Chapter I: HAVE endeavored, in the preceding part of my work, to explain and (10)

Hot springs issue from the most various kinds of rocks. The hottest permanent springs that have hitherto been observed are, as my own researches confirm, at a distance from all volcanoes. I will here advert to a notice in my journal of the Aguas Calientes de las Trincheras', in South America, between Porto Cabello and Nueva Valencia, and the 'Aguas de Comangillas', in the Mexican territory, near Guanaxuato; the former of these, which issued from granite, had a temperature of 194.5 degrees; the latter, issuing from basalt, 205.5degrees. The depth of the source from whence the water flowed with this temperature, judging from what we know of the law of the increase of heat in the interior of the earth, was probably 7140 feet, or above two miles. If the universally-diffused terrestrial heat be the cause of thermal springs, as of active volcanoes, the rocks can only exert an influence by the different capacities p 222 for heat and by their conducting powers. The hottest of all permanent springs (between 203 degrees and 209 degrees) are likewise, in a most remarkable degree, the purest, and such as hold in solution the smallest quantity of mineral substances. Their temperature appears, on the whole, to be less constant than that of springs between 122 degrees and 165 degrees, which in Europe, at least, have maintained, in a most remarkable manner, their 'invariability of heat and mineral contents' during the last fifty or sixty years, a period in which thermometrical measurements and chemical analyses have been applied with increasing exactness. Boussingault found in 1823 that the thermal springs of Las Tricheras had risen 12 degrees during the twenty-three years that had intervened since my travels in 1800.*

[footnote] *Boussingault, in the 'Annales de chimie', t. lii., p. 181. The spring of Chaudes Aigues, in Auvergne, is only 176degrees. It is also to be observed, that while the Aguas Calientes de las Trincheras, south of Porto Cabello (Venezuela), springing from granite cleft in regular beds, and far from all volcanoes, have a temperature of fully 206.6 degrees, all the springs which rise in the vicinity of still active volcanoes (Pasto, Cotopaxi, and Tunguragua) have a temperature of only 97 - 130 degrees.

This calmly-flowing spring is therefore now nearly 12 degrees hotter than the intermittent fountains of the Geyser and the Strokr, whose temperature has recently been most carefully determined by Krug of Nidda. A very striking proof of the origin of hot springs by the sinking of cold meteoric water into the earth, and by its contact with a volcanic focus, is afforded by the volcano of Jorulla in Mexico, which was unknown before my American journey. When, in September, 1759, Jorullo was suddenly elevated into a mountain 1183 feet above the level of the surrounding plain, two small rivers, the 'Rio de Cuitimba' and 'Rio de San Pedro', disappeared, and some time afterward burst forth again, during violent shocks of an earthquake, as hot springs, whose temperature I found in 1803 to be 186.4 degrees.

The springs in Greece still evidently flow at the same places as in the times of Hellenic antiquity. The spring of Erasinos, two hours' journey to the south of Argos, on the declivity of Chaon, is mentioned by Herodotus. At Delphi we still see Cassotis (now the springs of St. Nicholas) rising south of the Lesche, and flowing beneath the Temple of Apollo; Castalia, at the foot of Phaedriadae; Pirene, near Acro-Corinth; and the hot baths of Aedipsus, in Euboea, in which Sulla bathed during the Mithridatic war.*

[footnote] *Cassotis (the spring of St. Nicholas) and Castalia, at the Phaedriadae, mentioned in Pausanias, x., 24, 25, and x., 8, 9; Pirene (Acro-Corinth), in Strabo, p. 379; the spring of Erasinos, at Mount Chaon, south of Argos, in Herod., vi., 67, and Pausanias, ii., 24, 7; the springs of Aedipsus in Euboea, some of which have a temperature of 88 degrees, while in others it ranges between 144) qne 167 degrees, in Strabo, p. 60 and 447, and Athenaeus, ii., 3, 73; the hot springs of Thermopylae, at the foot of Oeta, with a temperature of 149 degrees. All from manuscript notes by Professor Curtius, the learned companion of Otfried Muller.

I advert with pleasure to these p 223 facts, as they show us that, even in a country subject to frequent and violent shocks of earthquakes, the interior of our planet has retained for upward of 2000 years its ancient configuration in reference to the course of the open fissures that yield a passage to these waters. The 'Fontaine jaillissante' of Lillers, in the Department des Pas de Calais, which was bored as early as the year 1126, still rises to the same height and yields the same quantity of water; and, as another instance, I may mention that the admirable geographer of the Caramanian coast, Captain Beaufort, saw in the district of Phaselis the same flame fed by emissions of inflammable gas which was described by Pliny as the flame of the Lycian Chimera.*

[footnnote] (Pliny, ii., 106; Seneca, 'Epist.' 79, 3, ed. Ruhkopf (Beaufort, 'Survey of the Coast of Karamania', 1820, art. Yanar, near Delktasch, the ancient Phaselis, p. 24). See also Ctesias, 'Fragm.', cap. 10 p. 250, ed. Bahr; Strabo, lib. xiv., p. 666, Casaub. ["Not far from the Deliktash, on the side of a mountain, is the perpetual fire described by Captain Beaufort. The travelers found it as brilliant as ever, and even somewhat increased; for, besides the large flame in the corner of the ruins described by Beaufort, there were small jets issuing from crevices in the side of the crater-like cavity five or six feet deep. At the bottom was a shallow pool of sulphureous and turbid water, regarded by the Turks as a sovereign remedy for all skin complaints. The soot deposited from the flames was regarded as efficacious for sore eyelids, and valued as a dye for the eyebrows." See the highly interesting and accurate work, 'Travels in Lycia', by Lieut. Spratt and Professor E. Forbes.] -- Tr.

The observation made by Arago in 1821, that the deepest Artesian wells are the warmest,* threw great light on the origin of thermal springs, and on the establishment of the law that terrestrial heat increases with increasing depth.

[footnote] *Arago, in the 'Annuaire pour' 1835, p. 234.

It is a remarkable fact, which has but recently been noticed, that at the close of the third century, St. Patricus,* probably Bishop of Pertusa, was led to adopt very correct views regarding the phenomenon of the hot springs at Carthage.

[footnote] *'Acta S. Patricii', p. 555, ed. Ruinart, t. ii., p. 385, Mazochi. Dureau de la Malle was the first to draw attention to this remarkable passage in the 'Recherches sur la Topographie de Carthage', 1835, p. 276. (See, also, Seneca, 'Nat. Quaest.', iii., 24.)

On being asked what was the cause of boiling water bursting from the earth, he replied, "Fire is nourished in the clouds and in the interior p 224 of the earth, as Aetna and other mountains near Naples may teach you. The subterranean waters rise as if through siphons. The cause of hot springs is this: waters which are more remote from the subterranean fire are colder, while those which rise nearer the fire are heated by it, and bring with them to the surface which we inhabit an insupportable degree of heat."

As earthquakes are often accompanied by eruptions of water and vapors, we recognize in the 'Salses',* of small mud volcanoes, a transition from the changing phenomena presented by these eruptions of vapor and thermal springs to the more powerful and awful activity of the streams of lava that flow from volcanic mountains.

[footnote] *[True volcanoes, as we have seen, generate sulphureted hydrogen and muriatic acid, upheave tracts of land, and omit streams of melted feldspathic materials; salses, on the contrary, disengage little else but carbureted hydrogen, together with bitumen and other products of the distillation of coal, and pour forth no other torrents except of mud, or argillaceous materials mixed up with water. Daubeney, op cit., p. 540.] -- Tr.

If we consider these mountains as springs of molten earths producing volcanic rocks, we must remember that thermal water, when impregnated with carbonic acid and sulphurous gases, are continually forming horizontally ranged strata of limestone (travertine) or conical elevations, as in Northern Africa (in Alberia), and in the Banos of Caxamarca, on the western declivity of the Peruvian Cordilleras. The travertine of Van Diemen's Land (near Hobart Town) contains, according to Charles Darwin, remains of a vegetation that no longer exists. Lava and travertine, which are constantly forming before our eyes, present us with the two extremes of geognostic relations.

'Salses' deserve more attention than they have hitherto received from geognosists. Their grandeur has been overlooked because of the two conditions to which they are subject; it is only the more peaceful state, in which they may continue for centuries, which has generally been described: their origin is, however, accompanied by earthquakes, subterranean thunder, the elevation of a whole district, and lofty emissions of flame of short duration. When the mud volcano of Jokmali began to form on the 27th of November, 1827, in the peninsula of Abscheron, on the Caspian Sea, east of Baku, the flames flashed up to an extraordinary height for three hours, while during the next twenty hours they scarcely rose three feet above the crater, from which mud was ejected. Near the village of Baklichli, west of Baku, the flames rose so high that p 225 they could be seen at a distance of twenty-four miles. Enormous masses of rock were torn up and scattered around. Similar masses may be seen round the now inactive mud volcano of Monte Ziblo, near Sassuolo, in Northern Italy. The secondary condition of repose has been maintained for upward of fifteen centuries in the mud volcanoes of Girgenti, the 'Macalubi', in Sicily, which have been described by the ancients. These salses consist of many contitiguous conical hills, from eight to ten, or even thirty feet in height, subject to variations of elevation as well as of form. Streams of argillaceous mud, attended by a periodic development of gas, flow from the small basins at the summits, which are filled with water; the mud, although usualy cold is sometimes at a high temperature, as at Damak, in the province of Samarang, in the island of Java. The gases that are developed with loud noise differ in their nature consisting for instance, of hydrogen mixed with naphtha, or of carbonic acid, or, as Parrot and myself have shown (in the peninsula of Taman, and in the 'Volcancitos de Turbaco', in South America), of almost pure nitrogen.*

[footnote] *Humboldt, 'Rel. Hist.', t. iii., p. 562-567; 'Asie Centrale', t. i., p. 43; t. ii., p. 505-515; 'Vues des Cordilleres', pl. xli. Regarding the 'Macalubi', the 'overthrown' or 'inverted', from the word 'Khalaba'), and on "the Earth ejecting fluid earth," see Solinus, cap. 5: "idem ager Agrigentinus eructat limosas scaturigenes, et ut venae fontium sufficiunt rivis subjinistrandis, ita in hac Sicilae parte solo munquam deficiente, Aeterna rejectatione terram terra evomit."

Mud volcanoes, after the first violent explosion of fire, which is not, perhaps, in an equal degree common to all, present to the spectator an image of the uninterrupted but weak activity of the interior of our planet. The communication with the deep strata in which a high temperature prevails is soon closed, and the coldness of the mud emissions of the salses seems to indicate that the seat of the phenomenon can not be far removed from the surface during their ordinary condition. The reaction of the interior of the earth on its external surface is exhibited with totally different force in true volcanoes or igneous mountains, at points of the earth in which a permanent, or, at least, continually-renewed connection with the volcanic force is manifested. We must here carefully distinguish between the more or less intensely developed volcanic phenomena, as for instance, between earthquakes, thermal, aqueous, and gaseous springs, mud volcanoes, and the appearance of bell-formed or dome-shaped trachytic rocks without openings; the opening of these rocks, or of the elevated beds of basalt, as p 226 craters of elevation; and, lastly, the elevation of a permanent volcano in the crater of elevation, or among the 'debris' of its earlier formation. At different periods, and in different degrees of activity and force, the permanent volcanoes emit steam acids, luminous scoriae, or, when the resistance can be overcome, narrow, band-like streams of molten earths. Elastic vapors sometimes elevate either separate portions of the earth's crust into dome-shaped unopened masses of feldspathic trachyte and dolerite (as in Puy de Dome and Chimborazo), in consequence of some great or local manifestation of force in the interior of our planet, or the upheaved strata are broken through and curved in such a manner as to form a steep rocky ledge on the opposite inner side, which then constitutes the inclosure of a crater of elevation. If this rocky ledge has been uplifted from the bottom of the sea, which is by no means always the case, it determines the whole physiognomy and form of the island. In this manner has arisen the circular form of Palma, which has been described with such admirable accuracy by Leopold von Buch, and that of Nisyros,* in the Aegean sea.

[footnote] *See the interesting little map of the island of Nisyros, in Roise's 'Reisen auf den Griechischen Inseln', bd. ii., 1843, s. 69.

Sometimes half of the annular ledge has been destroyed, and in the bay formed by the encroachment of the sea corallines have built their cellular habitations. Even on continents craters of elevation are often filled with water, and embellish in a peculiar manner the character of the landscape. Their origin is not connected with any determined species of rock: they break out in basalt, trachyte, leucitic porphyry (somma), or in doleritic mixtures of augite and labradorite; and hence arise the different nature and external conformation of these inclosures of craters. No phenomena of eruption are manifested in such craters, as they open no permanent channel of communication with the interior, and it is but seldom that we meet with traces of volcanic activity either in the neighborhood or in the interior of these craters. The force which was able to produce so important an action must have been long accumulating in the interior before it could overpower the resistance of the mass pressing upon it; it sometimes, for instance, on the origin of new islands, will raise granular rocks and conglomerated masses (strata of tufa filled with marine plants) above the surface of the sea. The compressed vapors escape through the crater of elevation, but a large mass soon falls back and closes the opening, which had been only formed by these manifestations of force. No volcano can, therefore, p be produced.*

[footnote] *Leopold von Buch, 'Phys. Beschreibung der Canarischen Inseln', s. 326; and his Memoir 'uber Erhebungscratere und Vulcane', in Poggend., 'Annal.', bd. xxxvii., s. 169. In his remarks on the separation of Sicily from Calabria, Strbo gives an excellend description of the two modes in which islands are formed: "Some islands," he observes (lib. vi., p. 258, ed. Casaub.), "are fragments of the continent, others have arisen from the sea, as even at the present time is known to happen; for the islands of the great ocean, lying far from the main land, have probably been raised from its depths, while, on the other hand, those near promontories appear (according to reason) to have been separated from the continent."

A volcano, properly so called, exists only where a permanent connection is established between the interior of the earth and the atmosphere, and the reaction of the interior on the surface then continues during long periods of time. It may be interrupted for centuries, as in the case of Vesuvius Fisove,* and then manifest itself with renewed activity.

[footnote] *Ocre Fisove (Mons Vesuvius) in the Umbrian language. (Lassen 'Deutung der Eugubinischen Tafeln in Rhein. Museum', 1832, s. 387.) The word 'ochre' is very probaby genuine Umbrian, and means, according to Festus, 'mountain'. Aetna would be a burning and shining mountain, if Voss is correct in stating that [Greek work] is an Hellenic sound, and is connected with [Greed word] and [Greek word]; but the intelligent writer Parthey doubts this Hellenic origin on etymological grounds, and also because etna was by no means regarded as a luminous beacon for ships or wanderers, in the same manner as the ever-travailing Stromboli (Strongyle), to which Homer seems to refer in the Odyssey (xii., 68, 202, and 219), and its geographical position was not so well determined. I suspect that tna would be found to be a Sicilian word, if we had any fragmentary materials to refer to. According to Diodorus (v., 6), the Sicani, or aborigines preceding the Sicilians, were compelled to fly to the western part of the island, in the consequence of successive eruptions extending over many years. The most ancient eruption of Mount Aetna on record is that mentioned by Pindar and Schylus, as occurring under Hiero, in the second year of the 75th Olympiad. It is probable that Hesiod was aware of the devastating eruptions of Aetna before the period of Greek immigration. There is, however, some doubt regarding the work [Greek word] in the text of Hesiod, a subject into whci I have entered at some length in another place. (Humboldt, 'Examen Crit. de le Geogr.', t. i., p. 168.)

In the time of Nero, men were disposed to rank Aetna among the volcanic mountains which were graduallybecoming extinct,* and subsequently Aelian** even maintained that mariners could no longer see the sinking summit of the mountain from so great a distance at sea.

[footnote] *Seaeca. 'Epist.', 79.

[footnote] ** Aelian, 'Var. Hist.', viii., 11.

Where these evidences -- these old scaffoldings of eruption, I might almost say -- still exist, the volcano rises from a crater of elevation, while a high rocky wall surrounds, like an amphitheater, the isolated conical mount, and forms around it a kind of easing of highly elevated p 228 strata. Occasionally not a trace of this inclosure is visible, and the volcano, which is not always conical rises immediately from the neighboring plateau in an elongated form, as in the case of Pichincha,* at the foot of which lies the city of Quito.

[footnote] *[This mountain contains two funnel-shaped craters, apparently resulting from two set of eruptions: the western nearly circular, and having in its center a cone of eruption, from the summit and sides of which are no less than seventy vents, some in activity and others extinct. It is probable that the larger number of the vents were produced at periods anterior to history. Caubney, op. cit., p. 488.] -- Tr.

As the nature of rocks, or the mixture (grouping) of simple minerals into granite, gneiss, and mica slate, or into trachyte, basalt, and dolorite, is independent of existing climates, and is the same under the most varied latitudes of the earth, so also we find every where in inorganic nature that the same laws of configuration regulate the reciprocal superposition of the strata of the earth's crust, cause them to penetrate one another in the form of veins, and elevate them by the agency of elastic forces. This constant recurrence of the same phenomena is most strikingly manifested in volcanoes. When the mariner, amid the islands of some distant archipelago, is no longer guided by the light of the same stars with which he had been familiar in his native latitude, and sees himself surrounded by palms and other forms of an exotic vegetation, he still can trace, reflected in the individual characteristics of the landscape, the forms of Vesuvius, of the come-shaped summits of Auvergne, the craters of elevation in the Canaries and Azores, or the fissures of eruption in Iceland. A glance at the satellite of our planet will impart a wider generalization to this analogy of configuration. by means of the charts that have been drawn in accordance with the observations made with large telescopes, we may recognize in the moon, where water and air are both absent, vast craters of elevation surrounding or supporting conical mountains, thus affording incontrovertible evidence of the effects produced by the reaction of the interior on the surface, favored by the influence of a feebler force of gravitation.

Although vocanoes are justy termed in many languages "fire-emitting mountains," mountains of this kind are not formed by the gradual accumulation of ejected currents of lava, but their origin seems rather to be a general consequence of the sudden elevation of soft masses of trachyte or labradoritic augite. The amount of the elevating force is manifested p 229 by the elevation of the volcano, which varies from the inconsiderable height of a hill (as the volcano of Cosima, one of the Japanese Kurile islands) to that of a cone above 19,000 feet in height. It has appeared to me that relations of height have a great influence on the occurrence of eruptions, which are more frequent in low than in elevated volcanoes. I might instance the series presented by the following mountains: Stromboli, 2318 feet; Guacamayo, in the province of Quixos, from which detonations are heard almost daily (I myself often heard them at Chillo, near Quito, a distance of eighty-eight miles); Vesuvius, 3876 feet; Aetna, 10871 feet; the Peak of Teneriffe, 12,175 feet; and Cotopaxi, 19,069 feet. If the focus of these volcanoes be at an equal depth below the surface, a greater force must be required where the fused masses have to be raised to an elevation six or eight times greater than that of the lower eminences. While the volcano Stromboli (Strongyle) has been incessantly active since the Homeric ages, and has served as a beacon-light to guide the mariner in the Tyrrhenian Sea, loftier volcanoes have been characterized by loong intervals of quiet. Thus we see that a whole century often intervenes between the eruptions of most of the colossi which crown the summits of the Cordilleras of the Andes. Where we meet with exceptions to this law, to which I long since drew attention, they must depend upon the circumstance that the connections between the volcanic foci and the crater of eruption can not be considered as equaly permanent in the case of all volcanoes. The channel of communication may be closed for a time in the case of the lower ones, so that they less frequently come to a state of eruption, although they do not, on that account, approach more nearly to their final extinction.

These relations between the absolute height and the frequency of volcanic eruptions, as far as they are externally perceptible, are intimately connected with the consideration of the local conditions under which lava currents are erupted. Eruptions from the crater are very unusual in many mountains, generally occurring from lateral fissures (as was observed in the case of Aetna, in the sixteenth century, by the celebrated historian Bembo, when a youth*), whenever the sides p 230 of the upheaved mountain were least able, from their configuration and position, to offer any resistance.

[footnote] *Petri Bembi Opuscula ('Aetna Dialogus'), Basil, 1556, p. 63: "Quicquid in Aetnae matris utero coulescit, nunquam exit ex cratere superiore, quod vel eo inscondere gravis materia non queat, vel, quia inferius alia spiramenta sunt, non fit opus. Despumant flammis urgentibus ignei rivi pigro fluxu totas delambentes plagas, et in lapidem indurescunt."

Cones of eruption are sometimes uplifted on these fissures; the larger ones, which are erroneously termed 'new volcanoes', are ranged together in line marking the direction of a fissure, which is soon reclosed, while the smaller ones are grouped together covering a whole district with their dome-like or hive-shaped forms. To the latter belong the 'hornitos de Jorullo',I the cone of Vesuvius erupted in October, 1822, that of Awatscha, according to Postels, and those of the lava-field mentioned by Erman, near the Baidar Mountains, in the peninsula of Kamtschatka.

[footnote] See my drawing of the volcano of Jorullo, of its 'hornitos', and of the uplifted 'malpays', in my 'Vues de Cordilleres', pl. xliii., p. 239. [Burckhardt states that during the twenty-four years that have intervened since Baron Humboldt's visit to Jorullo, the 'hornitos' have either wholly disappeared or completely changed their forms. See 'Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico in 1825 und 1834'.] -- Tr.

When volcanoes are not isolated in a plain, but surrounded, as in the double chain of the Andes of Quito, by a table-land having an elevation from nine to thirteen thousand feet, this circumstance may probably explain the cause why no lava streams are formed* during the most dreadful eruption of ignited scoriae accompanied by detonations heard at a distance of more than a hundred miles.

[footnote] * Humboldt, 'Essaii sur la Geogr. des Plantes et Tableau Phys. des Regions Equinoxiales', 1807, p. 130, and 'Essai Geogn. sur le Gisement des Roches', p. 321. Most of the volcanoes in Java demonstrate that the cause of the perfect absence of lava streams in volcanoes of incessant activity is not alone to be sought for in their form, position, and height. Leop. von Buch, 'Descr. Phys. des Iles Canaries', p. 419; Reinwardt and Hoffmann, in Poggened., 'Annalen.', bd. xii., s. 607.

Such are the volcanoes of Popayan, those of the elevated plateau of Los Pastos and of the Andes of Quito, with the exception, perhaps, in the case of the latter, of the volcano of Antisana. The height of the cone of cinders, and the size and form of the crater, are elements of configuration which yield an especial and individual character to volcanoes, although the cone of cinders and the crater are both wholly independent of the dimensions of the mountain. Vesuvius is more than three times lower than the Peak of Teneriffe; its cone of cinders rises to one third of the height of the whole mountain, while the cone of cinders of the Peak is only 1/22d of its altitude.

[footnote] * [It may be remarked in general, although the rule is liable to exceptions, that the dimensions of a crater are in an inverse ratio to the elevation of the mountain. Daubeney, op. Cit., p. 444.] -- Tr.

In a much higher volcano than that of Teneriffe, the Rueu Pichincha, other relations occur p 231 which approach more nearly to that of Vesuvius. Among all the volcanoes that I have seen in the two hemispheres, the conical form of Cotopaxi is the most beautifully regular. A sudden fusion of the snow at its cone of cinders announces the proximity of the eruption. Before the smoke is visible in the rarefied strata of air surrounding the summit and the opening of the crater, the walls of the cone of cinders are sometimes in a state of glowing heat, when the whole mountain presents an appearance of the most fearful and portentous blackness. The crater, which, with very few exceptions, occupies the summit of the volcano, forms a deep, caldron-like valley, which is often accessible, and whose bottom is subject to constant alterations. The great or lesser depth of the crater is in many volcanoes likewise a sign of the near or distant occurrence of an eruption. Long, narrow fissures, from which vapors issue forth, or small rounding hollows filled with molten masses, alternately open and close in the caldron-like valley; the bottom rises and sinks, eminences of scoriae and cones of eruption are formed, rising sometimes far over the walls of the crater, and continuing for years together to impart to the volcano a peculiar character, and then suddenly fall together and disappear during a new eruption. The openings of these cones of eruption, which rise from the bottom of the crater, must not, as is too often done, be confounded with the crater which incloses them. If this be inaccessible from extreme depth and from the perpendicular descent, as in the case of the volcano of Rucu Pichincha, which is 15,920 feet in height, the traveler may look from the edge on the summit of the mountains which rise in the sulphurous atmosphere of the valley at his feet; and I have never beheld a grander or more remarkable picture than that presented by this volcano. In the interval between two eruptions, a crater may either present no luminous appearance, showing merely open fissures and ascending vapors, or the scarcely heated soil may be covered by eminences of scoriae, that admit of being approached without danger, and thus present to the geologist the spectacle of the eruption of burning and fused masses, which fall back on the ledge of the cone of scoriae, and whose appearance is regularly announced by small wholly local earthquakes. Lava sometimes streams forth from the open fissures and small hollows, without breaking through or escaping beyond the sides of the crater. If, however, it does break through, the newly-opened terrestrial stream generally flows in such a quiet and well-defined course, that the deep valley, which we term the crater, remains accessible p 232 even during periods of eruption. It is impossible, without an exact representation of the configuration -- the normal type, as it were, of fire-emitting mountains, to form a just idea of those phenomena which, owing to fantastic descriptions and an undefined phraseology, have long been comprised under the head of 'craters, cones of eruption', and 'volcanoes'. The marginal ledges of craters vary much less than one would be led to suppose. A comparison of Saussure's measurements with my own yields the remarkable result, for instance, that in the course of forty-nine years (from 1773 to 1822), the elevation of the northwestern margin of Mount Vesuvius ('Rocca del Palo') may be considered to have remained unchanged.*

[footnote] *See the ground-work of my measurements compared with those of Saussure and Lord Minto, in the 'Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wiss. zu Berlin' for the years 1822 and 1823.

Volcanoes which, like the chain of the Andes, lift their summits high above the boundaries of the region of perpetual snow, present peculiar phenomena. The masses of snow, by their sudden fusion during eruptions, occasion not only the most fearful inundations and torrents of water, in which smoking scoriae are borne along on thick masses of ice, but they likewise exercise a constant action, while the volcano is in a state of perfect repose, by infiltration into the fissures of the trachytic rock. Cavities which are either on the declivity or at the foot of the mountain are gradually converted into subterranean resevoirs of water, which communicate by numerous narrow openings with mountain streams, as we see exemplified in the highlands of Quito. the fishes of these rivulets multiply, especially in the obscurity of the hollows; and when the shocks of earthquakes, which precede all eruptions in the andes, have violently shaken the whole mass of the volcano, these subterranean caverns are suddenly opened, and water, fishes, and tufaceous mud are all ejected together. It is through this singular phenomenon* that the inhabitants of the highlands of Quito became acquainted with the existence of the little cyclopic fishes, termed by them the prenadilla.

[footnote] *Pimelodes cyclopum. See Humboldt, 'Recueil d'Observations de Zoologie et d'Anatomie Comparee', t. i., p. 21-25.

On the night between the 19th and 20th of June, 1698, when the summit of Carguairazo, a mountain 19,720 feet in height, fell in, leaving only two huge masses of rock remaining of the ledge of the crater, a space of nearly thirty-two square miles was overflowed and devastated by streams of liquid tufa and argillaceous mud ('lodazales'), containing large quantities of dead fish. p 233 In like manner, the putrid fever, which raged seven years previously in the mountain town of Ibarra, north of Quito, was ascribed to the ejection of fish from the volcano of Imbaburu.*

[footnote] *[It would appear, as there is no doubt that these fishes proceed from the mountain itself, that there must be large lakes in the interior, which in ordinary season are out of the immediate influence of the volcanic action. See Daubeney, op. cit., p. 488, 497.] -- Tr.

Water and mud, which flow not from the crater itself, but from the hollows in the trachytic mass of the mountain, can not, strictly speaking, be classed among volcanic phenomena. They are only indirectly connected with the volcanic activity of the mountain, resembling, in that respect, the singular meteorological process which I have designated in my earlier writings by the term of 'volcanic storm'. The hot stream which rises from the crater during the eruption and spreads itself in the atmosphere, condenses into a cloud, and surrounds the column of fire and cinders which rises to an altitude of many thousand feet. The sudden condensation of the vapors, and, as Gay-Lussac has shown, the formation of a cloud of enormous extent, increase the electric tension. Forked lightning flashes from the column of cinders, and it is then easy to distinguish (as at the close of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, in the latter end of October, 1822) the rolling thunder of the volcanic storm from the detonations in the interior of the mountain. the flashes of lightning that darted from the volcanic cloud of steam, as we learn from Olafsen's report, killed eleven horses and two men, on the eruption of the volcano of Katlagia, in Iceland, on the 17th of October, 1755.

Having thus delineated the structure and dynamic activity of volcanoes, it now remains for us to throw a glance at the differences existing in their material products. The subterranean forces sever old combinations of matter in order to produce new ones, and they also continue to act upon matter as long as it is in a state of liquefaction from heat, and capable of being displaced. The greater or less pressure under which merely softened or wholly liquid fluids are solidified, appears to constitute the main difference in the formation of Plutonic and volcanic rocks. The mineral mass which flows in narrow, elongated streams from a volcanic opening (an earth-spring), is called lava. where many such currents meet and are arrested in their course, they expand in width, filling large basins, in which they become solidified in superimposed strata. These few sentences describe the general character of the products of volcanic activity.

p 234 Rocks which are merely broken through by the volcanic action are often inclosed in the igneous products. Thus i have found angular fragments of feldspathic syenite imbedded in the black augitic lava of the volcano of Jorullo, in Mexico; but the masses of dolomite and granular limestone, which contain magnificent clusters of crystalling fossils (vesuvian and garnets, covered with mejonite, nepheline, and sodalite), are not the ejected products of Vesuvius, these belonging rather to very generally distributed formations, viz., strata of tufa, which are more ancient than the elevation of the Somma and of Vesuvius, and are probably the products of a deep-seated and concealed submarine volcanic action.*

[footnote] *Leop. von Buch, in Poggend., 'Annalen', bd. xxxvii., s. 179.

We find five metals among the products of existing volcanoes, iron, copper, lead, arsenic, and selenium, discovered by Stromeyer in the crater of Volcano.*

[footnote] *[The little island of Volcano is separated from Lipari by a narrow channel. It appears to have exhibited strong signs of volcanic activity long before the Christian era, and still emits gaseous exhalations. Stromeyer detected the presence of selenium in a mixture of sal ammoniac and sulphur. Another product, supposed to be peculiar to this volcano, is boracic acid, which lines the sides of the cavities in beautiful white silky crystals. Daubeney, op. cit., p. 257.] -- Tr.

The vapors that rise from the 'fumarolles' cause the sublimation of the chlorids of iron, copper, lead, and ammonium; iron glanceI and chlorid of sodium (the latter often in large quantities) fill the cavities of recent lava streams and the fissures of the margin of the crater.

[footnote] *Regarding the chemical origin of iron glance in volcanic masses, see Mitscherlich, in Poggend., 'Annalen', bd. xv., s. 630; and on the liberation of hydrochloric acid in the crater, see Gay-Lussac, in the 'Annals de Chimique et de Physique', t. xxii., p. 423.

The mineral composition of lava differs according to the nature of the crystalline rock of which the volcano is formed, the height of the point where the eruption occurs, whether at the foot of the mountain or in the neighborhood of the crater, and the condition of temperature of the interior. Vitreous volcanic formations, obsidian, pearl-stone, and pumice, are entirely wanting in some volcanoes, while in the case of others they only proceed from the crater, or, at any rate, from very considerable heights. These important and involved relations can only be explained by very accurate crystallographic and chemical investigations. My fellow-traveler in Siberia, Gustav Rose, and subsequently Hermann Abich, have already been able, by their fortunate and ingenious researches, to throw much light on the structural relations of the various kinds of volcanic rocks.

p 235 The greater part of the ascending vapor is mere steam. When condensed, this forms springs, as in Pantellaria,Iwhere they are used by the goatherds of the island.

[footnote] *[Steam issues from many parts of this insular mountain, and several hot springs gush forth from it, which form together a lake 6000 feet in circumference. Daubeney, op. cit.] -- Tr.

On the morning of the 26th of October, 1822, a current was seen to flow from a lateral fissure of the crater of Vesuvius, and was loong supposed to have been boiling water; it was, however, shown, by Monticelli's accurate investigations, to consist of dry ashes, which fell like sand, and of lava pulverized by friction. The ashes, which sometimes darken the air for hours and days together, and produce great injury to the vineyards and olive groves by adhering to the leaves, indicate by their columnar ascent, impelled by vapors, the termination of every great eqrthquake. This is the magnificent phenomenon which Pliny the younger, in his celebrated letter to Cornelius Tacitus, compares, in the case of Vesuvius, to the form of a lofty and thickly-branched and foliaceous pine. That which is described as flames in the eruption of scoriae, and the radiance of the glowing red clouds that hover over the crater, can not be ascribed to the effect of hydrogen gas in a state of combustion. They are rather reflections of light which issue from molten masses, projected high in the air, and also reflections from the burning depths, whence the glowing vapors ascend. We will not, however, attempt to decide the nature of the flames, which are occasionally seen now, as in the time of Strabo, to rise from the deep sea during the activity of littoral volcanoes, or shortly before the elevation of a volcanic island.

When the questions are asked, what is it that burns in the volcano? what excites the heat, fuses together earths and metals, and imparts to lava currents of thick layers a degree of heat that lasts for many years? it is necessarily implied that volcanoes must be connected with the existence of substances capable of maintaining combustion, like the beds of coal in subterranean fires.

[footnote] *See the beautiful experiments on the cooling of masses of rock, in Bischof's 'Warmelehre', s. 384, 443, 500-512.

According to the different phases of chemical science, bitumen, pyrites, the moist admixture of finely-pulverized sulphur and iron, pyrophoric substances, and the metals of the alkalies and earths, have in turn been designated as the cause of intensely active volcanic phenomena. The great chemist, Sir Humphrey Davy, to whom we are indebted for the knowledge of the most combustible metallic p 236 substances, has himself renounced his bold chemical hypothesis in his last work ('Consolation in Travel, and last Days of a Philosopher') -- a work which can not fail to excite in the reader a feeling of the deepest melancholy. the great mean density of the earth (5.44), when compared with the specific weight of potassium (0.865), of sodium (-.972), or of the metals of the earths (1.2), and the absence of hydrogen gas in the gaseous emanations from the fissures of craters, and from still warm streams of lava, besides many chemical considerations, stand in opposition with the earlier conjectures of Davy and Ampere.*

[footnote] *See Berzelius and Wohler, in Poggend., 'Annalen', bd. i., s. 221, and bd. xi., s. 146; Gay-Lussac, in the 'Annals de Chimie', t. x., xii., p. 422; and Bischof's 'Reasons against the Chemical Theory of Volcanoes', in the English edition of his 'Warmelehre', p. 297-309.

If hydrogen were evolved from erupted lava, how great must be the quantity of the gas disengaged, when, the seat of the volcanic activity being very low, as in the case of the remarkable eruption at the foot of the Skaptar Jokul in Iceland (from the 11th of June to the 3d of August, 1783, described by Mackenzie and Soemund Magnussen), a space of many square miles was covered by streams of lava, accumulated to the thickness of several hundred feet! Similar difficulties are opposed to the assumption of the penetration of the atmospheric air into the crater, or, as it is figuratively expressed, the 'inhalation of the earth', when we have regard to the small quantity of nitrogen emitted. So general, deep-seated, and far-propagated an activity as that of volcanoes, can not assuredly have its source in chemical affinity, or in the mere contact of individual or merely locally distributed substances. Modern geognosy* rather seeks the cause of this activity in the increased temperature with the increase of depth at all degrees of latitude, in that powerful internal heat which our planet owes to its first solidification, its formation in the regions of space, and to the spherical contraction of p 237 matter revolving elliptically in a gaseous condition.

[footnote] *[On the various theories that have been advanced in explanation of volcanic action, see Daubeney 'On Volcanoes', a work to which we have made continual reference during the preceding pages, as it constitutes the most recent and perfect compendium of all the important facts relating to this subject, and is peculiarly adapted to serve as a source of reference to the 'Cosmos', since the learned author in many instances enters into a full exposition of the views advanced by Baron Humboldt. The appendix contains several valuable notes with reference to the most recent works that have appeared on the Continent, on subjects relating to volcanoes; among others, an interesting notice of Professor Bischof's views "on the origin of the carbonic acid discharged from volcanoes," as enounced in his recently published work, 'Lehrbuch der Chemischen und Physikalischen Geologie'.] -- Tr.

We have thus mere conjecture and supposition side by side with certain knowledge. A philosophical study of nature strives ever to elevate itself above the narrow requirements of mere natural description, and does not consist, as we have already remarked, in the mere accumulation of isolated facts. The inquiring and active spirit of man must be suffered to pass from the present to the past, to conjecture all that can not yet be known with certainty, and still to dwell with pleasure on the ancient myths of geognosy which are presented to us under so many various forms. If we consider volcanoes as irregular intermittent springs, emitting a fluid mixture of oxydized metals, alkalies, and earths, flowing gently and calmy wherever then find a passage, or being upheaved by the powerful expansive force of vapors, we are involuntarily led to remember the geognostic visions of Plato, according to which hot springs, as well as all volcanic igneous streams, were eruptions that might be traced back to one generally distributed subterranean cause, 'Pyriphlegethon'.*

[footnote] *According to Plato's geognostic views, as developed in the 'Phaedo', Pyriphlegethon plays much the same part in relation to the activity of volcanoes that we now ascribe to the augmentation of heat as we descend from the earth's surface, and to the fused condition of its internal strata. ('Phaedo', ed. Ast, p. 603 and 607; Annot., p. 308 and 817.) "Within the earth, and all around it, are larger and smaller caverns. Water flows there in abundance; also much fire and large streams of fire, and streams of moist mud (some purer and others more filthy), like those in Sicily, consisting of mud and fire, preceding the great eruption. These streams fill all places that fall in the way of their course. Pyriphlegethon flows forth into an extensive district burning with a fierce fire, where it forms a lake larger than our sea, boiling with water and mud. From thence it moves in circles round the earth, turbid and muddy." This stream of molten earth and mud is so much the general cause of volcanic phenomena, that Plato expressly adds, "thus is Pyriphlegethon constituted, from which also the streams of fire ([Greek words]), wherever they reach the earth ([Greek words]), inflate such parts (detached fragments)." Volcanic scoriae and lava streams are therefore portions of Pyriphlegethon itself, portions of the subterranean molten and ever-undulating mass. That {Greek words] are lava streams, and not, as Schneider, Passow, and Schleiermacher will have it, "fire-vomiting mountains," is clear enough from many passages, some of which have been collected by Ukert ('Geogr. der Griechen und Romer', th. ii., s. 200): [Greek word] is the volcanic phenomenon in reference to its most striking characteristic, the lava stream. Hence the expression, the [Greek word] of Aetna. Aristot. 'Mirab. Ausc.', t. ii., p. 833; sect. 38, Bekker; Thucyd., iii., 116; Theophrast., 'De Lap'., 22, p. 427, Schneider; Diod., v., 6, and xiv., 59, where are the remarkable words, "Many places near the sea, in the neighborhood of Aetna, were leveled to the ground, [Greek words];" Strabo, vi., p. 269; xiii., p. 268, and where there is a notice of the celebrated burning mud of the Lelantine plains, in Euboea, i., p. 58, Casaub.; and Appian, 'De Bello Civili', v., 114. The blame which Aristotle throws on the geognostical fantasies of the Phaedo ('Meteor.', ii., 2, 19) is especially applied to the sources of the rivers flowing over the earth's surface. The distinct statement of Plato, that "in Sicily eruptions of wet mud precede the glowing (lava) stream," is very remarkable. Observations on Aetna could not have led to such a statement, unless pumice and ashes, formed into a mud-like mass by admixture with melted snow and water, during the volcano-electric storm in the crater of eruption, were mistaken for ejected mud. It is more probable that Plato's streams of moist mud ([Greek words]) originated in a faint recollection of the salses (mud volcanoes) of Agrigentum, which, as I have already mentioned, eject argillaceous mud with a loud noise. It is much to be regretted, in reference to this subject, that the work of Theophrastus [Greek words] 'On the Volcanic Stream in Sicily', to which Diog. Laert., v., 49, refers, has not come down to us.

p 238 The different volcanoes over the earth's surface, when they are considered independently of all climatic differences, are acutely and characteristically classified as central and linear volcanoes. Under the first name are comprised those which constitute the central point of many active mouths of eruption, distributed almost regularly in all directions; under the second, those lying at some little distance from one another, forming, as it were, chimneys or vents along an extended fissure. Linear volcanoes again admit of further subdivision, namely, those which rise like separate conical islands from the bottom of the sea, being generally parallel with a chain of primitive mountains, whose foot they appear to indicate, and those volcanic chains which are elevated on the highest ridges of these mountain chains, of which they form the summits.*

[footnote] *Leopold von Buch, 'Physikal. Beschreib. der Canarischen Inseln', s. 326-407. I doubt if we can agree with the ingenious Charles Darwin ('Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands', 1844, p. 127) in regarding central volcanoes in general as volcanic chains of small extent on parallel fissures. Friedrich Hoffman believes that in the group of the Lipari Islands, which he has so admirably described, and in which two eruption fissures intersect near Panaria, he has found an intermediate link between the two principal modes in which volcanoes appear, namely, the central volcanoes and volcanic chains of Von Buch (Poggendorf, 'Annalen der Physik', bd. xxvi., s. 81-88).

The Peak of Teneriffe, for instance, is a central volcano, being the central point of the volcanic group to which the eruption of Palma and Landerote may be referred. The long, rampart-like chain of the Andes, which is sometimes single, and sometimes divided into two or three parallel branches, connected by various transverse ridges, presents, from the south of Chili to the northwest coast of America, one of the grandest instances of a continental volcanic chain. The proxiimity of p 239 active volcanoes is always manifested in the chain of the Andes by the appearance of certain rocks (as dolerite, melaphyre, trachyte, andesite, and dioritic porphyry), which divide the so-called primitive rocks, the transition slates and sandstones, and the stratified formations. the constant recurrence of this phenomenon convinced me long since that these sporadic rocks were the seat of volcanic phenomena, and were connected with volcanic eruptions. At the foot of the grand Tunguragua, near Penipe, on the banks of the Rio Puela, I first distinctly observed mica slate resting on granite, broken through by a volcanic rock.

In the volcanic chain of the New Continent, the separate volcanoes are occasionally, when near together in mutual dependence upon one another; and it is even seen that the volcanic activity for centuries together has moved on in one and the same direction, as for instance, from north to south in the province of Quito.*

[footnote] (Humboldt, 'Geognost. Beobach, uber die Vulkane des Hochlandes von Quito', in Poggend., 'Annal. der Physik', bd. xliv., s. 194.

The focus of the volcanic action lies below the whole of the highlands of this province; the only channels of communication with the atmosphere are, however, those mountains which we designate by special names, as the mountains of Pichincha, Cotopaxi, and Tunguragua, and which, from their grouping, elevation, and form, constitute the grandest and most picturesque spectacle to be found in any volcanic district of an equally limited extent. Experience shows us, in many instances, that the extremities of such groups of volcanic chains are connected together by subterranean communications; and this fact reminds us of the ancient and true expression made use of by Seneca,* that the igneous mountain is only the issue of the more deeply-seated volcanic forces.

[footnote] *Seneca, while he speaks very clearly regarding the problematical sinking of Aetna, says in his 79th letter, "Though this might happen, not because the mountain's height is lowered, but because the fires are weakened, and do not blaze out with their former vehemence; and for which reason it is that such vast clouds of smoke are not seen in the day-time. Yet neither of these seem incredible, for the mountain may possibly be consumed by being daily devoured, and the fire not be so large as formerly, since it is not self-generated here, but is kindled in the distant bowels of the earth, and there rages, being fed with continual fuel, not with that of the mountain, through which it only makes its passage." The subterranean communication, "by galleries," between the volcanoes of Sicily, Lipari, Pithecusa (Ischia), and Vesuvius, "of the last of which we may conjecture that it formerly burned and presented a fiery circle," seems fully understood by Strabl (lib. i., p. 247 and 248). He terms the whole district "sub-igneous."

In the Mexican highlands a mutual dependence is p 240 also observed to exist among the volcanic mountains Orizaba, Popocatepel, Jorullo, and Colima; and I have shown* that they all lie in one direction between 18 degrees 59' and 19 degrees 12' north latitude, and are situated in a transverse fissure running from sea to sea.

[footnote] *Humboldt, 'Essai Politique sur la Nouv. Espagne', t. ii., p. 173-175.