Chapter II: Part 2

"The bag should taper to the bottom, and in any case its length should be fully twice the diameter of the hoop, so that by giving the net a twist, the mouth may be closed and the contents thus secured. The sweeping-net may be protected around the hoop with leather, and in use should be kept in a steady and continued back-and-forth motion, over and touching the plants, until the contents are to be examined; when, by placing the head at the opening and quietly surveying the restless inmates, the desiderata may be secured and the rest turned out. A sudden dash of the air-net will usually lay any flying object at the bottom. A net for aquatic insects may be made on the same principle, but should be stout, with the meshes open enough to allow free passage of water, and the bag not quite as deep as the diameter of the hoop. A forceps net, which consists of two gauze or bobbinet covered frames, having riveted handles, so as to close like a pair of scissors, is employed for small insects; but I find little use for it. A coarse sieve, together with a white towel or sheet, will be found of great service for special occasions, particularly in the spring, when the search for minute insects found under old leaves, or for pupae around the butts of trees, is contemplated. With the sheet spread on the ground, and a few handfuls of leaves and leafy mold sifted over it, many a minute specimen will be separated from the coarser particles and drop to the sheet, where the eye may readily detect it. Conversely, the earth taken from around trees may be sifted so as to leave in the sieve such larger objects as pupae, etc. Another favorite plan, with some collectors, of obtaining specimens, especially night-flying moths, is by 'sugaring.' This consists of applying to the trunks of trees or to strips of cloth attached to the trees some sweet, attractive, and stupefying preparation. Diluted molasses or dissolved brown sugar, mixed with rum or beer, is most frequently employed. I have found sugaring of little use till after the blossoming season, and it is almost impossible to so stupefy or intoxicate an insect that it will remain upon the sugared tree till the next morning. I generally sugar at eve, and visit the tree several times between sundown and midnight, armed with wide-mouthed killing-bottles and accompanied by a second person, who carries a dark-lantern. Isolated trees, on the edges of woods, give the best results. Everybody knows how some poor moths will persist in flitting around a light until they singe their wings; and, as many insects are strongly attracted to bright artificial light, it may be employed with good results, especially during warm and damp evenings. The collector should never go unprovided with a small box or tube full of different sized pins (a corked cartridge-tube makes a good box,) a pair or two of forceps, a pair of scissors, a little mucilage, and the killing apparatus to be described."

With these general remarks, it will be well to consider some of the important paraphernalia more in detail.

COLLECTING APPARATUS.

_The Sweeping Net._--A multitude of insects of all orders feed or rest on grasses and other low plants. Upon close inspection of these plants a careful observer will be able to secure, without any instruments, not only many mature insects, but also many larvae in connection with their food-plants. This is laborious and slow work, only necessary on special occasions. The beating net, which is constructed on the same general plan as the butterfly net, is valuable here as a time saver. By holding the handle of the net firmly in one hand and quickly sweeping over the plants first from right to left, and then, after quickly turning the net again, sweeping from left to right, most insects coming within reach of the sweep will fall into the bag and may be easily taken out and put into the collecting-vials. From this mode of operation it is evident that the sweeping net must be stronger in all its parts than the butterfly net, but otherwise it may be made on the same plan.

The ring should be rigid, made of brass or iron, either of one piece or of two pieces, and fastened to the handle or stick in the same way as the butterfly net. The bag need not be as long as in the butterfly net, about 18 inches being sufficient, but it should be of stout cotton or linen and the bottom should preferably be sewed in as a round piece, so as to avoid corners. Care needs to be bestowed on the fastening of the bag on the ring, for by the use of the net the part of the bag sewed around the ring is soon chafed through. To prevent this a strip of leather is sewed over the cotton along the rim, but since even this must be frequently renewed some other devices are used to give greater durability to the net. In the pattern of a beating-net originally sold by Deyrolle in Paris, the metal ring was flattened, with the narrow edge pointing upwards and the broad side pierced with holes at suitable intervals and grooved on the outer surface between the holes. The bag is sewed on to the inner side of the ring by stout twine, which passes from one hole to the next and is thus prevented from coming in contact with obstructive objects, and only the bottom of the bag wears and will need to be occasionally mended or renewed.

Another method of preventing the tearing of the upper rim of the bag is described and illustrated in Kiesenwetter's useful volume "Der Naturaliensammler" from which I shall frequently have occasion to quote. In this net the main ring is of rounded iron wire on which a number of brass rings are slipped. These must be but little larger than the diameter of the wire. These little brass rings should not be more than 30 mm. or at most 40 mm., distant from each other, and to them the upper rim of the bag is sewed with very strong twine and is thus protected from wear and tear. The handle or stick of the net should be firmly and solidly attached to the ring and should be stout and not liable to break. I prefer a rather short stick, say not longer than two feet.

I figure herewith the ring of a very convenient net for sweeping or beating purposes. It has the advantage of being for sale on the market, and in fact is an ordinary fishing dip net of small size. It is hinged in three places, as shown in the figure, and folds into very small compass. When unfolded and brought together, it screws into a ferrule which may be attached to a cane or a special handle.

The beating net can be successfully used at almost every season of the year. Even on warm days in winter time many specimens can be swept from the dead grass. So long as the dew is on the plants or in rainy weather no beating should be attempted, as the more delicate species are more or less spoiled by the moisture. After one or two minutes' sweeping the contents should be examined. Those insects which are quick to take wing or which are good runners should first receive attention; the less active can then be examined more at leisure. The desiderata are then disposed of, the rest thrown away, and the beating renewed.

The beating net is an important instrument for collecting all insects excepting mature Lepidoptera, which are apt to get rubbed. Many larvae, especially of Lepidoptera, are caught by beating and are mostly in good condition, but it is usually difficult to ascertain the food plant.

_The Water Net._--The numerous insects or insect larvae which live in the water can not be conveniently collected without the use of a net, except where they live in small shallow streams or creeks with gravelly or stony bottoms. A suitable water net can readily be made by using the frame of the beating net and attaching to it a rather short bag of some coarse material, _e. g._, "grass cloth," coarse millinet. The mode of operation with this net is very simple: if some insect is seen swimming in the water, the net is carefully brought beneath the specimen, which is thus lifted out of the water. Most water insects are, however, not seen swimming about freely, but hide amid the various plants, mosses, etc., or in the mud at the base of the plants, and they can best be captured by dragging the net through these plants. When taken from the water the net is more or less filled with mud and parts of plants, and the water must be allowed to run out and the contents of the net spread out on a cloth or on a flat stone, if such be at hand. The insects are at first not readily seen, but after a short while they begin to emerge from the mud and crawl about, and can readily be taken up with a forceps.

_Water Dip Net._--The small water sieve, shown in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 51), and somewhat resembling in appearance a jockey cap, is frequently of service in collecting the larvae of aquatic insects, especially where it is necessary to scrape submerged stones or timbers. In use it is fastened on the end of a cane or stick, and can be easily made by any tinsmith.

_The Umbrella._--The umbrella, as already stated, is one of the most useful instruments of the collector, since it enables him to obtain all those numerous insects which live on the branches of trees, on shrubs, and on other large plants. A common stout cotton umbrella is sufficiently large, but is liable to get out of joint, and moreover the specimens hide themselves under the ribs. It is well, therefore, to have the inside of such umbrella lined along the ribs with muslin, or some other material, preferably of a light color. An umbrella specially constructed for entomological purposes is offered for sale by E. Deyrolle, in Paris. It resembles a stoutly built common umbrella, but has the inside lined with white linen and the handle has a joint near the middle, so that the umbrella can be more conveniently held and more readily packed away. The opened and inverted umbrella is held with the left hand under the branch which the collector intends to relieve of its entomological inhabitants, while the right hand, armed with a heavy stick, is free to properly jar the branch. Care must be taken in the jarring, lest the insects are knocked beyond the circumference of the umbrella. The larger the umbrella the greater are the chances of making rich captures, but the more difficult it becomes to manipulate, especially where the woods are dense or where there are many vines, etc. In the absence of an umbrella the butterfly net or the beating net can be used.

A drawback to collecting with the umbrella is that many insects take wing and escape before being secured. This can hardly be avoided, and experienced collectors, in southern countries more particularly, have found it advisable to discard the umbrella and to use in its stead a very large butterfly net, 2 feet or more in diameter.

_The Beating Cloth._--A very simple substitute for the umbrella, and one which can always be carried without inconvenience, may here be described. It consists of a piece of common unbleached cotton cloth (1 yard square), to each corner of which a loop of stout twine is sewed. Upon reaching the woods, two straight sticks, each about 5 feet in length and not too heavy, but also not so small as to be liable to break or to bend too easily, are cut from a convenient bush. The sticks are placed crosswise over the cloth and fastened to the loops at the four ends. This is easily and quickly done by making sliding loops of the simple loops. The cloth is thus kept spread out between the sticks, and forms a very good substitute for an umbrella. In beating, the sticks are held at their intersecting points. When not in use one of the loops is detached from the stick and the instrument can be rolled up and carried under one arm without seriously interfering with other operations of the collector. When laid on the ground, with the sticks on the underside, this simple instrument may be advantageously used as a cloth on which to sift or examine fungi, moss, pieces of bark, etc., and since the cloth is always tightly expanded, it offers a smooth and level surface, where examination of various objects can be made with ease and accuracy.

_The Umbrella Net._--A very convenient form of net for both sweeping and for use in place of an umbrella for beating has been devised by Dr. George Marx. (See Fig. 53.) It is constructed from an old umbrella, as follows: To the handle of the umbrella are attached two steel rods working on hinges at the apex of the umbrella, as do the ordinary umbrella ribs, and attached to the sliding piece of the umbrella in the same manner, as shown at _a_. These rods should be about 21/2 feet long. When the sliding piece is pushed up and caught behind the spring clip, as shown at _b_, a circular loop is formed giving the framework for the net. The latter, which should be comparatively shallow, is made of stout muslin and sewed to the frame, as in the ordinary sweeping net. The enlarged drawings _c_ and _d_ illustrate clearly the manner of constructing the frame. The advantage of this net is its convenience in carrying and its general usefulness, taking the place of both the umbrella and the sweeping net. When not in use the frame is allowed to assume the position shown at A, and the net may be wrapped about the frame and the whole inserted in an ordinary umbrella cover.

_The Sieve._--This useful aid to good collecting has not been generally employed by American entomologists. It facilitates the finding of small insects living under old leaves, in moss, in decayed trees, in fungi, in ants' nests, or in the ground. Any ordinary sieve about a foot in diameter and with meshes of about one-fifth of an inch will answer, though for durability and convenience of carriage one made of two wire or brass rings and muslin (Fig. 54), as follows, is the best. The ends of the wire netting should be bent around the ring so as not to project. A piece of common muslin about 1 foot wide and long enough to go around the circumference of one of the rings is then sewed together so as to form a kind of cylinder or bag without bottom, and the upper and lower rims of this bag are then sewed on around the two rings. The whole instrument thus forms a bag, the top of which is kept open by the simple wire ring, and the bottom is closed by the second ring covered with the wire netting. After choosing a suitable locality a white cloth is spread as evenly as possible on the ground; the collector then takes the sieve, places therein two or three handfuls of the material to be sifted, returns to his cloth, and, holding with his right hand the lower ring and with the left hand the upper ring, shakes the sieve over the cloth. The larger particles and specimens are retained in the sieve while the smaller fall through the meshes on to the cloth. Care must be taken that the siftings form an even and thin layer on the surface of the cloth, so as to be easily examined from time to time. If the locality is favorable many insects will be seen at the first glance crawling or running about, and these can easily be picked up by means of a moistened brush, or with the forceps. Many other insects, however, either feign death or, at any rate, do not move until after the lapse of several minutes, and the proper investigation of a single sifting often requires much time, and patience will be more fully rewarded here than in any other mode of collecting.

The size of the wire meshes given above is best adapted for sifting the fragments of old decayed trees, which furnish the most frequent material for the use of the sieve, but for sifting ants' nests, soil, etc., a sieve with smaller meshes is desirable.

The sieve is indispensable to the Coleopterist, the Arachnologist, and to the specialist in the smaller Hemiptera and Hymenoptera, but it is also useful for most other orders, many interesting species existing which can be secured in numbers only by this mode of collecting. Many Tineidae and even Noctuidae hide under old leaves, but the specimens are usually rubbed and rendered useless in the process of sifting. Many larvae and pupae can, however, thus be obtained.

If the locality chosen for sifting prove to be a good one, it pays to put the sifted material in a small sack and to carry it home where it can be investigated at leisure, and with a greater thoroughness than is usually possible outdoors. This sack can be easily arranged to be attached to or drawn over the lower ring of the sieve, so that the sifting can be done directly into the sack.

As a rule it may be said that very dry places are least productive, while more or less moist places are apt to furnish a rich harvest. Old wet leaves lying immediately along the edges of swamps, or wet moss, harbor many interesting insects, but such wet material is sifted with difficulty.

The sieve can be used with great advantage at all seasons of the year, but more especially late in fall or early in spring, when so many species are still hibernating.

_The Chisel._--For securing the many insects living or hiding under bark of dying or dead trees an instrument of some sort is indispensable, as, in most cases, the bark so firmly adheres to the wood that it cannot be torn off with the hand. A stout pocket-knife will do good service, but far better is a common chisel of medium size and with a short handle. This chisel is also useful as an instrument for digging in the ground or for investigating the interior of partly decayed logs.

_The Trowel._--Aside from the fact that many insects enter the ground for the purpose of hibernation in various stages, there is a rich subterranean life to be found during the summer. There are many burrowing Coleoptera; many, if not most, ants construct subterranean nests; the number of other fossorial Hymenoptera is very large, and there are also various burrowing Orthoptera and many Lepidopterous larvae which hide in the ground during the day. Some instrument for digging in the ground is therefore of great importance, and while, as stated above, the chisel will answer this purpose if nothing else be at hand, yet there are other instruments which perform the work much quicker and more thoroughly. The most available instrument is a rather small steel trowel, such as can be had at the hardware stores in a great variety of patterns, and which can be carried on excursions without much inconvenience. One with a long and narrow blade, made very stout, I have found very useful, though somewhat awkward to carry.

_The collecting Tweezers._--In the picking up of specimens and transferring them into the various bottles, vials, or boxes, the trained collector will gather by hand the most delicate specimens without injuring them. Yet this labor will be greatly facilitated by the use of the tweezers or the brush. The former is a small, light pair of forceps, made of steel or brass. It should be as pliable as possible, and the tip should be narrow and rounded off and not pointed. It may be either straight or curved at tip, according to individual preference.

Suitable tweezers may be obtained at the larger hardware stores or of watchmakers. Excellent tweezers made of steel (see Fig. 55) are sold for about 40 cents a pair by Codman, Shurtleff & Co., Tremont street, Boston, Mass. Aside from their utility in picking up specimens from the collecting cloth or the umbrella, the tweezers are indispensable for extracting insects from cracks, or holes in timber, or from their burrows in branches and stems of plants, or from places whence it is impossible to dislodge them by hand. The larger "collecting forceps," sold by various dealers, do good service in certain emergencies, as when large scorpions or other very large and ferocious insects are to be secured.

For the handling of mounted insects various special forceps are employed, a number of styles of which are shown at Figs. 56-8.

_The Brush._--A common camel's hair brush, of smaller or larger size according to individual preference, is useful for picking up very small or soft-bodied insects. For this purpose the brush is slightly moistened with saliva, and the tip brought in contact with the specimen, which then adheres to the brush, so that it can readily and without injury be transferred to the collecting bottle or box. The brush is indispensable also for preparing small specimens for the cabinet. If taken into the field the handle of the brush should be of a bright color, otherwise the brush is often lost.

_The Fumigator._--This is not used by American collectors, but there are several patterns sold by European dealers. It is intended to smoke out specimens that hide in otherwise inaccessible places, _e. g._, cracks in the ground, holes in hard wood, etc. The accompanying figure and the following description of a fumigator are taken from Kiesenwetter. A common smoking-pipe mouthpiece (Fig. 59, _a_) with flexible rubber joint (_b_) is attached to the cover (_c_) of a very large smoking-pipe head (_d_). To the mouth (_e_) of the latter a rubber hose (_f_) is attached, which has a convenient discharge at its end (_g_). The pipe is then filled with tobacco, and the latter ignited by means of a piece of burning tinder placed on top; the cover is then screwed on, and the smoke can be directed to any desired point by blowing air through the mouthpiece. The smoke from a common pipe or cigar is often useful. In sifting in cold weather a puff of tobacco smoke gently blown over the debris on the collecting cloth will induce many specimens to move, which otherwise "play possum" and could not be observed; and, further, tobacco smoke blown into holes and cracks in timber by means of an improvised funnel made of a piece of paper will be the means of securing many rare specimens.

_The Haversack._--In order that the above-mentioned instruments and the various bottles, vials, and boxes which are needed for the preservation of specimens may most conveniently and with the least impediment to the collector be carried along on excursions, a haversack is indispensable. This is made either of leather or, still better, of some waterproof cloth, and should contain various compartments of different sizes; one for stowing away the nets, the sieve, and the larger instruments, and several smaller ones for boxes and vials--the whole so arranged that each desired object can readily be taken out and that nothing will drop out and get lost. The haversack is slung across the shoulders by means of a leather strap, and a full field outfit need not be very heavy nor seriously interfere with free bodily movements.

Many of the smaller objects are most conveniently carried in the pockets of the coat, which acquires, therefore, some importance to the collector. The coat should be of some durable stuff and provided with many pockets, so arranged that in stooping nothing falls out of them.

_The Lens and Microscope._--In the examination of the minuter forms of insect life the naked eye is not sufficient, and a hand-lens, or, for more delicate work, the compound microscope will be found necessary. I had, in my early experience, some difficulty in getting a satisfactory hand-lens, and the use of a poor hand-lens in time injures the eyesight, as I know by a year's rather disagreeable experience. For a hand-lens the achromatic lenses formerly manufactured by A. K. Eaton, of Brooklyn, N. Y., and now made by John Green, 35 Liverpool street, East Boston, Mass., are most excellent in workmanship and are satisfactory in every respect. A very good lens can also be purchased of any of the leading manufacturers of microscopical apparatus in this country. The kind of compound microscope to be purchased will depend upon the nature of the work of the investigator. Very serviceable instruments are made by J. W. Queen & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., and by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, of Rochester, N. Y., and others. The German microscopes are in many respects superior to those of American make, and if one has sufficient means, I would recommend the purchase of one of the better instruments of Zeiss's manufacture, which may be obtained either direct from the manufacturers or through Queen & Co., or from the Boston Educational Supply Company. Microscopic material, including slides, cover glasses, instruments for mounting, mounting media, staining fluids, etc., may be obtained of either of the firms named above.

Having thus indicated somewhat fully the general methods of collecting, and the paraphernalia most desirable in collecting, it will be well to go still further into detail, and in connection with the different orders give some more specific information that will be valuable as a guide not only to the general collector, but to the specialist.

COLLECTING HYMENOPTERA.

The insects of this order, including Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon-flies, Gall-flies, Saw-flies, and allied insects have always been of unusual interest both to entomologists and non-entomologists on account of their diversified and peculiar habits. In abundance of species they exceed perhaps even the Coleoptera. In general they are day fliers and always to be found in abundance on bright days about flowers. The best season for collecting is in early spring, on the bloom of the Willow, Alder, and other trees. They may also be found at any season of the year, but the males of many species are only to be taken in fall. In this order, species of many groups can be most easily obtained by breeding. This includes the gall-making family, Cynipidae, and the parasitic families Chalcididae, Proctotrypidae, Ichneumonidae and Braconidae. The Chrysididae and certain other less important families are also parasitic, but are more easily obtained by general collecting. The implements necessary for collecting Hymenoptera are the sweeping-net and the beating-net. Many rare forms of the smaller parasitic families may be obtained by sweeping the grass and foliage of all sorts. The Proctotrypidae may be collected in quantity by sifting leaves and rubbish collected in the woods. Mr. William H. Ashmead, who has made an especial study of this group, finds winter sifting profitable. Dried leaves and rubbish are sifted, the finer portion being retained and transferred to a bag. When a sufficient quantity is collected it is removed to a warm room. Many hibernating species are taken in this way, and, revived by the warmth, are easily noticed when the material is spread on white paper.

On account of the interest attaching to a knowledge of the various hosts of parasitic insects the collector should always aim to obtain the latter by breeding as much as possible. This can easily be done by keeping a lookout for larvae of all sorts which give evidence of being parasitized. The larvae of Lepidoptera found late in the fall are very apt to be parasitized, and should be collected and kept over the winter. The parasites will emerge throughout the winter season and in the early spring. Such larvae will be found on the trunks of trees, in the crevices of the bark, and the cocoons of parasites will also be found in similar situations.

The Tenthredinidae (Saw-flies) are not so often found about flowers but usually remain in the vicinity of the food-plant of the larva, and may many of them be collected by sweeping. The larvae of this family are in many cases difficult to breed, as most of them are single-brooded, and it becomes necessary to carry the larvae over the winter.

The Gall-flies, Cynipidae, are the easiest of the families to collect, because of their abundance and because of the ease with which they may be reared. Their galls occur in enormous variety on oaks of various species and also upon brambles and certain common weeds. These should be collected when mature and be kept in glass jars. The Gall-flies and inquilinous and parasitic species may thus be easily obtained, the former appearing at particular seasons and the latter emerging from the galls at all seasons of the year, and sometimes continuing to escape for a period exceeding two years.

One of the most interesting families in this order is the Formicidae, which comprises the true ants. In the case of these insects isolated specimens should not ordinarily be collected, and it is especially desirable to collect the species from colonies so that the three forms (males, females, and workers) may be obtained together. This holds also in the case of the social wasps and bees, but the different sexes of the latter may be collected in a season's collecting about flowers, the females and workers in early spring and the males in the fall.

The Uroceridae or woodborers are to be found only about trees in which the larvae breed. They may frequently be taken about tree trunks, or burrowing with their long gimlet-like ovipositors into the trunks of trees to oviposit. Breeding is also a satisfactory method of obtaining these insects.

Some special methods of collecting Hymenoptera may be briefly outlined. In the case of the social bees, particularly bumble-bees, and also the smaller wasps and yellow-jackets, a very satisfactory method of collecting consists in first stupefying the insects in the nest by introducing a small amount of chloroform, benzine, or bisulphide of carbon. This should preferably be done in the late evening, after all the insects have come in for the night. The nest may then be opened and examined without any danger of being stung, and the different forms may thus easily be obtained, together with any rare parasitic or inquilinous insects. In the case of the nests of Bombi this is the best method of obtaining the inquilinous Apathus species.

On account of the danger of being stung, and also on account of the extremely quick flight of these insects, the removing of Hymenoptera from the net is not always an easy task, and in many cases rare specimens escape. One method of avoiding the danger of being stung is to have the collecting net constructed with an opening at the bottom which, during the sweeping, is tied with a string. When a sufficient quantity of insects is obtained they are, by a few quick motions, driven to the bottom of the net, and the net is then seized just above the insects with the hand, the folds of cloth preventing the insects from getting to the hand, so that there is little danger of being stung. The lower end is then carefully untied and inserted into a wide-mouthed bottle, and the contents of the net shaken out into the bottle. After the catch is stupefied the vial may be turned out and the undesirable material discarded. A second method consists in the use of an ordinary sweeping-net of light material. A quantity of Hymenoptera are collected from flowers and driven to the bottom of the net, and secured as in the preceding method. The portion of the net containing the insects is then, by means of a pair of forceps, thrust bodily into a large collecting bottle. After a few minutes the insects are stupefied and may be readily examined.

COLLECTING COLEOPTERA.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS.--Owing to their hard outer skeleton, Coleoptera can be collected, handled, and preserved with greater safety and with less trouble than most other orders of insects. From this fact, and from their very great diversity in form, Coleoptera have, next to the Lepidoptera, always been favorites. As a consequence, there are now more species described in this than in any other order, and in the large museums they are much better represented than other insects. This rich material has been studied by numerous and competent specialists, and the classification of Coleoptera is at present more advanced and more accessible than that of the other orders. This fact gives stimulus to neophytes, and though the literature of our North American fauna is much scattered and we are still in want of comprehensive works (with the exception of the general "Classification" by Drs. Le Conte and Horn), yet, except in a few hitherto neglected families and smaller groups, the species are fairly well worked up.

On the other hand, our knowledge of the earlier states of Coleoptera is yet very imperfect as compared with the Lepidoptera. Coleopterous larvae are, with few exceptions (notably Coccinellidae and some Chrysomelidae), much more difficult to find and rear, and their distinguishing characters are more difficult to study. The few comprehensive works on Coleopterous larvae that have been published are based on rather scant material and none of them deal with the North American fauna.

Coleoptera occur in all climates and in all localities. Species are known from the highest northern latitudes ever reached by man, and in the tropics they occur in an embarrassing richness of forms. They are found in the most arid desert lands, in the depths of our subterranean caves, and on our highest mountains up to the line of eternal snow. The open ocean and the open water of our Great Lakes are the only regions free from them. As a rule, the number of species gradually increases from the Arctic regions toward the tropics, but it would be difficult to decide, speaking of North America, whether or not the fauna of the Middle States is poorer in the number of species than that of the Southern States; or whether the beetles of the Atlantic slope outnumber those of the Pacific States or those of the Central region. On the Pacific slope the influence of the seasons on insect life is greater than on the Atlantic slope. While in the latter region a number of species may be found the whole year round, there is, in the more arid regions of the West, an abundance of insect life during and shortly after the rainy season, with great scarcity during the dry season, except, perhaps, on the high mountains.

Few persons have had a more extended experience in collecting Coleoptera than Mr. E. A. Schwarz, one of my assistants, and the following account has been prepared by him at my request and is given _in extenso_.

WINTER COLLECTING.--There are more species of Coleoptera hibernating in the imago state[3] than in any other order and winter collecting is therefore most profitable in many respects. For instance, great swampy tracts which are inaccessible in the summer season harbor an abundance of rare Coleoptera, which either can not be found in summer time or are found at that season with the greatest difficulty. At the approach of winter, however, all or most of these species will leave the swamp and seek drier ground, where they hibernate under old leaves, under bark of trees, or in rotten stumps near the edge of the swamp. Such places will, therefore, give a rich harvest to the Coleopterist late in the fall, during warm spells in midwinter, and in very early spring. If the temperature is below the freezing point, or if the ground is frozen hard, no winter collecting should be attempted, first, on account of sanitary considerations, and also because the Coleoptera then retreat more deeply into the ground and can not be found so easily as when the ground is free from frost. Other good collecting places in winter are the accumulated old leaves along the edges of forests or under the shrubbery along water courses, thick layers of moss, and the loose bark of dead or dying trees, and, finally, also under the bark of certain living trees, _e. g._ Pines, Sycamore, Shellbark Hickory. Digging in the ground at the base of large trees or rocks also yields good returns. The only instruments necessary for winter collecting are the sieve, the chisel, and the trowel.

[3] There are a few species of Coleoptera known in Europe which belong
to the true "winter insects," _i. e._ such as appear in the imago state
only during winter time, but whether or not we have such species in our
own fauna has not yet been ascertained.

SPRING COLLECTING.--With the first days of spring, collecting becomes a little more varied. The methods used for winter collecting can still be continued with good success. Certain spring flowers, notably Willow blossoms, will furnish many valuable species, which are not seen again during the rest of the season.

_Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous species._--The early spring is also the best time for collecting the Myrmecophilous and Termitophilous Coleoptera. Termitophilous species have in North America hitherto been found only in connection with the White-ants (_Termes flavipes_), and the inquilinous beetles are found running among the White-ants in the colonies under stones, loose bark of trees, and more numerously in the interior of old infested trees. Myrmecophilous Coleoptera are by far more numerous in species than the Termitophilous species and are found among many species of ants which have their nests either under stones or loose bark of trees, in stumps or logs, or which construct larger or smaller hills. Upon uncovering a colony of ants under a stone, the underside of the latter as well as the galleries of the ants in the ground should be carefully examined for inquilines, which from their greater or slighter resemblance to the ants are liable to be overlooked by an inexperienced collector. If such colony of ants harbors a rare beetle the subterranean part of the colony itself should be dug out and sifted, but since from the stony nature of the ground this is not always practicable it is to be recommended to carefully replace the stone under which the colony has been found. Upon revisiting the spot again the next day or even a few hours after the first visit additional specimens of the inquilines are usually to be obtained on the stone or in the superficial galleries of the ants. Ant colonies in hollow trees and in rotten logs should be sifted and there is no particular difficulty connected with this operation. Owing to the pugnacious character of the hill-constructing ants it would seem to be a rather unpleasant task to examine a strong and vigorous colony for inquilinous beetles, but the collector must not mind being bitten and stung by the infuriated ants, and after a little experience he will find that it is not such a difficult thing after all to attack even the largest ant-hill. The only thorough way of investigating such ant-hills is to sieve the same, which can be easily done if the hill is composed of sticks and other vegetable debris. If it is built of earth or sand the process of sifting is more difficult and tedious. Another method of securing specimens of these inquilinous beetles is to place flat stones or similar objects on the surface of the ant-hill and to examine them occasionally, when the beetles will be found on the underside of the traps.

_Spring Flights of Coleoptera._--On the first really warm days of spring commences the "swarming" season of Coleoptera, when all winged species are flying about, especially toward evening. On favorable days the number of specimens and species that can thus be found is astonishingly great, and this is one of the few occasions when the Coleopterist can advantageously use a light butterfly net. The flying beetles preferably alight and rest on the top of wooden fences (especially newly made ones), on the railings of bridges, etc., where they can be easily seen and secured, or they are attracted in great numbers by the white-painted surface of buildings. This flying season lasts in the latitude of Washington from the end of April to the middle of June, but favorable days are not of frequent occurrence, since a peculiar combination of atmospheric conditions appears to be necessary to induce the Coleoptera to fly about in great numbers.

_Beach collecting._--Along the shores of the ocean and the Great Lakes untold numbers of Coleoptera and other insects fall at this season into the water, and, if the tides, the currents, and the winds be favorable, they are washed ashore by the waves on the sandy beaches, where they often form windrows several inches in height and width. If the collector is happy enough to be at the right place on the right day he has then the opportunity to pick up hundreds of rare species within a very short time and without any trouble. Many of the specimens thus washed ashore are dead and decayed, but the majority are alive and in excellent condition. This "beach collecting" affords also an excellent opportunity for the Hymenopterist and Hemipterist to secure large numbers of rare species, but favorable days are also here of rare occurrence.

_Attracting by Lights._--On the beaches, day and night flying insects can thus be captured. Away from the beach night-flying Coleoptera can best be collected at the electric lights of our cities; but, as in the Lepidoptera, not all night-flying species are attracted by the light. Gas and other lights also attract Coleoptera, and the various "light traps" that have been devised and described can advantageously be used for collecting these insects.

_Traps._--The method of "sugaring," so important to the Lepidopterist, is by far less favorable for collecting Coleoptera. Still, certain rare Carabidae, Elateridae, and Cerambycidae are attracted by this bait, and the Coleopterist should not entirely ignore this mode of collecting. There are a few other methods of trapping certain Coleoptera. By laying out dead mammals, birds, fishes, snakes, etc., on suitable places and so that they are protected from dogs, rats, etc., the carrion-feeding Coleoptera can be found in great abundance, but a cleaner and less disagreeable method of obtaining them is to bury in the ground tin cans or glass jars so that the top is even with the surrounding ground and to bait them with pieces of meat, fried fish, boiled eggs, etc. Many Curculionidae, Scolytidae, and numerous other wood-inhabiting species can be successfully trapped in the following way: A number of branches, preferably of only one kind of tree, are cut and tied up into bundles of convenient size. The bundles are then laid on the ground in a shady place or firmly fastened on trunks of trees. When the cut branches begin to get dry they will attract many of these Coleoptera, which can then be readily collected by shaking the bundles out over the collecting cloth.

_Freshets._--Freshets usually take place in springtime in most of our rivers and creeks, and furnish the means of obtaining a multitude of Coleoptera, among which there will be many species which can not, or only accidentally, be found otherwise. These freshets, sweeping over the low banks or inundating wide stretches of low land, carry with them all insects that have been caught by the inundation. Intermingled with, and usually clinging to, the various floating debris, these insects are eventually washed ashore by the current at various points and the Coleopterist should not miss this rare opportunity, but go out to the river bank at a time when the water is still rising, or at least when it has attained its highest point. Among, or on the washed up debris, a multitude of Coleoptera of various families can be found, and the specimens can either be gathered up on the spot or a quantity of the debris be put in sacks and taken home, where it can be examined more thoroughly and with greater leisure than out of doors. A day or so after the floods have receded the washed up specimens will have dispersed and only a few will remain in the debris for a longer period. Still more profitable than the spring floods are the summer freshets, because a larger and more diversified lot of Coleoptera is then brought down by the water. A similar opportunity for collecting is offered near the seashore if unusually high tides inundate the low marshes along the bayous and inlets.

SUMMER COLLECTING.--During the latter part of spring and throughout the whole summer, when the vegetation is fully developed, every possible collecting method can be carried on with success, so that the beginner hardly knows what particular method to use. There are stones to be turned over; old logs, stumps, and hollow trees to be investigated; newly felled or wounded trees to be carefully inspected; here a spot favorable for sifting claims attention; promising meadows and low herbage in the woods invite the use of the sweeping net; living or dead branches of all sorts of trees and shrubs to be worked with the umbrella; the mud or gravel banks of ponds, lakes, rivers, and creeks afford excellent collecting places; the numerous aquatic beetles are to be collected in the water itself; the dung beetles to be extracted from their unsavory habitations; in the evening the electric and other lights are to be visited, the lightning beetles chased on meadows and in the woods, or the wingless but luminous females of some species of this family to be looked for on the ground, and the trees and shrubs are to be beaten after dark in search of May beetles and other nocturnal leaf-feeding species which can not be obtained at daytime; and, finally, some of the rarest Scarabaeidae and some other species fly only late at night or again only before sunrise.

In view of this embarrassing multitude of collecting opportunities in a good locality, the beginner is apt to be at a loss what course to pursue. Experience alone can teach here, and only an expert collector is able to decide, at a glance at the locality before him, what collecting method is likely to produce the best results, and his judgment will rarely be at fault.

It is impossible to go into details regarding the various collecting methods, just mentioned, and only a few general directions can be given regarding those methods which have not previously been alluded to.

_Collecting under Stones._--Turning over stones is a favorite method among beginners and yields chiefly Carabidae, the larger Staphylinidae, certain Curculionidae, and a multitude of species of other families. Stones on very dry ground are productive, only early in spring or in the fall, while those on moist ground, in the shade of woods, are good at all seasons. In the Alpine regions of our mountainous districts, especially above the timber line, collecting under stones becomes the most important method, and is especially favorable along the edges of snow fields. In often frequented localities the collector should carefully replace the stones, especially those under which he has found rare specimens. The neglect of this rule is one of the principal causes for certain rare species having become extinct in the vicinity of our cities.

_Collecting in rotten Stumps and Logs._--Success in collecting in rotten stumps depends much upon the more or less advanced stage of decay as well as upon the situation of the log and upon the particular kind of wood. If the decay is very much advanced neither the loose bark nor the interior of the log will harbor many Coleoptera excepting a multitude of _Passalus cornutus_ and its larvae. If the decay is less advanced, but if such log is exposed to the scorching rays of the sun, it will be far less productive than a log in a shady situation. The investigation of the bark of a favorably situated log in the right stage of decay does not need any special instruction, but the decayed wood itself should be pried off with a chisel or trowel, put in the sieve and sifted on the collecting cloth. This is the best way of obtaining the numerous species of rare Micro-coleoptera of various families that inhabit such places. A "red rotten" oak or beech log is more favorable for this mode of collecting than a "white rotten" of the same or other kinds of trees.

_Collecting in dying or dead Trees._--Dying or dead trees almost always harbor a large number of Coleoptera and offer an excellent collecting opportunity until the wood becomes thoroughly dry, which usually takes place in large trees two or three years after the death of the tree, and in less time with smaller ones. The bark of such trees is the best collecting place for Cucujidae, Colydiidae, Scolytidae, Histeridae, etc., and it will be found that the shady side of the tree is more profitable than the side exposed to the sun. The numerous Buprestidae, Elateridae, Ptinidae, Cerambycidae, Melandryidae, etc., which breed in the wood can be obtained only with difficulty. Some specimens may be cut out from their holes by a skillful use of the knife or hatchet; others (especially the Buprestidae) may be found resting on or crawling over the trunk in the bright sunshine, while the more nocturnal species may be found on the tree toward evening or after dark, when, of course, a lantern must be used. A large proportion of the species living in the trunks of dead trees also breed in the dead branches of otherwise healthy trees from which they can be beaten into the umbrella, or where the use of the knife is more practicable than in the large trunks. The trunks of freshly felled trees attract numbers of Cerambycidae and Buprestidae and have to be carefully looked over, while the drying foliage of such trees affords an excellent opportunity for the use of the umbrella.

_Beating living Trees, Shrubs, and Vines._--The success of beating into the umbrella branches of living trees and shrubs depends on the particular kind of tree or shrub, on the condition and situation of these, and largely also upon the season. Pine trees are very productive from early in the spring to early in the summer, but much less so in midsummer and later on. Young Oak trees or Oak shrubs are much more preferred by the leaf-eating Coleoptera peculiar to this tree than the older trees. The Beech, which, next to the Oak, is the best tree for wood-boring species, harbors but few leaf-eating species. The leaves of the Chestnut are also generally not attacked by Coleoptera; still a surprising number of species can be beaten from this tree when it is in blossom. There is not a single species of Coleoptera known to live in the wood or to feed on the leaves of the Holly (_Ilex glabra_); still it will pay the Coleopterist to beat this tree when it is in bloom. Trees, shrubs, and vines in the interior of unbroken forest districts are, as a rule, unproductive, while the edges of the woods, narrow strips of hedges, and especially solitary trees are excellent collecting places. In the Rocky Mountains, especially in the more southern sections, long stretches of mountain slopes are occasionally perfectly bare of vegetation with the exception of a few solitary, sickly-looking, and dwarfed trees, but every one of these is a veritable gold mine to the Coleopterist with his umbrella.

_Sweeping._--The use of the beating net continues profitable from spring till fall, a different set of species appearing with each season. Low and swampy meadows, meadows on the slopes of mountains or surrounded by woods, low underbrush, and herbage in smaller patches of woods are very good beating grounds. Dry and sandy meadows are less productive, but harbor usually a different set of species on account of the difference in the flora. Pastures and meadows much frequented by cattle and horses are much less productive, and where a large number of sheep are kept there is usually no chance for using the beating net, since neither grass nor specimens are left. The lawns in our parks and gardens are usually poor collecting ground on account of the limited variety of plants in such places; but the few species found there occur in enormous number of specimens. The endless stretches of our western prairies swarm at the right season (in June) with numerous Coleoptera (mostly Malachiidae, Chrysomelidae, Mordellidae, Curculionidae, etc.), provided prairie fires have not swept too frequently over the place. Fires and cattle produce a remarkable change in the flora and fauna of the prairies; many indigenous species disappear or become scarce and are replaced by a much smaller number of imported species.

Sweeping may commence in the forenoon as soon as the dew has disappeared; it is less profitable in the heat of the midday, but produces the best results late in the afternoon and more especially in the short interval from just before sunset until dark. At this time many rare Pselaphidae and Scydmaenidae, species of the genera _Colon_ and _Anisotoma_, and other small Silphidae can be beaten from the tips of grasses, all being species which can not, or only accidentally, be found during daytime, when they hide between the roots of plants.