Chapter XXVIII: Part III: Biology--Of the Whole in Singulars (15)

Body within a sacciform mantle, with two opposite respiratory apertures.

_Fam. 2. Polypary Kracken--Ascidiæ._

The _Ascidiæ_ have a sacciform body with two co-approximate respiratory apertures; branchiæ internal and trellis-shaped.

These gelatinous or cartilaginous animals adhere firmly to rocks, with the respiratory apertures directed upwards as in the Mussels, but the branchiæ are not foliiform; the internal cavity is lined with a membranous sac, upon which the branchial vessels are dispersed in a trellis-like manner. At the bottom of and within the sac is the mouth, which is destitute of tentacula. Intestine, liver, and a heart that is simple or undivided. Mode of propagation unknown.

They are frequently connato-sessile, like the Polyps.

_Fam. 3. Acalephan Kracken--Cirripedia._

Body sacciform, without branchial openings, oral apertures situated at the inferior extremity of the longitudinal fissure in the mantle, and provided with a kind of maxillary apparatus; above or behind the mouth are annulate or horny filaments representing caudal fins or feet, upon the basal joints of which is a branchial filament. Here belong the Balani and Lepades--_Fuss-kracken_.

These animals are likewise sessile, at least when full grown, and are surrounded by shell-plates, which remind us of the Echini or Sea-Urchins, whose antetypes they are; this resemblance is particularly distinct in the Balani, which have similar odontoid valves upon the aperture or mouth of the shell. These animals also undergo a metamorphosis, since in the early periods of their existence they swim about like small Crustacea, and later on become fixed or sedentary, and surrounded by the plates of shell.

The Lepades have the ordinary shells of Mollusca, but each of the two valves consists of two pieces, between which an odd one is interposed down the back.

These five shell-pieces become in the Balani a regular set of teeth, which are adherent within the cylindrical shell, by which the posterior part of the body, or the peduncular and elongated mantle, is surrounded. (Vid. Oken's 'Allgemeine Naturgeschichte,' V, 1835, 509.)

They bear a resemblance to the Crustacea, not simply in the annulate horny feet, but also in the double and ganglionic nervous chord lying along the abdomen; only they are androgynous, which occurs in no Crustacean.

_Order 2. Conchozooid Kracken--Kopfkracken._

Tentacula upon the head or fins upon the body. They repeat the Conchozoa or Shell-animals.

_Fam. 4. Mussel-Kracken--Brachiopoda._

The body is surrounded by a mantle open above, and by two shells; on the sides of the mouth there are two arms.

These animals look exactly like Bivalve Mollusca; they are firmly adherent to rocks, being frequently supported upon a hollow pedicle, which is a prolongation of the mantle. Branchiæ and sexual parts but little known; species probably androgynous--_Armkracken_.

3500. In the following families the body is free and sacciform, provided with arms or fins, and mostly with eyes upon a kind of head.

These animals have the mouth situated above or in front of the body, and are distinctly separated into mantle and abdomen, while they are frequently surrounded by a shell. They have a kind of head with tentacles or arms, and frequently furnished with eyes like the Snails, or pretty nearly like the Fishes; the sexual parts united and separated. They all row, paddle, or steer themselves about in the sea.

_Fam. 5. Snail-Kracken--Pteropoda._

Body mostly gelatinous, sacciform, closed all round and free; fins upon the sides of the neck, with two tentacula frequently projecting from near the mouth; androgynous, naked, and inclosed within a shell.

These transparent animalcules swim about upright in the sea, and wave the fins in this position as rapidly as a butterfly does its wings. Most of them are covered with a spathiform and likewise transparent shell. The branchiæ are placed externally on the body, but are not very distinct. Several species have an appendage in front of the neck, which is obviously a rudiment of the Snail's pad or sole--_Flugelkracken_.

The Heteropoda appear to resemble the Plantar or Sole-Snails, but the body is mostly gelatinous, and the foot or sole is only compressed to form a fin, so that they can only swim but not creep with it. Many of them have a shell almost like that of the Argonauta. Pterotracheæ--_Ruderkracken_.

_Fam. 6. Typical Kracken, Cephalopoda or Sepiæ._

Muscular animals inclosed within a sacciform mantle, open in front; head furnished with eyes, and surrounded by more than four strong prehensile arms; laminated or leaf-like branchiæ within the mantle, sexes separate; in the body is a nephroidal or kidney-like gland, which secretes a dark-coloured or inky fluid, on which account they are called by us 'Dintenschnecken'--_Sternkracken_. They are obviously the highest organized Malacozoa, and already remind us strongly of Fishes, partly from their size, partly by their fleshy body, and in part by their perfect organs of vision.

The body is often as large as the trunk of a man; the head being separated from it by means of a neck, has in its interior a kind of cartilaginous brain-case or skull, with externally a pair of jaws resembling a Bird's beak, and with eyes tolerably similar to those of Fishes. Auditory organs are also present, which consist of a tympanic cavity inclosing an otolithe or ear-ossicle; nostrils are wanting. The so-called arms are perfect organs of locomotion, as also useful for seizing the prey, being provided for this purpose with sucking cups, which adhere by producing a vacuum, when applied. In other respects these arms are nothing else but the Snail's sole divided in front into lobes. The ova resemble berries, and hang attached to one another in branched clusters like a bunch of grapes. The Sepiæ possess a remarkable gland, which is complicated with the liver, and secretes a dark brown juice, which has been called ink or sepia; it probably ranks in the significance of the kidneys.

Many are covered with a shell externally, as the Nautili and Argonautæ; but in the common Sepiæ this shell adheres within the mantle upon the back, and forms a straight lamina or plate, which is sometimes horny, sometimes calcareous in its texture. It has been called the "white fish-bone." What is regarded as the dorsal side of the animal is its ventral side, because upon the former lies the pallial aperture and the anus, while the vitelline sac is also inserted there.

In the form of the body, as well as in the circular position of the cephalic arms, the Sepiæ strikingly resemble their antetypes, the Acalephæ and Cirripedia, and their metatypes, the Asteriadæ and Crustacea.

With these animals the second stage or circle through which the Dermatozoa pass, or that of the Sexual animals, is closed. They require only a slight additional grade of perfection, and they would pass over into another class of animals. Thus were the arms to become horny and articulate, they would be Crustacea; had the head a nose, and the body consequently a myelon or spinal chord, they would then be Fishes.

SECOND CIRCLE. RESPIRATORY, CUTANEOUS ANIMALS--ANCYLIOZOA.

3501. Body annulate.

Here range the Worms, Crustacea, and the proper or volant Insects.

3502. In this circle a remarkable relation is revealed. If, namely, its classes, orders, and families be compared with those of the two preceding circles, it is then distinctly shown that the present one again commences quite from below, ascends parallel with both these, and transcends them in its highest inmates or members.

As an example of the first case, the imperfect condition of some Entozoa, and their great resemblance to Infusoria, is sufficiently expressive.

The Worms evidently pass parallel to the Mucus-animals, and the Entozoa indeed to the Infusoria, the Red-blooded Worms to the Polyps, but the Holothuriæ chiefly to the Acalephæ, near which they are still arranged up to the present day, although they are articulated, and have an intestine and vessels.

Thus this class traverses the three inferior classes, and consequently imparts to them only the value of orders, or must itself be raised only to the rank of an order, a step, however, which, considering the great number of Worms, would not be suitable or just. The names may therefore remain for the sake of uniformity; only it must be borne in mind that they are of unequal value.

The same relation is exhibited in the Crustacea or Crabs. They obviously admit of being parallelized with no other animals than the Malaco-or Conchozoa. The Entomostraca and Crabs evidently repeat the Mussels, the Aselli the Snails; but the Spiders and Scorpions the Kracken or Cephalopoda. Consequently here also the orders correspond to the preceding classes.

The true or proper Insects transcend the Sexual animals, and therefore conform to the classification of their own circle, namely, they repeat the Worms and Crabs, and finally mount forth upon their own stage.

The inferior or lower organized animals form consequently two series, viz. the Smooth and Annulate, which in their lower members range parallel, and that indeed after the following manner:

A. _Smooth._ B. _Annulated or Ringed._

I. _Protozoa._ I. _Worms._
a. _Stomach_, 1. Infusoria. 1. White-blooded Worms.
b. _Intestine_, 2. Polypi. 2. Red-blooded Worms.
c. _Absorbents_, 3. Acalephæ. 3. Holothuriæ.

II. _Conchozoa._ II. _Crustacea._
d. _Veins_, 4. Mussels. 4. Crabs.
e. _Arteries_, 5. Snails. 5. Aselli.
f. _Hearts_, 6. Kracken. 6. Spiders.

III. _Ancyliozoa._ III. _Flies._
g. _Retia_, 7. Worms. 7. Tracheoptera.
h. _Branchiæ_, 8. Crabs. 8. Dictyoptera.
i. _Tracheæ_, 9. Flies. 9. Ceratoptera.

The Worms have simply an annulate body with reticular or filamentary branchiæ, but no feet; the branchiæ are supported by the body.

The Crabs have an annulate body with feet; the branchiæ are supported by limbs.

The Insects have an annulate body with feet and wings; the body is supported by the branchiæ.

_Seventh Class._

_Reticular, Papillose Animals--Worms._

_Protozooid Ancyliozoa._

3503. There are Worms with a soft body and white blood, without proper tentacula; others with red blood, with and without tentacula, having also bristles along the sides of the body; lastly, the rings of the body become hard or muscular, and a circle or ring of osseous maxillæ forms around the mouth, which is usually surrounded by numerous tentacula, as in the Star-fishes and Holothuriæ, in whom the blood is nevertheless colourless.

They divide accordingly into three orders, and each of these again into three families, in accordance with the classes, namely, those of the Protozoa or Mucus-animals, through which they pass.

_Order 1. Infusorial Worms--Parasites._

3504. The White-blooded Worms or Entozoa are very imperfect animals, a fact which proves that this circle recommences quite inferiorly or from below. They live for the most part in the interior of other animals, being thus located in darkness and in places where they obtain but little oxygen. Their blood therefore is not simply colourless, but even its vessels are only imperfectly developed. They respire without doubt through the tegument. In many, a distinct or separate intestine being wanting, it is the tegument also which digests; in others the intestine is simply a sac without an anus. The sexual parts too are in many species of a doubtful character, while meantime there are both androgynous and dioecious individuals. In the latter the male parts open invariably at the posterior extremity of the body, as in Insects; the female parts in front of its caudal end, as in the Crustacea. Both are in other respects constructed as in Insects, namely, there are two oviducts or seminal ducts, which unite before reaching their external orifice. They divide into three groups.

In one of these the body is tolerably smooth, and the pharynx commencing from a simple suctorial mouth elongates into a ramified intestine without an anus; they are androgynous--_Saugwürmer_.

In others the body itself supplies the place of the stomach; it is corrugated, and receives the food through one or several orifices, without separating into a special intestine. They have nearly all a claviform proboscis or rostrum, with which they perforate substantial cavities for themselves; it would seem that they are both androgynous and of separate sexes--_Hydatids_ and _Tæniæ_.

Others are separated into tegument and intestine like the Mussels and Snails, but without having a distinct vascular system, heart, and liver, though provided with a nervous chord and separate sexual parts--_Ascarides_.

_Fam. 1. Monad-like Worms, Saugwürmer._

Body tolerably smooth, suctorial mouth and sucker, the intestine losing itself in the tissue of the body, and without an anus; androgynous.

They remind us through their small size and structure of the Monades, especially the Cercariæ, and among the Worms typify or prefigurate in particular the Hirudines or Leeches, both by their form and power of suction, as also in the ramification of the intestine.

Many Cercariæ might be metamorphosed into Distomata, and so be or constitute their young.

The Planariæ are slightly different from the Liver-flukes or Fasciolæ hepaticæ, since they are white, bloodless, have a ramified intestine without anus, and increase also by fissiparous generation. They belong to the present order, although they live not as parasites, but in a state of freedom.

_Fam. 2. Rhizopodoid Worms, Hydatids._

Body annulate or articulate, with a claviform proboscis without an intestine; they appear to have several mouths.

The _Cystica_ develop ova simply upon the internal wall of the tegument; the body's last ring is expanded into a cystic form, and is mostly much larger than the whole body. The Coenurus cerebralis, or Brain-hydatid, ramifies like the Polyps.

The Cestoidea have in each joint or member of the body an ovarium, and, as it would appear, male parts also, so that they are androgynous. The sexual orifices are at the border or upon the surface of the posterior members. The member can be viewed as an ovarium liberating itself; as in the Lerneæ and Arguli.

The Filariæ or Thread-worms, which also belong here, are in the form of a cylindrical tube, with separate sexual parts, which open posteriorly.

_Fam. 3. Rotiferal Worms, Ascarides._

Body cylindrical, intestine free, with mouth and anus; sexual parts separate.

Upon the mouth these Entozoa have some papillæ or points, which may be regarded as tentacula. The larger species have a distinct nervous cord. The Gordius cannot well take any other position than the present, although it does live in a state of freedom.

_Order 2. Polypary Worms--Hirudines._

3505. Body cylindrical with branchiæ in or upon the tegument, blood red; two ganglionic nervous threads run along the ventral surface of the body, as in Insects; all are indeed androgynous.

Here belong the _Red-blooded Worms_, as Hirudines, Lumbrici, Nereides, and Serpulæ.

_Fam. 4. Tubularial Worms--Dermatobranchiata._

Body cylindrical. The branchiæ are only a vascular network in the tegument.

Here belong the Hirudines and Lumbrici.

The Hirudines have a perfectly naked body, without filaments and bristles, a perfect network of vessels containing red blood within the tegument, an intestine with an anus, both sexual parts androgynoid; posteriorly they have a pad or sucker; in the mouth there are mostly maxillæ, and upon the head simple eyes.

The Naiades and Lumbrici have bristles in longitudinal rows upon the sides of the body. The latter are androgynous. The Naiades increase by division.

The Thalassemæ have a protuberant white body; red blood-vessels only upon the intestine; mouth rostriform.

These Worms stick in the mud, and are nourished by it. They have here and there bristles, but which do not form any longitudinal rows. They appear to absorb water through the skin, and respire by the intestine. They cannot, by reason of their red blood, range with the Holothuriæ.

_Fam. 5. Alcyonioid Worms--Notobranchiata._

Body depressed, with pedal filaments, tentacula and branchiæ in two longitudinal rows upon the back.

These Worms all live in the sea, adhering mostly upright in the earth, and have frequently annulate, rigid tentacula, ocelli, and pairs of maxillæ, like Insects. The gills are not unfrequently covered with pergamentaceous scales, as in many Nereides, and especially in Aphrodite.

_Fam. 6. Actinioid Worms--Auchenobranchiata._

Body inclosed within a pergamentaceous or calcareous tube with lateral bristles, branchiæ and tentacula upon the neck or head.

The neck is surrounded by a kind of mantle, almost as in the Snails, so that several animals have been arranged here, which are now known to be veritable Snails. Upon the head many have a horny operculum, whereby they can close the shell.

Here belong the Amphitritæ, Terebellæ, Serpulæ, and Sabellæ.

_Order 3. Acalephan Worms--Sternwürmer._

3506. These creatures attain the most perfect structure of the Worms. The blood is white, the form cylindrical, globular and stellate; the mouth surrounded by a ring or wreath of maxillæ. The nerves form a ring around the pharynx, and upon the latter are placed membranous cysts, which spirt water into the tentacula or feet as they have been called, and thereby expand them.

It is impossible for these animals to continue to range with the Acalephæ, although they resemble them in outward form; for they consist of two cysts, the intestine having become freed from the outer one as a special sac; moreover, they have a perfect vascular system, distinct muscles, a mouth with a dental apparatus, which prefigurates a complete skeleton, a peculiar vascular system for the injection of the tentacula or feet, a nervous ring surrounding the pharynx, an ovarium entirely separated, and lastly, a perfectly annulate body.

_Fam 7. Physalial Worms, Holothuriæ._

Body cylindrical, very plentifully supplied with muscles. Mouth and anus present, the former of these being surrounded by a dental wreath and ramified branchimorphous tentacula; branchiæ upon the intestine, and branchial aperture at the anal extremity. They correspond to the Physaliæ.

Their tegument is a perfect muscular tunic, consisting of several longitudinal bands, which pursue a downward course upon its internal surface; in other respects being transversely corrugated and full of papillæ, partly replete with hollow podoidal filaments, which by the injection of water into them are elongated; thus, they present a resemblance to the Acalephæ.

_Fam. 8. Beroeal Worms, Echini._

Are at bottom Holothuriæ with ossified tegument, or Asteriadæ with shortened rays.

The Echini have an anus, pretty like that of the Holothuriæ, and also similar feet, which are protruded in a similar manner through apertures in the shell. The dental wreath surrounding the mouth is a complete bony framework, which has been called, on account of its form, "Laterna Aristotelis," and bears a considerable resemblance to the valves of the Balani, the antetypes in general of the Echini, just as these are of the Opossum Shrimps.

_Fam. 9. Medusal Worms, Asteriadæ._

Body stelliform, consisting of bony rings; contains a free multilobular intestine with blood-vessels and branchiæ; several ovaria; it would appear that they are without male parts.

Here belong the Encrinites, Pentacrinites, and Asteriadæ proper. Around the mouth of the Encrinites and Pentacrinites stand long, ramified, and likewise articulated tentacula, which remind us of the arms of the Acalephæ and Cephalopoda.

Fundamentally too, in the Star-fishes, the disk only is the body proper, and the rays are the tentacula, which, being monstrously developed, surround the mouth; what have been called pedicles upon these, represent the suckers of the Sepiæ.

_Eighth Class._

_Branchial, Pedal Animals--Crustacea._

_Conchozooid Ancyliozoa._

3507. The Crustacea are Worms with horny rings to the body, jointed feet and tentacula, which mostly breathe by branchiæ.

They correspond to the Conchozoa, or Shell-animals, and divide therefore into three orders, each of these including six families.

Here belong the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders.

In the lowest forms the head, thorax, and abdomen are blended together, and the back mostly covered with a great horny scute--_Mussel-like Insecta_.

In the next place the thorax and abdomen admit of being clearly distinguished, both by their form as well as by their appendages, which are much larger on the thorax, as in the Cray-fish.

Then follow cylindrical forms with numerous feet, appended to uniform rings, but having a head free and distinguished by tentacula, maxillæ, and eyes--_Wood-lice_.

The Wood-lice bear a resemblance to the air-breathing Insects, although all parts of the body still pass over or blend gradually into each other.

In the _Arachnida_ or _Spiders_ aerial respiration takes place, and their body enters into relations with the more highly organized Insects, since the head becomes small, the abdomen large, thick, and short.

As the Crustacea pass parallel to the Conchozoa or Shell-animals, so do they divide into three cohorts or groups: the _Mussel-_, _Snail-_, and _Kracken-like_ Crustacea, or _Crabs_, _Wood-lice_, and _Spiders_.

COHORT I. MUSSEL-LIKE CRUSTACEA--CRABS.

3508. Head and thorax connate, being mostly covered with a shell or shield, abdomen stunted or caudiform; maxillæ and branchiæ present.

_Order 1. Lochmuschelartige, Pfriemenkrebse._

3509. The feet mostly simple and pointed, without large claws or forcipes, and furnished with setæ or lamelliform branchiæ; eyes sessile.

_Fam. 1. Pholadoid, Mussel-Insects._

Small, almost microscopical, and slightly annulated animals with an uni-or bi-valvular dorsal shield or testa, stunted maxillæ, and few legs, having attached to them setiform branchiæ.

These animals are found in all stagnant waters, in which they are incessantly paddling or rowing themselves about. They remind us of those Infusoria which, like Brachionus, are covered by a scute or shield. They are what have been called Monoculi (Entomostraca or Lophyropoda), e. g. Daphniæ.

Number of feet small, and beyond their appended setæ there are no branchiæ; two eyes frequently blended together; antennæ mostly furcate like the feet; sexes separate; a perfect circulation within a true Mussel-like ventral cavity. They are microscopic Mussels with eyes and feet.

_Fam. 2. Tellinoid, Branchiopoda._

Similar animalcules to the above, but with a body strongly annulated, naked or covered with a double shell, and provided with numerous feet, unto which are attached leaflets that serve as branchiæ.

Here belong the Branchiopoda properly so called.

_Fam. 3. Cardiaceoid, Shield-Crabs._

Large animals, with strongly annulated body and numerous feet; head and back covered by a shield, whereupon are the eyes--Phyllopoda.

Here range the Trilobites, Apus, and the Molucca or King-Crabs.

_Order 2. Spaltmuschelartige, Scheerenkrebse._

3510. Five pairs of thoracic feet, of which the first pair is mostly large and forcipiform; the eyes upon moveable pedicles or foot-stalks.

These animals usually attain a striking size, and are generally the largest among the horny Ancyliozoa.

The sexual parts open mostly upon the posterior legs.

The abdomen or tail usually supports five pairs of stunted feet, to which the ova hang.

The number of maxillæ agrees tolerably well with that of the thoracic feet.

_Fam. 4. Mytiloid, Locust-Crabs._

All the feet of pretty equal length, and the forceps stunted in size; the branchial plates free upon the abdominal feet--Squilla.

_Fam. 5. Arcaceous, Macroura._

Abdominal feet arrested, branchial comb upon the femora of the thoracic feet and beneath the dorsal shield, tail extended, as in the common Cray-fish.

_Fam. 6. Oyster-like Crustacea, Brachyura._

Characters similar, but tail bent under the body--_Taschenkrebse_.

COHORT II. SNAIL-LIKE CRUSTACEA--ASSELN.

3511. Body mostly cylindrical, annulate, without a true carapax or scute; head free; feet short and simple; branchiæ vesici-or folii-form; mostly placed under the tail; eyes non-pediculated, or even wanting.

_Order 3. Androgynoid--Saugasseln._

3512. Body soft and slightly annulate, maxillæ, feet and branchiæ arrested; live by suction as parasites upon other animals, mostly fishes.

_Fam. 1. Tritonia-like, Lernæaceæ._

Body soft, without shield, eyes and branchiæ; feet and maxillæ stunted; ova carried in two tubes at the hinder part of the body--_Kiemenwürmer_ or _Lerneæ_.

_Fam. 2. Patella-like, Argulaceæ._

Body distinguished into head, thorax, and abdomen, with few natatory feet, maxillæ moulded to form suctorial organs, mostly eyes; lay also strings of ova; head elongated in many in a scutiform manner. The so-called Fish-lice or Argulaceæ.

_Fam. 3. Luftschneckenartige--Pycnogonidæ._

Body short, with four pairs of long feet; eyes, but no branchiæ and maxillæ; abdomen puny in size. The _Whale-lice_.

_Order 4. Kammschneckenartige--Nagasseln._

3513. Body cylindrical, horny, and distinctly annulate, maxillæ, eyes, and mostly seven simple pairs of feet, branchiæ as cysts or leaves.

_Fam. 4. Capulidenartige, Walzenasseln._

Body cylindrical, with five or seven pairs of feet, and some branchial vesicles; body and abdomen very puny. The _Læmodipoda_; Caprella, Cyamus.

_Fam. 5. Turbinidenartige, Seitenasseln._

Body horny and distinctly ringed, mostly compressed, with perfect maxillæ; seven pairs of thoracic feet and branchial vesicles; abdominal feet rudder-shaped. They swim usually lying upon the side; many leap--_Amphipoda_; _Flohkrebse_ or _Gammarinæ_.

_Fam. 6. Buccinidenartige, Sohlenasseln._

Similar to the preceding family, but the body is depressed, and the abdominal feet furnished with branchial plates. The _Isopoda_; _Oniscidæ_, to which belongs the genus _Armadillo_.

COHORT III. KRACKEN-CRUSTACEA--KOBE.

3514. Body not tripartite; spiracula or air-openings; more than three pairs of feet, no wings. Here belong the air-breathing Crustacea; Scolopendræ, Acari, Scorpions, and Spiders.

These animals are abruptly distinguished from the preceding by a conversion of the branchiæ into spiral-shaped tracheæ, which ramify and traverse the whole body. They all therefore live in the air, and if they do also dwell in the water, they still come to the surface to inhale that element. The eyes are only simple points or ocelli, which are accumulated frequently upon the sides of the head.

The most inferior of them are distinguished from the preceding cohort, or the Asseln, by almost nothing save the essential character of their own cohort, the tracheæ. They have mostly a number of feet, and only simple eyes, as the Scolopendræ.

The following have a short body, in which the abdomen predominates; thorax and head connate; never more than four pairs of feet--_Acari_, _Scorpions_, and _Spiders_.

They likewise divide into two orders, like the Kracken.

_Order 1. Rumpfkrackenartige--Langkobe._

3515. Body horny, tolerably cylindrical and uniform; feet mostly very numerous.

_Fam. 1. Salpoid, Spindelkobe._

Only three pairs of thoracic feet, but still podoidal appendages to the abdomen--Podura, Lepisma.

_Fam. 2. Ascidioid, Schnurkobe._

Body cylindrical, with very many feet; sexual parts on the thorax--_Juli_.

_Fam. 3. Cirrhopodoid, Bandkobe._

Body band-shaped and depressed, maxillæ perforate, sexual parts placed posteriorly--_Scolopendræ_.

_Order 2. Kopfkrackenartige--Kurzkobe_.

3516. Body thick, mostly globiform; head and thorax blended together; only four pairs of feet.

_Fam. 4. Brachiopodoid, Acarides._

Body rounded; all three parts confluent; usually only two simple eyes. The Acari are mostly so small, that their parts can only be distinctly seen through the microscope. Their mouth is always very much arrested, and has maxillæ, which are in some cases adapted for manducation, in others for suction.

_Fam. 5. Pteropodoid, Scorpions._

Body tolerably cylindrical, and all three parts connate; palpi very large and forcipiform.

_Fam. 6. Sepioid, Spiders._

Body rounded, head and thorax connate, abdomen separate, mostly eight simple eyes.

Their most remarkable organs are the four spinnerets in front of the anus, which probably stand in the signification of the renal organs, just as the material of the Spider-threads does in that of the urine.

The tracheæ are but few in number, and expand into lung-like vesicles.

The sexual parts do not lie posteriorly by the anus, but at the root or base of the abdomen.

It is moreover remarkable, that their mandibles are perforated and pour a poisonous juice into the wounds they inflict. They must be therefore regarded, like the venom-teeth of Serpents, as elongated salivary ducts.

The Crustacean families can also be named according to the orders of their circle, namely, the Worms and Crustacea, e. g. thus:

ORDER I. _Worm-Crabs_--Pfriemenkrebse.

Fam. 1. _Entozooid_--Mussel-Insects.
2. _Hirudinous_--Branchiopoda.
3. _Holothurioid_--Shield-Crabs.

ORDER II. _Crustacean Crabs_--Scheerenkrebse.
Fam. 4. _Typical Crustacea_--Sea-Mantes.
5. _Asselkrebse_ " --Macrura.
6. _Arachnoid_ " --Brachyura.

_Ninth Class._

_Tracheal, Alary Animals--Flies._

_Typical Ancyliozoa._

3517. Body tripartite, only three pairs of thoracic legs, spiracula and wings. They divide, according to the classes of their circle, into three cohorts, of Worm-, Crab-like, and perfect Flies.

As the wings are their characteristic organ, so also must they be divided according to them, and not after the cibarial instruments. Those wings which are developed to the least degree are the homogeneous, transparent wings traversed by few tracheæ or ducts--_Tracheoptera_, as Flies, Bees, and Butterflies.

Their chrysalis or pupa condition is perfect.

Then follow wings having very numerous veins united by transverse veins so as to form a network--_Dictyoptera_, as Neuropterous, Orthopterous, and Hemipterous Insects.

The pupa is moveable.

Finally, the anterior and posterior pair of wings become wholly dissimilar to each other, the former being horny, and the latter membranous in texture with reticulated veins, provided likewise with joints like the legs, so that they can be folded up under the anterior pair or elytra--_Ceratoptera_, as the Beetles.

Pupa state perfect.

Strictly speaking, it is a matter of indifference whether the names of orders and families be adopted from the first or second parallel series; whether e. g. we speak in the first cohort of Protozooid or Worm-flies. The nearest series will, however, bear the greater amount of resemblance to them. Meanwhile I will in the sequel vary in the choice of names, in order to exhibit different samples of this double parallelism.

COHORT I. WORM-FLIES--TRACHEOPTERA.

3518. Wings membranous with few longitudinal ducts, and almost devoid of transverse ducts, eyes larger than head. Here belong the Flies, Bees, and Butterflies. The abdomen is indeed annulate, but soft; its first ring is frequently set free and unites with the thorax, but supports neither feet nor wings.

The sexual parts always lie at the anal extremity.

The head is almost nothing but eye, and the Insects of this order may very well be termed Megalopidæ, or large-eyed, out of contrast to the succeeding ones. Between the two large compound eyes there are usually found three simple ocular puncta or ocelli, which they have adopted from the preceding class.

The larvæ are either entirely apodal, white and soft like Entozoa, or they have, in addition to the thoracic feet, numerous abdominal feet like the higher Worms.

The Flies with their soft and imperfect body, and the apodal larvæ, repeat the Infusoria and Entozoa; the Bees therefore the Polyps and Red-blooded Worms; the Butterflies with their large farinose or dusty wings and polypodal caterpillars, the Acalephæ and Holothuriæ.

_Order 1. Entozooid Flies--Diptera._

3519. All the thoracic rings coalesced, and along with them the first or basi-abdominal ring, unto which are attached the halteres or balancers; only the two posterior wings present; the labium prolonged into a proboscis, which incloses the setiform maxillæ. Larvæ apodal and white.

The Diptera resemble the Entozoa in a striking manner through their apodal, soft and white larvæ, and even through their habitation, which is mostly in fetid and moist animal matters. Added to this, they respire usually through two tubes which open upon the anus.

Many during their metamorphosis do not shed their skin; but it becomes, during the pupa condition, only horny, representing a small case, whose bottom springs up in front like an operculum, and gives exit to the perfect Fly which has been therein developed.

Upon the first abdominal ring of the imago two nodose pedicles stand out, which are called halteres; they are probably the old respiratory tubes.

The maxillæ have changed into bristles, which act like pestels within the groove-shaped labium, puncture and pump in the fluid.

They divide into three families like the White-blooded Worms, or according to the orders of their cohort.

_Fam. 1. Typical Diptera, Schmeissen._

Antennæ triarticulate, the last joint being mostly spatulate and furnished with a lateral awn or bristle; only two suctorial setæ inclosed between the terminal valves of a fleshy proboscis, which admits of being retracted within a large cephalic or oral cavity. The Muscidæ, unto whom the Common House-flies belong, and also the Hippoboscidæ or Louse-flies. It is my opinion too, that the Fleas also are to be ranged among the Diptera.

Alliance 1. _Klappenmucken._ The two punctuating setæ placed between two valves without a proboscis--Flea (Pulex) and Louse-fly (Hippobosca.)

Alliance 2. _Acalyptera._ Proboscis having thick lips, and retractile into a large cephalic cavity; alulæ or halteral opercula arrested--Hypocera to Dolichocera.

Alliance 3. Dung-flies. Characters similar to the above, but the alulets are of considerable size--Muscidæ.

_Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Diptera, Dasseln._

Antennæ as in preceding family, but the bisetaceous proboscis is thin and horny, with small labia, or else large labia with four setæ--OEstridæ, Conopidæ, and Syrphidæ.

Alliance 4. _Parasitic Diptera._ Two setæ with or without a lipless proboscis--OEstridæ, Myopariæ, and Conopidæ.

Alliance 5. _Syrphidæ._ Four setæ within a similar kind of proboscis; the third joint of the antennæ spatulate; the palpi thickened.

Alliance 6. _Leptidæ._ Four setæ within a short thick-lipped proboscis, the third antennal joint mostly coniform--Therexidæ, Leptidæ, and Dolichopidæ.

_Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Diptera, Gölsen._

Antennæ multiarticulate and stipiform; proboscis with and without labia, mostly four and six setæ for punctuation--Tipulidæ, Tanystomidæ, Stratiomydæ, Tabanidæ.

Alliance 7. _Gnats._ Antennæ filamentary and multi-articular. Proboscis varied.

Alliance 8. _Spiessmucken._ Four setæ within a hastate horny proboscis with or without arrested labia; third antennal joint not annulated, with the bristle or awn at the extremity--Tanystomidæ, as Asilidæ, Empidæ, Bombylidæ.

Alliance 9. _Stielmucken._ Four or six setæ within a thick-lipped proboscis; third antennal joint stipiform and annulated--Stratiomydæ and Tabanidæ.

_Order 2. Leech-flies--Hymenoptera._

3520. Four naked veined wings, labium mostly elongated, the two pairs of maxillæ acting above it like spears. Larvæ mostly apodal, or with more abdominal feet or prolegs than in the true Caterpillars.

Most of the larvæ still bear a great resemblance to the Entozoa, though they do not respire like them through the anus, but by lateral apertures or spiracula; the larvæ with abdominal feet repeat the Nereidæ and Aselli. In other respects they live no longer in putrid moisture, fungi, roots, and such like bodies, but in living animals or in cavities specially prepared for their reception by the parents, and even in a state of freedom upon leaves.

And here is particularly worthy of our notice the structure of the cells, which are by many species fabricated quite substantially of wax or wood-shavings, and are to be compared with the webs of Spiders, since both serve as nests for the young. They repeat the Polypidoms.

Others make cases of leaves, and carry into them honey upon which to deposit their ova.

Others again simply bore holes in wood or in the earth, in order that they may in a similar manner provide their young with honey or larvæ. Finally, others simply stick, by means of their ovipositor, the ova into animals or leaves.

The dwellings are fabricated by the maxillæ, which but seldom serve as cibarial instruments, seeing that the labium undertakes this office as a lick-organ.

Another remarkable feature of this order is the arrested development of the sexual parts of the females in certain generations, an occurrence which depends upon the time of the year or the size of the cells, and whereby they are constrained to lead a social life as workers.

They divide, according to the Red-blooded Worms or the orders of their cohort, into three families.

_Fam. 1. Dipteroid Hymenoptera, Bees._

Abdomen aculeate; labium elongated in a rostriform manner. They dig or build cells, and carry thither honey to the larvæ, which are apodal.

Alliance 1. _Fossorial Bees_--Andrenidæ.
2. _Carpenter-Bees_--Anthophoridæ.
3. _Cell-Bees_--Apidæ.

_Fam. 2. Typical Hymenoptera, Wasps._

Aculeate; labium not elongated--rapacious Hymenoptera, such as Ants, Fossorial, and Cell-wasps, larvæ apodal.

Alliance 1. _Hohlenwespen_--Formicidæ.
2. _Fossorial Wasps_--Sphegidæ.
3. _Cell-Wasps_--Vespidæ.

_Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Hymenoptera, Terebrantia._

Instead of the sting there is an ovipositor, with which the females stick their eggs into other insects, mostly into caterpillars, or else into leaves and wood--Ichneumonidæ, Tenthredinidæ, and Uroceridæ. The larvæ of the first are apodal, those of the second provided with thoracic and abdominal feet like caterpillars, those of the third with thoracic feet only like the larvæ of Coleoptera.

Alliance 1. _Stutzwespen._ Ovipositor short; wings nearly veinless. Deposit their eggs in small insects; larvæ apodal--Chalcididæ, Oxyuri, Chrysididæ.

Alliance 2. _Schlupfwespen._ Ovipositor very long, divided into three hairs; wings veined. Deposit their eggs in caterpillars; larvæ apodal--Ichneumonidæ, Evaniidæ.

Alliance 3. _Pflanzenwespen._ Ovipositor spiral or saw-shaped. Deposit their ova in plants; larvæ mostly furnished with feet, and frequently resembling caterpillars in form--Cynipidæ, Tenthredinidæ, and Uroceridæ.

_Order 3. Holothurioid Flies--Lepidoptera._

3521. Four veined wings, covered with small dust-like scales; maxillæ have coalesced into a proboscis; larvæ with thoracic and abdominal legs.

The larvæ or Caterpillars remind us of the Nereides, especially the setaceous Aphrodites, such as the Holothuriæ, and further still, the Aselli and Scolopendræ. There are Caterpillars, which are scarcely to be distinguished from a Wood-louse. They subsist almost throughout upon leaves, and being exposed to the light are therefore variously coloured. They have maxillæ, and in the labium is the orifice of the salivary glands, from which they spin the threads used in weaving their cocoons, or social tents. Where they crawl they leave, like the Spiders, their threads beneath them.

The pupa state is perfect; the perfect insect generally creeps out of the chrysalis by a slit taking place down the back.

The abdomen is almost throughout covered with hair, which is indicative likewise of a strong mucous secretion.

They take in their fluid nourishment by suction, but the mechanism by which this is effected is not yet known, as from the jaws themselves forming the proboscis, there can be no suckers lodged within the latter that might act. It is probably effected by expansion of the abdomen taking place during respiration. Their deglutition would be therefore a respiratory act.

Besides their very non-artistic webs, no artistic instincts are to be observed in this order. The ova are just layed without more ado upon plants, and rarely upon other objects. The Butterflies are generally related to the plants, and especially to their corollæ, whose colours and forms they carry in themselves.

They divide according to their proximal orders into three families.

_Fam. 1. Dipteroid Lepidoptera, Moths._

Antennæ filiform, wings mostly thrown like a mantle round the body; proboscis short.

Small and nocturnal in their habits, proceeding from tolerably apodal Caterpillars, which reside mostly concealed in plants, or make themselves cases of hairs and leaves.

Alliance 1. Typical Moths, _Tineidæ_.

a. Typical Tineidæ: Alucitidæ.
b. Pyraloid: Tineæ.
c. Tortrix-like: Crambidæ.

Alliance 2. Bombycoid Moths, _Pyralidæ_.

a. Tinea-like: Aglossæ.
b. Typical: Hydrocampæ.
c. Tortrix-like: Deltoides or Herminiæ.

Alliance 3. Homalopteroid Moths, _Tortricidæ_.

a. Tinea-like: Fruit-Tortrices.
b. Pyraloid: Heterogeneæ.
c. Typical: Leaf-rolling Tortrices.

_Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Lepidoptera, Silk-Spinners._

Antennæ filiform, wings tile-shaped.

Lepidoptera of considerable size, proceeding out of

Caterpillars, with many feet, and frequently covered with hair, which live mostly in a state of freedom upon plants, and in some cases make large cocoons freely exposed, in others under the earth--_Noctuidæ_ and _Bombycidæ_.

Alliance 1. Moth-like Spinners, _Noctuidæ_.

a. Typical: Hadenæ.
b. Pseudobombycoid: Catocalæ.
c. Bombycoid: Erebidæ.

Alliance 2. Typical Spinners, _Pseudo-Bombyces_.

a. Noctua-like: Psyches, Limacodes.
b. Typical: Notodontæ.
c. Bombycoid: Callimorphæ.

Alliance 3. Homalopteroid Spinners, _Bombycidæ_.

a. Noctua-like: Bombyces.
b. Pseudo-Bombycoid: Saturniæ.
c. Typical: Hepialidæ.

_Fam. 3. Typical Lepidoptera, Homaloptera._

Antennæ varied; wings flat and expanded; proboscis long--_Geometridæ_, _Vespertina_, _Diurna_.

Large Lepidoptera proceeding from free-living, strongly-coloured, and mostly naked Caterpillars.

The Geometridæ have level, tolerably triangular wings and filiform antennæ; they proceed from naked Caterpillars with few abdominal feet.

The Vespertina have level, long, and narrow wings, and spindle-shaped antennæ; they emerge from perfect Caterpillars.

The Diurna have the wings folded upwards in a reverse position, claviform antennæ, and proceed from perfect Caterpillars.

Alliance 1. _Moth-like Homaloptera, Geometridæ._

a. Typical: Geometræ.
b. Sphingoid: Aposuræ.
c. Papilionaceous: Uraniidæ.

Alliance 2. _Bombycoid Homaloptera, Sphingidæ._

a. Geometroid: Zygænidæ and Sesiadæ.
b. Typical: Sphingidæ.
c. Papilionaceous: Castniæ.

Alliance 3. _Typical Homaloptera, Papilionidæ._

a. Geometroid: Hesperiidæ, Lycænidæ and Erycinidæ.
b. Sphingoid: Nymphalidæ and Heliconiidæ.
c. Typical: Pieridæ and Papilionidæ.

COHORT II. CRUSTACEOUS FLIES--DICTYOPTERA.

3522. Four wings, with longitudinal and numerous transverse veins, the anterior pair being mostly leathery in texture; eyes mostly smaller than head.

Here belong the Neuroptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera.

The metamorphosis is tolerably imperfect, and the larvæ have never more than three pairs of thoracic feet, and therefore correspond no longer to the Worms, but to the Crabs, where the number of the feet has been already more determined. Many also strikingly simulate the Crustacea.

In all three families also the pupa runs about, eats, and has rudiments of wings.

The abdominal rings are mostly horny and hairless. The spiracula lie upon the upper margin.

The eyes are generally much smaller than the head, and may therefore, in comparison with those of the preceding and subsequent groups, be said to be of _middling size_; the simple eyes have for the greatest part disappeared. Meanwhile the first family displays _large eyes_, the second eyes of a _middling size_, the third _small eyes_.

They divide like their antetypes, the Crabs, into three orders.

_Order 4. Crab-Flies--Neuroptera._

3523. All the wings alike and membranous; maxillæ with mostly large eyes; abdomen soft.

These Insects which, on account of their delicate wings, are known with us by the name of Flohrfliegen, live mostly upon flesh, and many of them by capturing living prey. Many undergo a short pupa stage. Many live in the water and have, too, branchiæ, whereby they strikingly remind us of the Crustacea, especially the Branchiopoda.

Like the Crustacea, or in accordance with the two first cohorts of their class, they divide into two families.

_Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Neuroptera, Nagbolden._

Do not subsist by rapine, but gnaw slowly animal and vegetable matters; many also as flies eat no longer.

Alliance 1. _Dipteroid Neuroptera, Kieferläuse._ No wings; gnaw skin, feathers and hair, mostly Bird-lice--Philopterus, Liotheum.

Alliance 2. _Hymenopteroid Neuroptera_, Blumen-and Mulmlaüse, Thrips, Psocus, Termes.

Alliance 3. _Lepidopteroid Neuroptera_, _Phryganeidæ_ (_Wassermotten._)

_Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Neuroptera, Raubbolden._

Alliance 4. _Typical Neuroptera, Flohrfliegen_, Panorpidæ, Hemerobiidæ, Myrmeleonidæ.

Alliance 5. _Orthopteroid Neuroptera_, Raphidiidæ, Mantispidæ.

Alliance 6. _Hemipteroid Neuroptera_, Ephemeridæ, Libellulidæ.

_Order 5. Oniscal Flies--Orthoptera._

3524. Maxillæ and dissimilar reticular wings; the anterior, pergamentaceous; abdominal rings, horny; eyes of moderate size; pupa moveable.

Live for the greatest part on plants.

_Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Orthoptera, Saltatoria._

Alliance 1. _Dipteroid Orthoptera_, Grylli.

Alliance 2. _Hymenopteroid_ " Locustæ.

Have a hard ovipositor, which reminds us of the sting in the Hymenoptera.

Alliance 3. _Lepidopteroid Orthoptera_, Acrydia.

_Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Orthoptera, Cursoria._

Alliance 4. _Neuropteroid Orthoptera_, Mantidæ.

Alliance 5. _Typical_ " Blattidæ.

Alliance 6. _Hemipteroid_ " Forficulidæ.

_Order 6. Arachnoid Flies--Hemiptera or Bugs._

3525. Horny suctorial proboscis with puncturating setæ; dissimilar reticular wings, the anterior mostly pergamentaceous, the posterior membranous, and mostly capable of being folded up, as in the Chafers; eyes small, pupæ moveable.

The Bugs have much resemblance to the Mites, and Spiders are as it were winged Mites. One party of them suck blood, another vegetable sap. They manifest no artistic instincts.

The Aphides or Leaf-lice require only a single pairing, to enable them to propagate through several generations. During the summer they produce only females, and in autumn the males first appear.

_Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Hemiptera, Leptoptera._

Alliance 1. Dipteroid Hemiptera, _Coccidæ_, _Aphidæ_.

Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid " _Cicadæ_.

Alliance 3. Lepidopteroid " _Fulgoridæ_.

_Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Hemiptera, Pachyptera._

Alliance 4. Neuropteroid Hemiptera, _Water-bugs_.

Alliance 5. Orthopteroid " _Narrow bugs_,
_Hydrometræ_, _Reduvii_, _Cimicidæ_.

Alliance 6. Typical Hemiptera, _Broad bugs_, _Capsidæ_,
_Lygæidæ_, _Coreidæ_, _Scutelleridæ_.

COHORT III. PERFECT FLIES--CERATOPTERA, BEETLES.

3526. Maxillæ and dissimilar reticular wings, the anterior being horny, the posterior membranous and susceptible of being folded upon themselves; eyes small; pupæ motionless.

The Chafers or Beetles are the highest Insects, because they possess the greatest variety of organs, namely, two kinds of wings; not to mention the perfect condition of their manducatory apparatus, antennæ, and the first thoracic ring which is free.

The Beetle represents the Flies in their entire perfection; everything is rendered horny in the former even to the lower wings, which are furnished with several joints, almost like the feet. The upper wings are horny and meet together so closely by their inner margins upon the back, that they form a closed suture, like the shells of the bivalve Mollusc. The antennæ are also more perfect than in other families, and mostly jointed like the feet, while at their extremity they are frequently thickened into laminated moveable clubs, which open when the animal would fly, as if to listen.

Their habitation, mode of living and subsistence is exceedingly complex, and therein also they combine again all the families of this class, and it might be said, all the preceding classes.

The Beetles are also much more numerous than any other order, and could in this point of view even hold good for an entire class, especially, if they represented a special organic system, but which is not the case.

They live upon vegetable saps, and matters, blossoms, leaves, and wood, living animals, putrid flesh, dung, and such like.

They dwell mostly indeed in concealed situations, but also in those that are freely exposed, while many live in water, and are so subjected to its influence that their larvæ actually respire this element through branchiæ.

The larvæ are white and have three pairs of horny thoracic feet. They live concealed.

The pupæ are invested by a transparent tegument, which tears in an irregular manner.

The Beetles divide distinctly into three divisions, which correspond to the three cohorts of this class, or repeat the three cohorts of their circle.

The Beetles have been pretty generally divided according to the number of tarsal joints into those having three, four, five, or an unequal set of these "articuli," whereby, however, the greatest disorder has originated. I have therefore divided them in my 'Naturgeschichte' according to their mode of living into _Phytophaga_, _Sarcophaga_, and _Rypo-_ or _Coprophaga_, which gradually seems to meet with approval. At least a much more natural arrangement comes to light by using these means.

I have also declared the Rhyncophora to be the lowest and the Lamellicornes the uppermost in rank, a view, which at present appears to be generally adopted.

By these means I obtained two firm points, whereby the division or classification of the intermediate members is uncommonly facilitated, although many may still stand in the wrong place. But who can point out a single system in which Insects range correctly, or, what is more, wherein it would not be easy to prove that no single order and family occupies the right place.

In such trumpery systems of classification, one would think, that some respect might be had for principles, or at least a feeling of shame for the blockhead's weakness of intellect. But in vain! Where the sense for philosophy or for principles is wanting, it is not to be inculcated or driven in. We still see Natural Histories shoot forth, with whose shrub-like ramification we must have compassion. Every thicket of briars is rooted deep, and admits only of being extirpated by wearisome and patient culture.

The Rhyncophora indicate that the Phytophagous beetles are the lowest; the Lamellicornes that the Coprophagous are the highest. The Sarcophagous chafers accordingly take their place between the two.

Now, however, the Rhyncophora are tetrameral. In like manner are the Phytophagous beetles, such as the Borkenkäfer and Holzschröter. They consequently form the main stem, unto which all the true Phytophaga must be annexed. But among them also belong the Pentameral, namely, the Holzböhrer, Schnell-and Prachtkäfer; I have therefore disposed them in this order, and I believe quite correctly.

The Lamellicorn or Dung-beetles are pentameral, and on that account to be co-arranged with the Necrophaga or Carrion-feeders and Sexton-beetles, as well as with the parasitic Lampyridæ, and the predaceous Raub-and Laufkäfer, despite their exceedingly great difference of living and even anomalous structure. On the contrary, most of the heteromeral kinds agree in their mode of living, and tolerably too in structure, with the Dung-beetles, at least the Mulmfressenden, such as the Meal-beetles or Tenebrionidæ, and indeed the Stenelytra also, while the Cantharides are parasitic at least as larvæ.

It seems also to me, that the fungi must be viewed as flour or dung, and that therefore those very Fungivora, whose structure does not point the way otherwise, can be placed with the Mulm-and Mistkäfern, although they are only tri-and tetrameral, like the Lycoperdinæ and Erotyli. Besides this the antennæ of the Fungivora are usually thickened, and even club shaped, whereby they thus stand nearer to the Necrophaga, such as the Speckkäfern and Sexton-beetles, as being those which likewise live upon putrid substances. It is difficult to separate the Coccinellidæ from them; their external resemblance to the Erotyli is also striking.

The pentameral Raub-Lauf-and Sandkäfern form, as it were, the trunk or main stem of the Zoophagous beetles, to which are annexed likewise the pentameral Malacopterous chafers, namely, the Lampyridæ, as parasites.

But the heteromeral Cantharides have also the same soft wings and mode of life, so that they are not in a natural system, even if devoid of principles, to be separated from the Malacopterous beetles.

The nourishment of the Lamellicorn beetles appears to me to be most perfect in kind. Mould or dung can be regarded as a fully prepared aliment, or, as it were, a minced and cooked meat with greens prepared by Nature, like as Man restores it by art. Thus the lower Thricozoa, e. g. the Mice, eat the crudest vegetable substances, such as roots and seeds; those that stand higher, grass and leaves; then snails, worms, and insects; finally flesh, and last of all fruits, as the Bears and Apes. But Man lets the crude matters ferment or reduces them to rapid decomposition by cooking, whereby a mixed kind of food results, which bears obviously the greatest resemblance to dung which, as just observed, is a food cooked by nature.

According to these considerations I now arrange what have been called Beetles in the following manner into divisions drawn from philosophical principles.

The Beetles again commence, like the whole class of Flies, from below, and the inferior kinds pass therefore parallel to the Tracheo-and Dictyoptera, while the superior project above them, as was the case also in the preceding classes.

In a more remote manner also they repeat the lower classes, namely, the Protozoa, Conchozoa, Worms and Crustacea, a fact which is, properly speaking, self-evident, and which is rendered clear by the following table. We have thus:

_Order_ I. Tracheopteroid Coleoptera--_Phytophaga_.
_Order_ II. Dictyopteroid " --_Zoophaga_.
_Order_ III. Ceratopteroid " --_Rypophaga_.

It can also be said; the first correspond to the Worms, the second to the Crustacea, the third to the Flies.

Lastly, it may still be said; the first correspond to the Protozoa, the second to the Conchozoa, the third to the Ancyliozoa.

_Order 7. Tracheopteroid Beetles--Phytophaga._

3527. Body cylindrical, head mostly long, antennæ setiform, maxillary teeth obtuse, tarsi mostly tetrameral.

They gnaw hard seeds, leaves, and wood, and mostly live concealed. The larvæ almost or entirely apodal.

_Fam. 1. Dipteroid Beetles--Rhyncophora._

Head rhynchiform or snout-shaped, tarsi tetrameral.

_Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Beetles, Blattkäfer._

Head tolerably short as well as the antennæ, tarsi tetrameral.

_Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Beetles, Holzkäfer._

Head pretty short, antennæ very long, tarsi tetra-and pentameral--Borkenkäfer, Holzbohrer and Schröter.

_Order 8. Dictyopteroid Beetles--Zoophaga._

3528. Body long and depressed, antennæ short, maxillæ large with pointed teeth, feet mostly pentameral and without ungues.

They subsist upon living or dead animals, dwell usually in water or upon dry land, and run very swiftly. The one kind seize upon living beasts, and on that account constantly swarm about them, as the Raub-and Laufkäfer; the others only subsist as larvæ by suction upon other beetles or snails externally, but live, as Flies, upon leaves and flowers, as the Lampyridæ and Cantharidæ.

_Fam. 4. Neuropteroid Beetles--Water-beetles._

Like the following, but all three parts of the body closely annexed, and rudder-like fringes of hairs upon the feet--Parnidæ, Hydrophilidæ, Dyticidæ.

_Fam. 5. Orthopteroid Beetles--Prædatoria._

Maxillæ very large and pointed, antennæ setiform, wings hard and tolerably flat like the body, tarsi mostly pentameral.--Raub-Lauf-and Sandkäfer.

_Fam. 6. Hemipteroid Beetles--Parasitica._

Body pretty cylindrical, head rounded with moderate sized maxillæ, elytra narrow and soft, tarsi penta-and heteromeral.

They hang as larvæ like Mites to other beetles, and suck them; but after the metamorphosis they live upon leaves and flowers--Lampyridæ and Cantharidæ.

_Order 9. Ceratopteroid Beetles--Rypophaga._

3529. Body quadripeltate and mostly short, with hard elytra, thorax large, head small, with short claviform antennæ and blunt maxillary teeth; feet mostly furnished with ungues, tarsal joints varied. Their habitation is very varied, being both free and concealed, and they live for the greatest part on decaying excrementitious matters, such as fungi, dry rot, and even animal ordure.

_Fam. 7. Phytophagoid--Necrophaga._

Body mostly rounded, with hard and large elytra; antennæ claviform; tarsi tri-tetra-and pentameral--Lycoperdinæ, Erotyli, Coccinellidæ, Byrrhidæ, Dermestidæ, Sylphidæ. They correspond to the Worms and Tracheopterous insects.

_Fam. 8. Zoophagoid--Mulmkäfer._

Body elongated and also nearly spherical, mostly of a dark spotted colour, with hard elytra, thorax rounded, head retractile, palpi filiform, tarsal joints heteromeral or unequal in number--Helopidæ, Diaperidæ, Tenebrionidæ, and Pimeliariæ.

They live usually in dark situations, eating meal and dry-rot; have an unpleasant smell. They correspond to the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders, as likewise to the Dictyoptera.

_Fam. 9. Perfect Beetles_--_Erdkäfer_ or _Lamellicornes_.

Mostly large, convex and short bodied Beetles with large thorax, broad head, lamellated antennal clubs, spinose tibiæ and pentameral tarsi. Their habitation is in dung or under the earth, where they live in the larval state frequently for years before they change; some Chafers eat also leaves of trees and flowers. They are distinguished by their striking size and singular forms, being mostly furnished with horns on the thorax or head. I do veritably believe that they may be generally interpreted as being the highest organized beetles and members of their class, although they are generally placed or arranged midway between the lower forms, while the Sand-and Laufkäfer are esteemed the most perfect.

_Tabular Co-arrangement._

The Dermatozoa now admit of being co-arranged in the following manner, from which their three Cardinal relations of Proximity, Repetition, and Serial analogy or Parallelism, admit of being distinctly recognized.

_PARALLELISM OF THE LOWER ANIMALS._