for the introduction of alfalfa here in New York State. But the use of clover as a fertilizer is not limited to its root factory for capturing nitrogen; its leaves break down quickly and readily yield the rich food material of which they are composed, so that the farmer who plows under his second-crop clover instead of harvesting it, adds greatly to the fertility of his farm.

The members of three distinct genera are popularly called clovers: The True Clovers (_Trifolium_), of which six or seven species are found in New York State, and more than sixty species are found in the United States. The Medics (_Medicago_), of which four species are found here. The Melilots (_Melilotus_), or sweet clovers, of which we have two species.

THE TRUE CLOVERS. (_Trifolium._)

_The Red Clover (Fig. 245). (Trifolium pratense._[47])--This beautiful dweller in our fields came to us from Europe, and it is also a native of Asia. It is the clover most widely cultivated in New York State for fodder, and is one of our most important crops. Clover hay often being a standard of excellence by which other hay is measured. The export of clover seed from the United States has sometimes reached the worth of two million dollars per year, and this great industry is supposed to be carried on with the aid of that other partner of the red clover, the bumblebee. Bumblebees had to be imported into Australia before clover seed could be produced there. The whole question of the relation of the bumblebee to the pollination of clover no doubt needs to be re-studied, for recent observations have led to the contesting of prevailing opinions. It has been supposed that the failure of the clover seed crop in some places is due to the destruction of bumblebees; whether this is true or not, we are certain that bumblebees visit clover blooms, and the teacher can observe for himself.

[47] Pronounced _Trifol' -ium praten' -se_, the second or specific name with three syllables.

There is a more perennial form of red clover, known as variety _perenne_. It is distinguished from the common form of red clover by its taller growth and mostly less hairy herbage, and by the fact that the flower-head is usually somewhat stalked. Some persons regard it as a hybrid of red and zig-zag clover.

_Zig-Zag Clover. (T. medium.)_--This is another species of red clover, resembling the one just discussed, except that its flower-head rises on a long stalk above the upper leaves, while the red clover has the flower-head set close to these leaves. The color of the blossom is darker than in red clover, and the flower-head is looser. The stems of the zig-zag clover are likely to be bent at angles and thus it gets its name. It is a question whether this species is really grown on farms. It is probable that some or all of the clover that passes under this name is _Trifolium pratense_ var. _perenne_. At all events, the zig-zag clover seems to be imperfectly understood by botanists and others.

_Crimson Clover--Scarlet Clover (Fig. 246). (T. incarnatum.)_--While this beautiful clover grows as a weed in the southern parts of our State, it has only recently begun to play an important part in our horticulture. It is an annual, and its home is the Mediterranean region of Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils, and in our State is chiefly used as a cover-crop for orchards, and to plow under as a fertilizer. It usually has bright, crimson flowers, arranged in a long, pointed head, and its brilliant green fan-shaped leaves make it the most artistically decorative of all our clovers.

_Buffalo Clover (Fig. 247). (T. reflexum.)_--This is sometimes taken for a variety of the red clover, but only a glance is needed to distinguish it. While the head is perhaps an inch in diameter the flowerets are not directed upward and set close as in the red clover, but each floweret is on a little stalk, and is bent abruptly backward. The flowers are not pink. The standard is red, while the wings and keel are nearly white. The leaves are blunt at the tip. It grows in meadows in western New York and westward. This species is native to this country.

_Alsike Clover. (T. hybridum.)_--This is a perennial and grows in low meadows and waste places from Nova Scotia to Idaho. It was introduced from Europe. It is especially valuable in wet meadows, where the red clover would be drowned. The blossoms of the alsike look like those of the white clover except that they are a little larger and are pink; but the long branching mostly upright stems are very different in habit from the creeping stems of the white clover; the blossoms are very fragrant.

_The White Clover. (T. repens.)_--This beautiful little clover, whose leaves make a rug for our feet in every possible place, is well known to us all. It is the clover best beloved by honey-bees, and the person who does not know the distinct flavor of white clover honey has lost something out of life. While in hard soil the white clover lasts only two or three years, on rich, moist lands it is a true perennial. While it was probably a native in the northern part of America, yet it is truly cosmopolitan and may be found in almost all regions of the temperate zones. Very likely the common stock of it is an introduction from Europe. By many this is considered to be the original shamrock.

_The Yellow, or Hop Clover (Fig. 247). (T. agrarium.)_--This friendly little plant, filling waste places with brilliant green leaves and small yellow flower-heads, is not considered a clover by those who are not observant. But if the flowerets in the small, dense heads are examined, they will be seen to resemble very closely those of the other clovers. The stems are many-branched and often grow a foot or more in height. The flowers are numerous, and on fading turn brown, and resemble the fruit of a pigmy hop vine, whence the name. Its leaves are much more pointed than those of the medics, with which it might be confused because of its yellow flowers.

_Low Hop Clover, or Hop Trefoil. (T. procumbens.)_--This resembles the above species, except that it is smaller and also more spreading, and the stems and leaves are more downy.

_The Least Hop Clover. (T. dubium.)_--This may be readily distinguished from the above species by the fact that its yellow flowerets occur from three to ten in a head. This is said by some to be the true shamrock, although the white clover is also called the shamrock.

_The Rabbit-Foot, or Stone Clover (Fig. 247). (T. arvense.)_--This is another clover not easily recognized as such. It grows a foot or more in height and has erect branches. The leaflets are narrow and all arise from the same point. The flowerets occur in long, dense heads. The calyx is very silky, and the lobes are longer than the white corollas, thus giving the flower-head a soft, hairy look, something like the early stages of the blossom of the pussy willow. Because of its appearance it is often called "pussy clover."

THE MEDICS. (_Medicago._)

_Alfalfa (Fig. 248). (Medicago sativa.)_--This is the veteran of all the clovers, for it has been under cultivation for twenty centuries. It is a native of the valleys of western Asia. In America it was first introduced into Mexico with the Spanish invasion. It was brought from Chile to California in 1854, where it has since been the most important hay crop. In fact, there is no better hay than that made from alfalfa. It was probably introduced into the Atlantic States from southern Europe, and has grown as a weed for many years in certain localities in New England and the Middle States; only recently has it been considered a practicable crop for this climate, although it was grown in Jefferson Co., N. Y., in 1791. Its special value is that it is a true perennial, and may be cut three times or more during a season, and when once established it withstands hot, dry weather. It is of marvelous value to the semi-arid regions. The alfalfa flower is blue or violet, and grows in a loose raceme. The plant grows tall and its stems are many branched. This and all these medics are introduced from Europe.

_Black or Hop Medic. (M. lupulina.)_--This would hardly be called a clover by the novice. The long stems lie along the ground, and the tiny yellow flower-heads do not much resemble the clover blossom. It is a common weed in waste places in our State. It is perennial.