Chapter IX: Introduction (8)

[162] This passage was entirely misunderstood by the earlier translators. The family of the Embriaci was one of the most ancient of the patricians of Genoa; and one of its members, Guillelmus Embriacus, was named commander of the fleet which was sent to aid the Christian princes of Syria, and which, in 1109, took Byblus, of which he became the feudal lord. The jealousy of the other patrician families was subsequently roused, but the family of the Embriaci succeeded in retaining their feudal tenure. The supreme government of the city, however, at this time, appears to have been vested in a committee of seven persons, six of whom were delegated by the republic, the place of president being always filled by one of the Embriaci. William of Tyre (xi. 9) relates the conquest of Byblus by the Genoese, and informs us that the Christian name of the Embriacus who governed when he wrote (about 1180) was Hugo, "a grandson of the Hugo who conquered it;" but all other historians call the conqueror Guillelmus, and Mr. Asher thinks that we ought to read, in Benjamin's text, [Hebrew: גוליימו], which stands for William, instead of Julianus.

[163] Joshua, xviii. 25.

[164] It is well known from other sources that Tyre was celebrated in the middle ages for the manufacture of glass.

[165] Isaiah, xxiii. 8.

[166] The modern Nahr-el-Mukattua. See Judges, v. 21.

[167] Joshua, xix. 13. Modern writers identify Kaiffa with the ancient Ephah, and not with Gath.

[168] Kings, xviii. 30.

[169] Joshua, xv. 44.

[170] Judges, i. 26.

[171] Deut. xi. 29.

[172] To which place, according to the tenets of the Talmudic Jews, the offerings are confined, and since the destruction of which they have been discontinued.

[173] Joshua, xxiv. 32.

[174] Modern critics and travellers appear to confirm this statement relating to the peculiar pronunciation of the three letters by the Samaritans.

[175] At present Yâlo.

[176] The knights templars.

[177] Jesus is thus called in the Talmud.

[178] 1 Kings, iv. 26.

[179] 2 Sam. xviii. 18.

[180] 2 Kings, xv. 1-7.

[181] After the slaughter of the Jews of Jerusalem by the crusaders, the few that were saved from destruction were dispersed in all directions. Those persons who mourned over these unhappy circumstances were called "mourners of Jerusalem," and are mentioned under that title more than once by Benjamin. We find these mourners even among the Caraites about 1147. We read in several ancient Jewish writers of the danger incurred by the Jews who visited Jerusalem while it remained in the power of the Christians. Pethachia found only one Jew at Jerusalem, whereas Benjamin speaks of 200. A numerous congregation was again to be met with there about 1190; but about 1216 great discord prevailed among them in consequence of the pretensions of the different congregations.

[182] Gen. xxxv. 19, 20.

[183] It may be observed that most of the richer stuffs, the siclatons, &c., used in the west of Europe during the middle ages, came from the east, which accounts for the number of dyers mentioned by the traveller.

[184] Gen. xxiii. 19.

[185] The "House of Abraham" is still shown to travellers, about an hour's ride from Hebron, the site being occupied by the ruins of a small convent.

[186] Joshua, xv. 44. It is the Bethogabris of the Greek and Latin writers, and supposed to be the Eleutheropolis of the early Christian fathers.

[187] Joshua, xix. 18.

[188] 1 Sam. i. 1.

[189] The rocks of Jonathan, mentioned (1 Sam. xiv. 5) as being between Gibeah and Michmash, and which formed a narrow path between the two places, were also seen by Robinson and Smith. "Directly between Jeba and Mukhmâs are two conical hills, not very high, which are probably the scene of Jonathan's romantic adventure against the Philistines, recorded in 1 Sam. xiv."

[190] 2 Chron. xxvi. 6.

[191] The Azotus of the ancient geographers.

[192] The Esdraela of the Greeks, called by the historians of the crusades Gerinum and Zarain.

[193] Now called Sephoury.

[194] Numbers, xxxiv. 11.

[195] Deut. iii. 17.

[196] During the middle ages Jews were not unfrequently employed as astrologers by the Arabian princes. R. Isaac, the son of Baruch (A.D. 1080), appears, among others, to have rendered services of this kind to Almohammad. King Alphonso of Castile also entertained Jews who were proficients in astrology. The surname [Hebrew: חוזה], astrologer, was borne by Abraham in Tiberias. Eliezer, author of an astrological book of chances, lived in 1559. We also find mention of Joseph, astrologer of Seifeddin, sultan of Mosul; R. Isaac, an astronomer of the twelfth century in France; and Salomon, an astronomer in Nineveh.

[197] Jochanan, son of Zakhai, was a celebrated teacher of the Mishna in the time of Vespasian; later catalogues mention his sepulchre in Tiberias. The Jews have a legend relating to him full of extraordinary fables. Some persons have supposed him to be the "John" mentioned in Acts iv. 6.

[198] This identification is evidently an error, as Thimnatha was in Judea, far to the south of Tiberias, and could not be Tebnin. Benjamin falls into another error in placing here the sepulchre of Samuel, who was buried in Ramah. Mr. Asher proposes to read Simeon.

[199] Meirûn is still a place of pilgrimage to the Jews of the vicinity, who resort thither on certain days to say prayers on the sepulchres of some rabbis; and this corroborates our text, according to which Hillel and Shamai, the two most celebrated teachers of the Talmud, who flourished before the birth of our Saviour, are interred in a cave near Merûn. This legend must have been very prevalent at our author's time, as it is also reported by Pethachia, who adds that a large stone vase, situated in the cave of the sepulchre, filled itself spontaneously with water whenever a worthy man entered it for the purpose of devotion, but remained empty if the visitor was a man of doubtful character. The two other persons whose sepulchres are mentioned here were celebrated teachers of the law, who flourished in the third and second centuries; but Jewish writers appear to differ as to the places of their burial. The second of them is said to have traced his descent from one of the skeletons restored to life by the prophet Ezekiel.

[200] All the persons mentioned here were celebrated rabbis of the first century before, and the three centuries after Christ, except Barak, who is well known by the fourth chapter of the book of Judges.

[201] This is Paneas, or Baneas, the ancient Cæsarea Philippi.

[202] This identification is not quite correct, the ancient Dan having been situated on another small rivulet, still called Dan, and distant about four Roman miles west of Paneas on the way to Tyre. William of Tyre also identifies Dan with Cæsarea. The apparent source of the Jordan flows from under a cave at the foot of a precipice, in the sides of which are several niches with Greek inscriptions, which Benjamin has mistaken for the altar of Micha.

[203] This is a mistake of rabbi Benjamin, as this term, used in Deut. xi. 24, means the Mediterranean.

[204] It is hardly necessary to state that this was the celebrated sultan of Damascus, Aleppo, and Egypt, so well known in the history of the crusades. He reigned from 1145 to 1173.

[205] 2 Kings, v. 12. The ancient Greek name of the river was Chrysorrhoas; in modern Arabic it is called the Barady.

[206] 2 Kings v. 12. It is now called El Faige.

[207] Jerem. xlix. 27; Amos, i. 4.

[208] The earthquake alluded to visited this part of Syria in 1157, at which period Hamah, Antiochia, Emessa, Apamea, Laodicea, and many other cities, were laid in ruins. R. Benjamin calls the river Orontes Jabbok; the Arabians call it Oroad, or Asi. Rieha, or Reiha, is a name still borne by a place and mountain in this part of the road from Damascus to Aleppo. Burckhardt mentions ruins of numerous towns still visible on the mountain, among which we must look for Lamdin, mentioned in our text, but by no other traveller or geographer. The road between Damascus and Aleppo, pursued even by all modern travellers, goes by Homs and Tadmor. Burckhardt was the first to deviate from this route.

[209] Numb. xxii. 5. Deut. xxiii. 4. It is the Barbarissus of the Romans. Bales was taken by the crusaders under Tancred in 1111.

[210] The Dauses, or Davana, of the Greeks. In the history of the crusades, Kalat (or fort) Jiaber is often mentioned; and the circumstances alluded to by our author are told at length by Desguignes. In Abulfeda's time this place was a deserted ruin; but the castle, built on a mound of marl and gypsum, still stands, thirty-five miles below Bir, on the left bank of the Euphrates.

[211] The Callinicus of the Greeks, afterwards called Nicephorium.

[212] The Carrhæ of the ancients. The site of the house of Abraham is still pointed out as an object of veneration. Mr. Asher observes that, from Aleppo to Racca, our author, like most modern and ancient travellers, followed the course of the Euphrates; but being probably attracted, like Marco Polo, by the considerable trade then carried on at Mosul, he proceeded thither from Racca, by way of Haran, Nisibis, and Jezireh, a route pointed out as probably used by Alexander on Rennel's map of the retreat of the Ten Thousand.

[213] It appears that the name of a city is omitted here. Our author probably wrote "from thence to Ras-el-Ain," at which place the Khabur becomes a formidable river.

[214] This is of course not the true Ararat. It is called Jebel Judi. The island is the ancient Bezebde.

[215] See p. 68, note.

[216] The ancient Erbela.

[217] The ancient Cercusium.

[218] All these were celebrated Jewish rabbis in the earlier centuries of the Christian era.

[219] The khalif alluded to by Benjamin was either Moktafi, who died in 1160, or Mostanjeh-abul-Modhaffer, who reigned from his death to 1170. It is probable that Benjamin was at Bagdad in 1164.

[220] Dar-al-Morabittan in Arabic; literally, abode of those who require being chained, _i. e._ of the raving mad.

[221] The ceremony of consecration, performed by the prince of captivity, consisted in his laying his hands on the heads of the candidates.

[222] The place where the rolls of the Pentateuch are deposited. It is generally elevated above the seats of the congregation.

[223] Gen. x. 12. Ras-al-Ain is the Ressaina of the Romans; it is erroneously identified with Resen.

[224] The name is omitted in all editions.

[225] This tradition of the burning furnace is mentioned by the Arabian geographers, by whom we are further informed that the ashes still remained.

[226] These are also some of the early rabbis concerning whom the Jews possess many legends; the places of burial of others are mentioned further on.

[227] Benjamin here alludes to the Birs Nimrud, which is, however, more than four miles from Hillah. _Al-ajurr_ is the Persian word for these bricks.

[228] Perhaps the Nachaba of Ptolemy. It is not found in modern maps.

[229] This celebrated sepulchre is still a place of pilgrimage to the Jews and Mohammedans in the east.

[230] 2 Kings, xxv. 27. Jerem. lii. 31.

[231] Celebrated on the first and tenth of Thishri (about the end of September or the beginning of October).

[232] 2 Kings, xxiv. 17.

[233] The sites of Ain Japhata, and the other places mentioned here, have not yet been traced by modern travellers. Colonel Shiel ('Journal of the Geog. Soc.,' vol. viii. p. 93) found a tomb near Elkoth, east of the Tigris, at the foot of the mountains which border Kurdistan, which the natives described as that of Nahum.

[234] Fasting being prohibited on these days by the Talmud. This proves Niebuhr's supposition, that they were Talmudists, to be correct.

[235] The name of a city appears to be omitted here.

[236] Waset is the ancient Cybate. The Hebrew text reads Naset, which Mr. Asher has rightly corrected.

[237] The name of a city is omitted here; no doubt Kornah, on the Samarra, or ancient Delos. The sepulchre of Ezra is described by various modern travellers; it is still an object of pilgrimage to the Jews of the east.

[238] The exact site of Shushan (Susa) is a subject of some doubt among modern geographers. The old Arabian writers give a variety of legends relating to Daniel's tomb.

[239] Sanjar was a very celebrated and powerful prince. He conquered Samarkand in 1140, and died in 1157, shortly before Benjamin visited the east.

[240] Benjamin's account of the Assassins, and their residence at Mulehet, coincides very closely with that given by Marco Polo. It has been supposed that the sect of the Assassins originated in this district of Persia.

[241] That is, probably, in A.D. 1155; for 1165 appears to be about the year in which Benjamin of Tudela visited Persia. The history of David El-Roy, and the scene of his imposture, have been illustrated by Major Rawlinson in a memoir communicated to the Geographical Society of London, and printed in its Transactions.

[242] Shem Hamphorash, literally, the explained name, the letters of the word Jehovah in their full explanation, a mystery known but to very few, and by which it is believed wonders may be executed. The wonders performed by Jesus are ascribed in the Talmud to his knowledge of this mystery.

[243] Hamadan, which is now in a state of ruin, is said to stand on or near the site of the ancient Ecbatana. The sepulchre of Mordecai and Esther is still shown there.

[244] This town is conjectured to be Farahabad.

[245] The city of Khiva.

[246] 2 Kings, xvii. 6, and xviii. 11. And the king of Assyria did carry away Israel unto Assyria, and put them in Halah and in Habor, by the river Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes.

[247] Of the tribe of Levi, the descendants of which are divided into Leviim and Khohanim, and are the only Jews who to this day claim the descent from a certain tribe, all others having mixed and become extinct in the course of time.

[248] These were the Ghuzes, a Turkish tribe who emigrated in the twelfth century from the country to the north of the Oxus. The events mentioned in the text seem to have occurred in 1153, when the Ghuzes revolted against the Persians, defeated the sultan, and plundered Mero and Nishabour. The sultan was made a prisoner, and only escaped and returned to his own country in 1156.

[249] A sort of pea. See Lee's Ibn-Batuta, p. 106.

[250] In April.

[251] In October.

[252] Chulam, the Koulam of Marco Polo and Ibn-Batuta, was an important place on the coast of Malabar, but is much reduced in modern times.

[253] Negroes.

[254] _i. e._ From April to October.

[255] Nine o'clock in the morning.

[256] Mr. Asher observes, upon this passage, "Our author states the ancient inhabitants of Chulam to be fire worshippers. Edrisi, however, (i. 176,) says of the king, 'he adores the idol of Boudha,' and Ibn-Batuta reports him to be 'an infidel.' Although the latter appellation was applied by the Mohammedans to the fire worshippers, we have no sufficient proof to show that Edrisi's information is wrong, or that the majority of the population adored the sun as a deity. There is no doubt, however, that Malabar became the asylum of this ancient sect after it had been vanquished by the Mohammedans, and had been forced by persecution, not only to seek refuge in the mountainous and less accessible parts of Persia (Kerman and Herat), but to toil on to distant regions. They found a resting place beyond the Indus, which they crossed in fear of their unrelenting pursuers; and here we still find their descendants, the Parsees, who form 'a numerous and highly respectable class of the population.' Very able papers on the history, religion, and worship of the Guebres, will be found in vols. i. and iii. of Ouseley's 'Travels,' and in Ritter's 'Erdkunde,' v. 615."

[257] Psalms, xlix. 14.

[258] The modern Ceylon. Benjamin appears to call the inhabitants Druzes because he had been told that, like the Druzes of Syria, they believed in the metempsychosis. We learn from the Arabian geographer, Edrisi, that there was a large population of Jews in Ceylon at this time.

[259] A blank occurs here in the two early editions.

[260] Our author is the first European who mentions China by this name.

[261] Literally, continental India.

[262] 2 Kings, xix. 12.

[263] Gen. x. 7; 1 Chron. i. 9.

[264] Chalua or Aloua, the Ghalua of Edrisi (i. 33), is mentioned by the Arabian writers as the starting point for the caravans which traversed the desert of Saharah, and carried on the trade with northern Africa. Zavila, Zuila, Zuela of our maps, Zavila of Edrisi (i. 258-9), was remarkable for the splendour of its bazaars and buildings, as well as for its beautiful streets and thoroughfares. From Zuila the caravans proceeded almost due south to Ganah, in the interior of Africa.

[265] Exod. i. 11.

[266] The Pentateuch is divided into fifty-four Parashioth, of seven portions each; and the custom of the Babylonians, as described in the text, is practised at present almost universally.

[267] The former is celebrated on the last day of the feast of tabernacles, (Deut. xvi. 13-15,) the latter with the feast of weeks (ibid. 9).

[268] Benjamin of Tudela does not mention the name of the Fatimite khalif of Egypt who reigned at the time of his visit; but as that dynasty was overthrown in 1171, and as the authority of the last khalif of that family had previously been annihilated by the conquests of the armies of Noureddin, to which Benjamin makes no allusion, it is probable that his visit to Egypt may be placed as early as 1168 or 1169.

[269] August.

[270] A phrase taken from Gen. xliii. 1.

[271] November.

[272] March.

[273] April.

[274] "Carob-Siliqua in Latin; Caroube, or Carouge, French. This translation is traditional among Jews, and it has been employed, although Abdol-latif does not mention this fruit as one indigenous in Egypt."—ASHER.

[275] It may be observed that Benjamin's object appears to have been only to mention those towns in Egypt which contained Jews, and he follows no direct course.

[276] This story is one version of a popular tradition which is mentioned by the Arabian writers; and a story similar to it, though not applied to the Pharos of Alexandria, is found among the collections current in the west of Europe during the middle ages, but no doubt brought from the east. See the old English poem of the Seven Sages.

[277] Mr. Asher has first given a clear and intelligible translation of the names of the different countries who traded to Alexandria; and he observes that, in drawing it up, Benjamin probably follows some list of the fontecchi, or hostelries of the merchants of different nations, made for the use of captains arriving there.

[278] This appears to be an error of our traveller.

[279] William II. king of Sicily, who reigned from 1166 to 1189. On his accession he was only twelve years of age; and during his minority Stephen, archbishop of Palermo, governed Sicily as chancellor under the queen dowager. It is to him that Benjamin alludes under the title of viceroy; in 1169 the viceroy was driven from Sicily by a revolt of the inhabitants of Palermo, and it was therefore probably early in that year that Benjamin was in the island.

[280] Coral (Arabic, bessed; Persian, merjan). The Sicilian coral is mentioned by several old writers. The produce of the fishery at Messina is stated by Spallanzani ("Travels in the Two Sicilies," vol. iv. p. 308, &c.) to amount to twelve quintals of 250 lbs. each. Edrisi mentions the fishery of this production to have been carried on by the Sicilians, and states that it was inferior to the species found on the African coast.

[281] Solom. Song, ii. 12.

[282] Psalms, xxxv. 27.

[283] Vaiverges, Polish wiewiórka, the white squirrel, a quadruped, the skins of which were considered to be of great value.

[284] Louis le Jeune, who reigned from 1137 to 1185.

THE BOOK OF SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE.

A.D. 1322-1356.

THE PROLOGUE.

Forasmuch as the land beyond the sea, that is to say, the Holy Land, which men call the land of promise or of behest, passing all other lands, is the most worthy land, most excellent, and lady and sovereign of all other lands, and is blessed and hallowed with the precious body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ; in the which land it pleased him to take flesh and blood of the Virgin Mary, to environ that holy land with his blessed feet; and there he would of his blessedness shadow him in the said blessed and glorious Virgin Mary, and become man, and work many miracles, and preach and teach the faith and the law of Christian men unto his children; and there it pleased him to suffer many reprovings and scorns for us; and he that was king of heaven, of air, of earth, of sea, and of all things that are contained in them, would only be called king of that land, when he said, "Rex sum Judeorum," that is to say, I am king of the Jews; and that land he chose before all other lands, as the best and most worthy land, and the most virtuous land of all the world; for it is the heart and the middle of all the world; by witness of the philosopher, who saith thus "Virtus rerum in medio consistit:" that is to say, The virtue of things is in the middle; and in that land he would lead his life, and suffer passion and death from the Jews for us, to redeem and deliver us from the pains of hell and from death without end, which was ordained for us for the sin of our first father Adam, and for our own sins also; for, as for himself, he had deserved no evil: for he thought never evil nor did evil, and he that was king of glory and of joy might best in that place suffer death, because he chose in that land, rather than in any other, to suffer his passion and his death: for he that will publish any thing to make it openly known, he will cause it to be cried and proclaimed in the middle place of a town; so that the thing that is proclaimed and pronounced may equally reach to all parts: right so, he that was creator of all the world would suffer for us at Jerusalem, that is the middle of the world, to the end and intent that his passion and his death, which was published there, might be known equally to all parts of the world. See, now, how dearly he bought man, that he made after his own image, and how dearly he redeemed us for the great love that he had to us, and we never deserved it of him. For more precious goods or greater ransom might he not put for us, than his blessed body, his precious blood, and his holy life, which he enthralled for us; and he offered all for us, that never did sin. Oh! dear God! what love had he to us his subjects, when he that never trespassed would for trespassers suffer death! Right well ought we to love and worship, to dread and serve such a Lord, and to worship and praise such a holy land, that brought forth such fruit, through which every man is saved, unless it be his own fault. Well may that land be called delectable and a fruitful land, that was made moist with the precious blood of our Lord Jesus Christ; which is the same land that our Lord promised us in heritage. And in that land he would die, as seised[285] to leave it to us, his children. Wherefore every good Christian man, that is of power, and hath whereof, should labour with all his strength to conquer our right heritage, and drive out all the unbelieving men. For we are called Christian men, after Christ our father. And if we be right children of Christ, we ought to claim the heritage that our father left us, and take it out of heathen men's hands. But now pride, covetousness, and envy have so inflamed the hearts of worldly lords, that they are busier to disinherit their neighbours than to claim or conquer their right heritage aforesaid. And the common people, that would put their bodies and their goods to conquer our heritage, may not do it without the lords. For an assembly of people without a chieftain, or a chief lord, is as a flock of sheep without a shepherd; the which departeth and disperseth, and know never whither to go. But would God, that the temporal lords and all worldly lords were at good accord, and with the common people would take this holy voyage over the sea! Then I believe confidently, that, within a little time, our right heritage aforesaid should be recovered and put in the hands of the right heirs of Jesus Christ.

And forasmuch as it is long time past that there was no general passage or voyage over the sea, and many men desiring to hear speak of the Holy Land, and have thereof great solace and comfort, I, John Maundeville, knight, albeit I be not worthy, who was born in England, in the town of Saint Albans, passed the sea in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ 1322, on the day of St. Michael; and hitherto have been a long time over the sea, and have seen and gone through many divers lands, and many provinces, and kingdoms, and isles, and have passed through Tartary, Persia, Ermony, (Armenia) the Little and the Great; through Lybia, Chaldea, and a great part of Ethiopia; through Amazonia, India the Less, and the Greater, a great part; and throughout many other isles that are about India; where dwell many divers folks, and of divers manners and laws, and of divers shapes of men. Of which lands and isles I shall speak more plainly hereafter. And I shall devise you some part of things that are there, when time shall be as it may best come to my mind; and especially for them that will and are in purpose to visit the holy city of Jerusalem, and the holy places that are thereabout. And I shall tell the way that they shall hold thither; for I have oftimes passed and ridden the way, with good company of many lords: God be thanked!

And ye shall understand that I have put this book out of Latin into French, and translated it again out of French into English, that every man of my nation may understand it; and that lords and knights and other noble and worthy men that know Latin but little, and have been beyond the sea, may know and understand, if I err from defect of memory, and may redress it and amend it. For things passed out of long time from a man's mind or from his sight turn soon into forgetting: because a man's mind may not be comprehended or withheld, on account of the frailty of mankind.