Chapter XII: Act 1898: the official principal of the archbishop is required to (1)

institute a presentee to a benefice if the tribunal constituted under that act decides that there is no valid ground for refusing institution and the bishop of the diocese notwithstanding fails to institute him. After the College of Advocates was incorporated and had established itself in Doctors' Commons, the archbishop's court of appeal, as well as his prerogative court, were usually held in the hall of the College of Advocates, but after the destruction of the buildings of the college, the court of appeal held its sittings, for the most part, in Westminster Hall. For many years past there has been but little business in the Arches court, mainly owing to the unwillingness of a large number of the clergy to recognize the jurisdiction of what they deny to be any longer a spiritual court, and the consistent use by the bishops of their right of veto in the case of prosecutions under the Public Worship Regulation Act. On the rare occasions when a sitting of the court is necessary, it is held in the library of Lambeth Palace, or at the Church House, Westminster.

ARCHESTRATUS, of Syracuse or Gela, a Greek poet, who flourished about 330 B.C. After travelling extensively in search of foreign delicacies for the table, he embodied the result in a humorous poem called [Greek: Hedupatheta], afterwards freely translated by Ennius under the title _Heduphagetica_. About 300 lines of this gastronomical poem are preserved in Athenaeus. The writer, who has been styled the Hesiod or Theognis of gluttons, parodies the style of the old gnomic poets; chief attention is paid to details concerning fish.

Ribbeck, _Archestrati Reliquiae_ (1877); Brandt, _Corpusculum Poesis
Epicae Graecae ludibundae_, i. 1888; Schmid, _De Archestrati Gelensis
Fragmentis_ (1896).

ARCHIAC, ETIENNE JULES ADOLPHE DESMIER DE SAINT SIMON, VICOMTE D' (1802-1868), French geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Reims on the 24th of September 1802. He was educated in the Military School of St Cyr, and served for nine years as a cavalry officer until 1830, when he retired from the service. Prior to this he had published an historical romance; but now geology came to occupy his chief attention. In his earlier scientific works, which date from 1835, he described the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of France, Belgium and England, and dealt especially with the distribution of fossils geographically and in sequence. Later on he investigated the Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian formations. His great work, _Histoire des progres de la geologie_, 1834-1859, was published in 8 volumes at Paris (1847-1860). In 1853 the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him. In the same year, with Jules Haime (1824-1856), he published a monograph on the Nummulitic formation of India. In 1857 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1861 he was appointed professor of palaeontology in the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. Of later works his _Paleontologie stratigraphique_, in 3 vols. (1864-1865); his _Geologie et paleontologie_ (1866); and his palaeontological contributions to de Tchihatcheff's _Asie mineure_ (1866), may be specially mentioned.

He died on the 24th of December 1868.

See _Notice sur les travaux scientifiques du vicomte d'Archiac_, par
A. Gaudry (Meulan, 1874); _Extrait du Bull. Soc. Geol. de France_,
ser. 3, t. ii. p. 230 (1874).

ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS, Greek poet, was born at Antioch in Syria 120 B.C. In 102, his reputation having been already established, especially as an improvisatore, he came to Rome, where he was well received amongst the highest and most influential families. His chief patron was Lucullus, whose gentile name he assumed. In 93 he visited Sicily with his patron, on which occasion he received the citizenship of Heracleia, one of the federate towns, and indirectly, by the provisions of the lex Plautia Papiria, that of Rome. In 61 he was accused by a certain Gratius of having assumed the citizenship illegally; and Cicero successfully defended him in his speech _Pro Archia_. This speech, which furnishes nearly all the information concerning Archias, states that he had celebrated the deeds of Marius and Lucullus in the Cimbrian and Mithradatic wars, and that he was engaged upon a poem of which the events of Cicero's consulship formed the subject. The Greek Anthology contains thirty-five epigrams under the name of Archias, but it is doubtful how many of these (if any) are the work of the poet of Antioch.

Cicero, _Pro Archia_; T. Reinach, _De Archia Poeta_ (1890).

ARCHIDAMUS, the name of five kings of Sparta, of the Eurypontid house.

1. The son and successor of Anaxidamus. His reign, which began soon after the close of the second Messenian War, is said to have been quiet and uneventful (Pausanias iii. 7. 6).

2. The son of Zeuxidamus, reigned 476-427 B.C. (but see LEOTYCHIDES). He succeeded his grandfather Leotychides upon the banishment of the latter, his father having already died. His coolness and presence of mind are said to have saved the Spartan state from destruction on the occasion of the great earthquake of 464 (Diodorus xi. 63; Plutarch, _Cimon_, 16), but this story must be regarded as at least doubtful. He was a friend of Pericles and a man of prudence and moderation. During the negotiations which preceded the Peloponnesian War he did his best to prevent, or at least to postpone, the inevitable struggle, but was overruled by the war party. He invaded Attica at the head of the Peloponnesian forces in the summers of 431, 430 and 428, and in 429 conducted operations against Plataea. He died probably in 427, certainly before the summer of 426, when we find his son Agis on the throne.

Herod, vi. 71; Thuc. i. 79-iii. 1; Plut. _Pericles_, 29. 33; Diodorus
xi. 48-xii. 52.

3. The son and successor of Agesilaus II., reigned 360-338 B.C. During his father's later years he proved himself a brave and capable officer. In 371 he led the relief force which was sent to aid the survivors of the battle of Leuctra. Four years later he captured Caryae, ravaged the territory of the Parrhasii and defeated the Arcadians, Argives and Messenians in the "tearless battle," so called because the victory did not cost the Spartans a single life. In 364, however, he sustained a severe reverse in attempting to relieve a besieged Spartan garrison at Cromnus in south-western Arcadia. He showed great heroism in the defence of Sparta against Epaminondas immediately before the battle of Mantineia (362). He supported the Phocians during the Sacred War (355-346), moved, no doubt, largely by the hatred of Thebes which he had inherited from his father; he also led the Spartan forces in the conflicts with the Thebans and their allies which arose out of the Spartan attempt to break up the city of Megalopolis. Finally he was sent with a mercenary army to Italy to protect the Tarentines against the attacks of Lucanians or Messapians; he fell together with the greater part of his force at Mandonion[1] on the same day as that on which the battle of Chaeronea was fought.

Xen. _Hell._ v. 4, vi. 4, vii. 1. 4, 5; Plut. _Agis_, 3, _Camillus_,
19, _Agesilaus._ 25, 33, 34, 40; Pausanias iii. 10, vi. 4; Diodorus
xv. 54, 72, xvi. 24, 39, 59, 62, 88.

4. The son of Eudamidas I., grandson of Archidamus III. The dates of his accession and death are unknown. In 294 B.C. he was defeated at Mantineia by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who invaded Laconia, gained a second victory close to Sparta, and was on the point of taking the city itself when he was called away by the news of the successes of Lysimachus and Ptolemy in Asia Minor and Cyprus.

Plut. _Agis_, 3, _Demetrius_, 35; Pausanias, i. 13. 6, vii. 8. 5;
Niese, _Gesch. der griech. u. makedon. Slaalen_, i. 363.

5. The son of Eudamidas II., grandson of Archidamus IV., brother of Agis IV. On his brother's murder he fled to Messenia (241 B.C.). In 227 he was recalled by Cleomenes III., who was then reigning without a colleague, but shortly after his return he was assassinated. Polybius accuses Cleomenes of the murder, but Plutarch is probably right in saying that it was the work of those who had caused the death of Agis, and feared his brother's vengeance.

Plutarch, _Cleomenes_, i. 5; Polybius v. 37, viii. I; Niese, _op.
cit._ ii. 304, 311. (M. N. T.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] So Plut. _Agis_, 3 (all MSS.). Following Cellarius, some
authorities read Manduria or Mandyrium.

ARCHIL (a corruption of "orchil," Ital. _oricello_, the origin of which is unknown), a purple dye obtained from various species of lichens. Archil can be extracted from many species of the genera _Roccella_, _Lecanora_, _Umbilicaria_, _Parmelia_ and others, but in practice two species of _Roccella_--_R. tinctoria_ and _R. fuciformis_--are almost exclusively used. These, under the name of "orchella weed" or "dyer's moss," are obtained from Angola, on the west coast of Africa, where the most valuable kinds are gathered; from Cape Verde Islands; from Lima, on the west coast of South America; and from the Malabar coast of India. The colouring properties of the lichens do not exist in them ready formed, but are developed by the treatment to which they are subjected. A small proportion of a colourless, crystalline principle, termed orcinol (a dioxytoluene), is found in some, and in all a series of acid substances, erythric, lecanoric acids, &c. Orcinol in presence of oxygen and ammonia takes up nitrogen and becomes changed into a purple substance, orceine (C7H7NO3), which is essentially the basis of all lichen dyes. Two other colouring-matters, azoerythin and erythroleinic acid, are sometimes present. Archil is prepared for the dyer's use in the form of a "liquor" (archil) and a "paste" (persis), and the latter, when dried and finely powdered, forms the "cudbear" of commerce, a dye formerly manufactured in Scotland from a native lichen, _Lecanora tartarea_. The manufacturing process consists in washing the weeds, which are then ground up with water to a thick paste. If archil paste is to be made this paste is mixed with a strong ammoniacal solution, and agitated in an iron cylinder heated by steam to about 140 deg. F. till the desired shade is developed--a process which occupies several days. In the preparation of archil liquor the principles which yield the dye are separated from the ligneous tissue of the lichens, agitated with a hot ammoniacal solution, and exposed to the action of air. When potassium or sodium carbonate is added, a blue dye known as litmus, much used as an "indicator," is produced. French purple or lime lake is a lichen dye prepared by a modification of the archil process, and is a more brilliant and durable colour than the other. The dyeing of worsted and home-spun cloth with lichen dyes was formerly a very common domestic employment in Scotland; and to this day, in some of the outer islands, worsted continues to be dyed with "crottle," the name given to the lichens employed.

ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer of lampoons, was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades islands. The date of his birth is uncertain, but he probably flourished about 650 B.C.; according to some, about forty years earlier but certainly not before the reign of Gyges (687-652), whom he mentions in a well-known fragment. His father, Telesicles, who was of noble family, had conducted a colony to Thasos, in obedience to the command of the Delphic oracle. To this island Archilochus himself, hard pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. Another reason for leaving his native place was personal disappointment and indignation at the treatment he had received from Lycambes, a citizen of Paros, who had promised him his daughter Neobule in marriage, but had afterwards withdrawn his consent. Archilochus, taking advantage of the licence allowed at the feasts of Demeter, poured out his wounded feelings in unmerciful satire. He accused Lycambes of perjury, and his daughters of leading the most abandoned lives. Such was the effect produced by his verses, that Lycambes and his daughters are said to have hanged themselves. At Thasos the poet passed some unhappy years; his hopes of wealth were disappointed; according to him, Thasos was the meeting-place of the calamities of all Hellas. The inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their neighbours, and in a war against the Saians--a Thracian tribe--he threw away his shield and fled from the field of battle. He does not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, for, like Alcaeus and Horace, he commemorates the event in a fragment in which he congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he can easily procure another shield. After leaving Thasos, he is said to have visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious character of his works (Valerius Maximus vi. 3, _externa_ 1). He next visited Siris, in lower Italy, a city of which he speaks very favourably. He then returned to his native place, and was slain in a battle against the Naxians by one Calondas or Corax, who was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the Muses.

The writings of Archilochus consisted of elegies, hymns--one of which used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games (Pindar, _Olympia_, ix. i)--and of poems in the iambic and trochaic measures. To him certainly we owe the invention of iambic poetry and its application to the purposes of satire. The only previous measures in Greek poetry had been the epic hexameter, and its offshoot the elegiac metre; but the slow measured structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express the quick, light motions of satire. Archilochus made use of the iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms of metre known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetrameter. The trochaic metre he generally used for subjects of a serious nature; the iambic for satires. He was also the first to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode. Horace in his metres to a great extent follows Archilochus (_Epistles_, i. 19. 23-35). All ancient authorities unite in praising the poems of Archilochus, in terms which appear exaggerated (Longinus xiii. 3; Dio Chrysostom, _Orationes_, xxxiii.; Quintilian x. i. 60; Cicero, _Orator_, i.). His verses seem certainly to have possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigour, and, beyond everything else, impetuous vehemence and energy. Horace (_Ars Poetica_, 79) speaks of the "rage" of Archilochus, and Hadrian calls his verses "raging iambics." By his countrymen he was reverenced as the equal of Homer, and statues of these two poets were dedicated on the same day.

His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Fragments in Bergk,
_Poetae Lyrici Graeci_; Liebel, _Archilochi Reliquiae_ (1818); A.
Hauvette-Besnault, _Archiloque, sa vie et ses poesies_ (1905).

ARCHIMANDRITE (from Gr. [Greek: archon], a ruler, and [Greek: mandra], a fold or monastery), a title in the Greek Church applied to a superior abbot, who has the supervision of several abbots and monasteries, or to the abbot of some specially great and important monastery, the title for an ordinary abbot being hegumenos. The title occurs for the first time in a letter to Epiphanius, prefixed to his _Panarium_ (c. 375), but the _Lausiac History_ of Palladius may be evidence that it was in common use in the 4th century as applied to Pachomius (q.v.). In Russia the bishops are commonly selected from the archimandrites. The word occurs in the _Regula Columbani_ (c. 7), and du Cange gives a few other cases of its use in Latin documents, but it never came into vogue in the West. Owing to intercourse with Greek and Slavonic Christianity, the title is sometimes to be met with in southern Italy and Sicily, and in Hungary and Poland.

See the article in the _Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de
liturgie_.

ARCHIMEDES (c. 287-212 B.C.), Greek mathematician and inventor, was born at Syracuse, in Sicily. He was the son of Pheidias, an astronomer, and was on intimate terms with, if not related to, Hiero, king of Syracuse, and Gelo his son. He studied at Alexandria and doubtless met there Conon of Samos, whom he admired as a mathematician and cherished as a friend, and to whom he was in the habit of communicating his discoveries before publication. On his return to his native city he devoted himself to mathematical research. He himself set no value on the ingenious mechanical contrivances which made him famous, regarding them as beneath the dignity of pure science and even declining to leave any written record of them except in the case of the [Greek: sphairopoiia] (_Sphere-making_), as to which see below. As, however, these machines impressed the popular imagination, they naturally figure largely in the traditions about him. Thus he devised for Hiero engines of war which almost terrified the Romans, and which protracted the siege of Syracuse for three years. There is a story that he constructed a burning mirror which set the Roman ships on fire when they were within a bowshot of the wall. This has been discredited because it is not mentioned by Polybius, Livy or Plutarch; but it is probable that Archimedes had constructed some such burning instrument, though the connexion of it with the destruction of the Roman fleet is more than doubtful. More important, as being doubtless connected with the discovery of the principle in hydrostatics which bears his name and the foundation by him of that whole science, is the story of Hiero's reference to him of the question whether a crown made for him and purporting to be of gold, did not actually contain a proportion of silver. According to one story, Archimedes was puzzled till one day, as he was stepping into a bath and observed the water running over, it occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the introduction of alloy could be measured by putting the crown and an equal weight of gold separately into a vessel filled with water, and observing the difference of overflow. He was so overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran home without his clothes, shouting [Greek: euraeka, euraeka], "I have found it, I have found it." Similarly his pioneer work in mechanics is illustrated by the story of his having said [Greek: dos moi pon sto kai kino taen gaen] (or as another version has it, in his dialect, [Greek: pa bo kai kino tan gan]), "Give me a place to stand and I (will) move the earth." Hiero asked him to give an illustration of his contention that a very great weight could be moved by a very small force. He is said to have fixed on a large and fully laden ship and to have used a mechanical device by which Hiero was enabled to move it by himself: but accounts differ as to the particular mechanical powers employed. The water-screw which he invented (see below) was probably devised in Egypt for the purpose of irrigating fields.

Archimedes died at the capture of Syracuse by Marcellus, 212 B.C. In the general massacre which followed the fall of the city, Archimedes, while engaged in drawing a mathematical figure on the sand, was run through the body by a Roman soldier. No blame attaches to the Roman general, Marcellus, since he had given orders to his men to spare the house and person of the sage; and in the midst of his triumph he lamented the death of so illustrious a person, directed an honourable burial to be given him, and befriended his surviving relatives. In accordance with the expressed desire of the philosopher, his tomb was marked by the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, the discovery of the relation between the volumes of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder being regarded by him as his most valuable achievement. When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily (75 B.C.), he found the tomb of Archimedes, near the Agrigentine gate, overgrown with thorns and briers. "Thus," says Cicero (_Tusc. Disp._, v. c. 23, S 64), "would this most famous and once most learned city of Greece have remained a stranger to the tomb of one of its most ingenious citizens, had it not been discovered by a man of Arpinum."

_Works._--The range and importance of the scientific labours of
Archimedes will be best understood from a brief account of those
writings which have come down to us; and it need only be added that
his greatest work was in geometry, where he so extended the method of
_exhaustion_ as originated by Eudoxus, and followed by Euclid, that it
became in his hands, though purely geometrical in form, actually
equivalent in several cases to _integration_, as expounded in the
first chapters of our text-books on the integral calculus. This remark
applies to the finding of the area of a parabolic segment (mechanical
solution) and of a spiral, the surface and volume of a sphere and of a
segment thereof, and the volume of any segments of the solids of
revolution of the second degree.

The extant treatises are as follows:--

(1) _On the Sphere and Cylinder_ (Greek: Peri sphairas kai
kylindron]). This treatise is in two books, dedicated to Dositheus,
and deals with the dimensions of spheres, cones, "solid rhombi" and
cylinders, all demonstrated in a strictly geometrical method. The
first book contains forty-four propositions, and those in which the
most important results are finally obtained are: 13 (surface of right
cylinder), 14, 15 (surface of right cone), 33 (surface of sphere), 34
(volume of sphere and its relation to that of circumscribing
cylinder), 42, 43 (surface of segment of sphere), 44 (volume of sector
of sphere). The second book is in nine propositions, eight of which
deal with segments of spheres and include the problems of cutting a
given sphere by a plane so that (a) the surfaces, (b) the volumes,
of the segments are in a given ratio (Props. 3, 4), and of
constructing a segment of a sphere similar to one given segment and
having (a) its volume, (b) its surface, equal to that of another
(5, 6).

(2) _The Measurement of the Circle_ ([Greek: Kuklou metraesis]) is a
short book of three propositions, the main result being obtained in
Prop. 2, which shows that the circumference of a circle is less than
3-1/7 and greater than 3-10/71 times its diameter. Inscribing in and
circumscribing about a circle two polygons, each of ninety-six sides,
and assuming that the perimeter of the circle lay between those of the
polygons, he obtained the limits he has assigned by sheer calculation,
starting from two close approximations to the value of [root]3, which
he assumes as known (265/153 < [root]3 < 1351/780).

(3) _On Conoids and Spheroids_ ([Greek: Peri konoeideon kai
sphairoeideon]) is a treatise in thirty-two propositions, on the
solids generated by the revolution of the conic sections about their
axes, the main results being the comparisons of the volume of any
segment cut off by a plane with that of a cone having the same base
and axis (Props. 21, 22 for the paraboloid, 25, 26 for the
hyperboloid, and 27-32 for the spheroid).

(4) _On Spirals_ ([Greek: Peri helikon]) is a book of twenty-eight
propositions. Propositions 1-11 are preliminary, 13-20 contain
tangential properties of the curve now known as the spiral of
Archimedes, and 21-28 show how to express the area included between
any portion of the curve and the radii vectores to its extremities.

(5) _On the Equilibrium of Planes or Centres of Gravity of Planes_
([Greek: Peri hepipedon isorropion ae kentra baron hepipedon]). This
consists of two books, and may be called the foundation of theoretical
mechanics, for the previous contributions of Aristotle were
comparatively vague and unscientific. In the first book there are
fifteen propositions, with seven postulates; and demonstrations are
given, much the same as those still employed, of the centres of
gravity (1) of any two weights, (2) of any parallelogram, (3) of any
triangle, (4) of any trapezium. The second book in ten propositions is
devoted to the finding the centres of gravity (1) of a parabolic
segment, (2) of the area included between any two parallel chords and
the portions of the curve intercepted by them.

(6) _The Quadrature of the Parabola_ ([Greek: Tetragonisaeos
parabolaes]) is a book in twenty-four propositions, containing two
demonstrations that the area of any segment of a parabola is 4/3 of
the triangle which has the same base as the segment and equal height.
The first (a mechanical proof) begins, after some preliminary
propositions on the parabola, in Prop. 6, ending with an integration
in Prop. 16. The second (a geometrical proof) is expounded in Props.
17-24.

(7) _On Floating Bodies_ ([Greek: Peri ochoumenon]) is a treatise in
two books, the first of which establishes the general principles of
hydrostatics, and the second discusses with the greatest completeness
the positions of rest and stability of a right segment of a paraboloid
of revolution floating in a fluid.

(8) The _Psammites_ ([Greek: Psammitaes], Lat. _Arenarius_, or sand
reckoner), a small treatise, addressed to Gelo, the eldest son of
Hiero, expounding, as applied to reckoning the number of grains of
sand that could be contained in a sphere of the size of our
"universe," a system of naming large numbers according to "orders" and
"periods" which would enable any number to be expressed up to that
which we should write with 1 followed by 80,000 ciphers!

(9) _A Collection of Lemmas_, consisting of fifteen propositions in
plane geometry. This has come down to us through a Latin version of an
Arabic manuscript; it cannot, however, have been written by Archimedes
in its present form, as his name is quoted in it more than once.

Lastly, Archimedes is credited with the famous _Cattle-Problem_,
enunciated in the epigram edited by G.E. Lessing in 1773, which
purports to have been sent by Archimedes to the mathematicians at
Alexandria in a letter to Eratosthenes. Of lost works by Archimedes we
can identify the following: (1) investigations on _polyhedra_
mentioned by Pappus; (2) [Greek: Harchai], _Principles_, a book
addressed to Zeuxippus and dealing with the _naming of numbers_ on the
system explained in the _Sand Reckoner_; (3) [Greek: Peri zygon], _On
balances or levers_; (4) [Greek: Kentrobarika], _On centres of
gravity_; (5) [Greek: Katoptrika], an optical work from which Theon of
Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction; (6) [Greek: Hephodion], a
_Method_, mentioned by Suidas; (7) [Greek: Peri sphairopoiias], _On
Sphere-making_, in which Archimedes explained the construction of the
sphere which he made to imitate the motions of the sun, the moon and
the five planets in the heavens. Cicero actually saw this contrivance
and describes it (_De Rep._ i. c. 14, SS 21-22).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _editio princeps_ of the works of Archimedes, with
the commentary of Eutocius, is that printed at Basel, in 1544, in
Greek and Latin, by Hervagius. D. Rivault's edition (Paris, 1615) gave
the enunciations in Greek and the proofs in Latin somewhat retouched.
A Latin version of them was published by Isaac Barrow in 1675 (London,
4to); Nicolas Tartaglia published in Latin the treatises on _Centres
of Gravity_, on the _Quadrature of the Parabola_, on the _Measurement
of the Circle_, and on _Floating Bodies_, i. (Venice, 1543); Trojanus
Curtius published the two books on _Floating Bodies_ in 1565 after
Tartaglia's death; Frederic Commandine edited the Aldine edition of
1558, 4to, which contains _Circuli Dimensio_, _De Lineis Spiralibus_,
_Quadratura Paraboles_, _De Conoidibus et Spheroidibus_, and _De
numero Arenae_; and in 1565 the same mathematician published the two
books _De iis quae vehuntur in aqua_. J. Torelli's monumental edition
of the works with the commentaries of Eutocius, published at Oxford in
1792, folio, remained the best Greek text until the definitive text
edited, with Eutocius' commentaries, Latin translation, &c., by J.L.
Heiberg (Leipzig, 1880-1881) superseded it. The _Arenarius_ and
_Dimensio Circuli_, with Eutocius' commentary on the latter, were
edited by Wallis with Latin translation and notes in 1678 (Oxford),
and the _Arenarius_ was also published in English by George Anderson
(London, 1784), with useful notes and illustrations. The first modern
translation of the works is the French edition published by F. Peyrard
(Paris, 1808, 2 vols. 8vo.). A valuable German translation with notes,
by E. Nizze, was published at Stralsund in 1824. There is a complete
edition in modern notation by T.L. Heath (_The Works of Archimedes_,
Cambridge, 1897). On Archimedes himself, see Plutarch's _Life of
Marcellus_. (T. L. H.)

ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes, for the purpose of removing water from the hold of a large ship that had been built by King Hiero II. of Syracuse. It consists of a water-tight cylinder, enclosing a chamber walled off by spiral divisions running from end to end, inclined to the horizon, with its lower open end placed in the water to be raised. The water, while occupying the lowest portion in each successive division of the spiral chamber, is lifted mechanically by the turning of the machine. Other forms have the spiral revolving free in a fixed cylinder, or consist simply of a tube wound spirally about a cylindrical axis. The same principle is sometimes used in machines for handling wheat, &c. (see CONVEYORS).

ARCHIPELAGO, a name now applied to any island-studded sea, but originally the distinctive designation of what is now generally known as the Aegean Sea ([Greek: Aigaion pelagos]), its ancient name having been revived. Several etymologies have been proposed: e.g. (1) it is a corruption of the ancient name, _Egeopelago_; (2) it is from the modern Greek, [Greek: Hagio pelago], the Holy Sea; (3) it arose at the time of the Latin empire, and means the Sea of the Kingdom (_Archi_); (4) it is a translation of the Turkish name, Ak Denghiz, _Argon Pelagos_, the White Sea; (5) it is simply _Archipelagus_, Italian, _arcipelago_, the chief sea. For the Grecian Archipelago see AEGEAN SEA. Other archipelagoes are described in their respective places.

ARCHIPPUS, an Athenian poet of the Old Comedy, who flourished towards the end of the 5th century B.C. His most famous play was the _Fishes_, in which he satirized the fondness of the Athenian epicures for fish. The Alexandrian critics attributed to him the authorship of four plays previously assigned to Aristophanes. Archippus was ridiculed by his contemporaries for his fondness for playing upon words (Schol. on Aristophanes, _Wasps_, 481).

Titles and fragments of six plays are preserved, for which see T.
Kock, _Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta_, i. (1880); or A. Meineke,
_Poetarum Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1855).

ARCHITECTURE (Lat. _architectura_, from the Gr. [Greek: harchitekton], a master-builder), the art of building in such a way as to accord with principles determined, not merely by the ends the edifice is intended to serve, but by high considerations of beauty and harmony (see FINE ARTS). It cannot be defined as the art of building simply, or even of building well. So far as mere excellence of construction is concerned, see BUILDING and its allied articles. The end of building as such is convenience, use, irrespective of appearance; and the employment of materials to this end is regulated by the mechanical principles of the constructive art. The end of architecture as an art, on the other hand, is so to arrange the plan, masses and enrichments of a structure as to impart to it interest, beauty, grandeur, unity, power. Architecture thus necessitates the possession by the builder of gifts of imagination as well as of technical skill, and in all works of architecture properly so called these elements must exist, and be harmoniously combined.

Like the other arts, architecture did not spring into existence at an early period of man's history The ideas of symmetry and proportion which are afterwards embodied in material structures could not be evolved until at least a moderate degree of civilization had been attained, while the efforts of primitive man in the construction of dwellings must have been at first determined solely by his physical wants. Only after these had been provided for, and materials amassed on which his imagination might exercise itself, would he begin to plan and erect structures, possessing not only utility, but also grandeur and beauty. It may be well to enumerate briefly the elements which in combination form the architectural perfection of a building. These elements have been very variously determined by different authorities. Vitruvius, the only ancient writer on the art whose works have come down to us, lays down three qualities as indispensable in a fine building: _Firmitas, Utilitas, Venustas_, stability, utility, beauty. From an architectural point of view the last is the principal, though not the sole element; and, accordingly, the theory of architecture is occupied for the most part with aesthetic considerations, or the principles of beauty in designing. Of such principles or qualities the following appear to be the most important: size, harmony, proportion, symmetry, ornament and colour. All other elements may be reduced under one or other of these heads.

With regard to the first quality, it is clear that, as the feeling of power is a source of the keenest pleasure, size, or vastness of proportion, will not only excite in the mind of man the feelings of awe with which he regards the sublime in nature, but will impress him with a deep sense of the majesty of human power. It is, therefore, a double source of pleasure. The feelings with which we regard the Pyramids of Egypt, the great hall of columns at Karnak, the Pantheon, or the Basilica of Maxentius at Rome, the Trilithon at Baalbek, the choir of Beauvais cathedral, or the Arc de l'Etoile at Paris, sufficiently attest the truth of this quality, _size_, which is even better appreciated when the buildings are contemplated simply as masses, without being disturbed by the consideration of the details.

Proportion itself depends essentially upon the employment of mathematical ratios in the dimensions of a building. It is a curious but significant fact that such proportions as those of an exact cube, or of two cubes placed side by side--dimensions increasing by one-half (e.g., 20 ft. high, 30 wide and 45 long)--or the ratios of the base, perpendicular and hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle (e.g. 3, 4, 5, or their multiples)--please the eye more than dimensions taken at random. No defect is more glaring or more unpleasant than want of proportion. The Gothic architects appear to have been guided in their designs by proportions based on the equilateral triangle.

By harmony is meant the general balancing of the several parts of the design. It is proportion applied to the mutual relations of the details. Thus, supported parts should have an adequate ratio to their supports, and the same should be the case with solids and voids. Due attention to proportion and harmony gives the appearance of stability and repose which is indispensable to a really fine building. Symmetry is uniformity in plan, and, when not carried to excess, is undoubtedly effective. But a building too rigorously symmetrical is apt to appear cold and tasteless. Such symmetry of general plan, with diversity of detail, as is presented to us in leaves, animals, and other natural objects, is probably the just medium between the excesses of two opposing schools.

Next to general beauty or grandeur of form in a building comes architectural ornament. Ornament, of course, may be used to excess, and as a general rule it should be confined to the decoration of constructive parts of the fabric; but, on the other hand, a total absence or a paucity of ornament betokens an unpleasing poverty. Ornaments may be divided into two classes--mouldings and the sculptured representation of natural or fanciful objects. Mouldings, no doubt, originated, first, in simply taking off the edge of anything that might be in the way, as the edge of a square post, and then sinking the chamfer in hollows of various forms; and thence were developed the systems of mouldings we now find in all styles and periods. Each of these has its own system; and so well are their characteristics understood, that from an examination of them a skilful architect will not only tell the period in which any building has been erected, but will even give an estimate of its probable size, as professors of physiology will construct an animal from the examination of a single bone. Mouldings require to be carefully studied, for nothing offends an educated eye like a confusion of mouldings, such as Roman forms in Greek work, or Early English in that of the Tudor period. The same remark applies to sculptured ornaments. They should be neither too numerous nor too few, and above all, they should be consistent. The carved ox skulls, for instance, which are appropriate in a temple of Vesta or of Fortune would be very incongruous on a Christian church.

Colour must be regarded as a subsidiary element in architecture, and although it seems almost indispensable and has always been extensively employed in interiors, it is doubtful how far external colouring is desirable. Some contend that only local colouring, i.e. the colour of the materials, should be admitted; but there seems no reason why any colour should not be used, provided it be employed with discretion and kept subordinate to the form or outline.

_Origin of the Art._--The origin of the art of architecture is to be found in the endeavours of man to provide for his physical wants; in the earliest days the cave, the hut and the tent may have given shelter to those who devoted themselves to hunting and fishing, to agriculture and to a pastoral and nomadic life, and in many cases still afford the only shelter from the weather. There can be no doubt, however, that climate and the materials at hand affect the forms of the primitive buildings; thus, in the two earliest settlements of mankind, in Chaldaea and Egypt, where wood was scarce, the heat in the day-time intense, and the only material which could be obtained was the alluvial clay, brought down by the rivers in both those countries, they shaped this into bricks, which, dried in the sun, enabled them to build rude huts, giving them the required shelter. These may have been circular or rectangular on plan, with the bricks laid in horizontal courses, one projecting over the other, till the walls met at the top. The next advance in Egypt was made by the employment of the trunks of the palm tree as a lintel over the doorway, to support the wall above, and to cover over the hut and carry the flat roof of earth which is found down to the present day in all hot countries. Evidence of this system of construction is found in some of the earliest rock-cut tombs at Giza, where the actual dwelling of the deceased was reproduced in the tomb, and from these reproductions we gather that the corners, or quoins of the hut were protected by stems of the douva plant, bound together in rolls by the leaves, which, in the form of torus rolls, were also carried across the top of the wall. Down to the present day the huts of the fellahs are built in the same way, and, surmounted as they are by pigeon-cots, bear so strong a resemblance to the pylons and the walls of the temples as at all events to suggest, if not to prove, that in their origin these stone erections were copies of unburnt brick structures. From long exposure in the sun, these bricks acquire a hardness and compactness not much inferior to some of the softer qualities of stone, but they are unable to sustain much pressure; consequently it is necessary to make the walls thicker at the bottom than at the top, and it is this which results in the batter or raking sides of all the unburnt brick walls. The same raking sides are found in all their _mastabas_, or tombs, sometimes built in unburnt brick and sometimes in stone, in the latter case being simple reproductions of the former. In some of the early mastabas, built in brick, either to vary the monotony of the mass and decorate the walls, or to ensure greater care in their construction, vertical brick pilasters are provided, forming sunk panels. These form the principal decoration, as reproduced in stone, of an endless number of tombs, some of which are in the British Museum. At the top of each panel they carve a portion of trunk necessary to support the walls of brick, and over the doorway a similar feature. In Chaldaea the same decorative features are found in the stage towers which constituted their temples, and broad projecting buttresses, indented panels and other features, originally constructive, form the decorations of the Assyrian palaces. There also, built in the same material, unburnt brick, the walls have a similar batter, though they were faced with burnt bricks. In later times in Greece and Asia Minor, where wood was plentiful, the stone architecture suggests its timber origin, and though unburnt brick was still employed for the mass of the walls, the remains in Crete and the representations in painting, &c., show that it was encased in timber framing, so that the raking walls were no longer a necessary element in their structure. The clearest proofs of original timber construction are shown in the rock-cut tombs of Lycia, where the ground sill, vertical posts, cross beams, purlins and roof joists are all direct imitations of structures originally erected in wood.

The numerous relics of structures left by primeval man have generally little or no architectural value; and the only interesting problem regarding them--the determination of their date and purpose and of the degree of civilization which they manifest--falls within the province of archaeology (see ARCHAEOLOGY; BARROW; LAKE-DWELLINGS; STONE MONUMENTS).

Technical terms in architecture will be found separately explained under their own headings in this work, and in this article a general acquaintance with them is assumed. A number of architectural subjects are also considered in detail in separate articles; see, for instance, CAPITAL; COLUMN; DESIGN; ORDER; and such headings as ABBEY; AQUEDUCT; ARCH; BASILICA; BATHS; BRIDGES; CATACOMB; CRYPT; DOME; MOSQUE; PALACE; PYRAMID; TEMPLE; THEATRE; &c., &c. Also such general articles on national art as CHINA: _Art_; EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_; GREEK ART; ROMAN ART; &c., and the sections on architecture and buildings under the headings of countries and towns.

In the remainder of this article the general history of the evolution of the art of architecture will be considered in various sections, associated with the nations and periods from which the leading historic styles are chronologically derived, in so far as the dominant influences on the art, and not the purely local characteristics of countries outside the main current of its history, are concerned; but the opportunity is taken to treat with some attempt at comprehensiveness the leading features of the architectural history of those countries and peoples which are intimately connected with the development of modern architecture.

These consecutive sections are as follows:--

Egyptian
Assyrian
Persian
Greek
Parthian
Sassanian
Etruscan
Roman
Byzantine
Early Christian
Early Christian Work in Central Syria
Coptic Church in Egypt
Romanesque and Gothic in--
Italy
France
Spain
England
Germany
Belgium and Holland
Renaissance: Introduction
Italy
France
Spain
England
Germany
Belgium and Holland
Mahommedan

Finally, a section on what can only be collectively termed _Modern_
architecture deals with the main lines of the later developments down
to the present day in the architectural history of different
countries. (R. P. S.)

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

Although structures discovered in Chaldaea, at Tello and Nippur,
seeming to date back to the fifth millennium B.C., suggest that the
earlier settlements of mankind were in the valley of the Tigris and
Euphrates, north of the Persian Gulf, it is to Egypt that we must turn
for the most ancient records of monumental architecture (see also
EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_). The proximity of the ranges of hills
(the Arabian and Libyan chains) to the Nile, and the facilities which
that river afforded for the transport of the material quarried in
them, enabled the Egyptians at a very early period to reproduce in
stone those structures in unburnt brick to which we have already
referred.

Although the great founder of the first Egyptian monarchy is reputed
to be Menes, the Thinite who traditionally founded the capital at
Memphis, he was preceded, according to Flinders Petrie, by an earlier
invading race coming from the south, who established a monarchy at
This near Abydos, having entered the country by the Kosseir road from
the Red Sea; and this may account for the early tradition that it was
the Ethiopians who founded the earliest dynastic race, "Ethiopians"
being a wide term which may embrace several races.

Egyptian architecture is usually described under the principal periods
in which it was developed. They are as follows[1]:--(A) the Memphite
kingdom, whose capital was at Memphis, south-west of Cairo, the Royal
Domain extending south some 30 to 40 m.; (B) the first Theban kingdom
with Thebes as the capital; this covers three dynasties. Then follows
an interregnum of five dynasties, when the invasion of the Hyksos took
place; this was architecturally unproductive. On the expulsion of the
Hyksos there followed (C) the second Theban kingdom, consisting of
three dynasties, under whose reign the finest temples were erected
throughout the country. After 1102 followed six dynasties (1102-525
B.C.), with capitals at Sais, Tanis and Bubastis, when the decadence
of art and power took place. Then followed the Persian invasion,
525-331 B.C., which was destructive instead of being reproductive. On
the defeat of the Persians by Alexander the Great, and after his death
in 323 B.C., was founded (D) the Ptolemaic kingdom, with Alexandria as
the capital. A great revival of art then took place, which to a
certain extent was carried on under the Roman occupation from 27 B.C.,
and lasted about 300 years.

With the exception of a small temple, found by Petrie in front of the
temple of Medum, and the so-called "Temple of the Sphinx," the only
monuments remaining of the Memphite kingdom are the Pyramids, which
were built by the kings as their tombs, and the _mastabas_, in which
the members of the royal family and of the priests and chiefs were
buried. The mastaba (Arabic for "bench") was a tomb, oblong in plan,
with battering side and a flat roof, containing various chambers, of
which the principal were (1) the Chapel for offerings, (2) the Serdab,
in which the Ka or double of the deceased was deposited, and (3) the
well, always excavated in the rock, in which the mummy was placed.

The three best-known pyramids are those situated about 7 m. south-west
of Cairo, which were built by the second, third and fourth kings of
the fourth dynasty,--Khufu (c. 3969-3908 B.C.), Khafra (c. 3908-3845
B.C.), and Menkaura (c. 3845-3784 B.C.), who are better known as
Cheops, Cephren and Mycerinus. The first of these is the largest and
most remarkable in its construction and setting out. The pyramid of
Cephren was slightly smaller, and that of Mycerinus still more so,
compensated for by a casing in granite. The dimensions and other
details are given in the article PYRAMIDS. From the purely
architectural point of view they are the least impressive of masses,
and their immense size is not realized until on a close approach.

The temple of the Sphinx, attributed to Cephren, is T-shaped in plan,
with two rows of square piers down the vertical and one row down the
cross portion. These carried a flat roof of stone. The temple is
remarkable for the splendid finish given to the granite piers, and to
the alabaster slabs which cased the rock in which it had been
partially excavated (but see EGYPT: _History_, I.).

The Serapeum at Sakkara, in which the sacred bulls were embalmed and
buried, the tomb of Ti (a fifth dynasty courtier), and the tombs of
the kings and queens of Thebes, have no special architectural features
which call for description here.

We pass on to the first Theban kingdom, the eighth king of which,
Nebhepre Menthotp III., built the temple lately discovered on the
south side of the temple at Deir-el-Bahri, of which it is the
prototype. It was a sepulchral temple, and being built on rising
ground was approached by flights of steps. In the centre was a solid
mass of masonry which, it is thought by some authorities, was crowned
by a pyramid. This was surrounded by a double portico with square
piers in the outer range, and octagonal piers in the inner range,
there being a wall between the two ranges.

The earliest tombs in which the _column_ (q.v.) appears, as an
architectural feature, are those at Beni Hasan, attributed to the
period of Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen) I., the second king of
the twelfth dynasty. These are carved in the solid rock. There are two
types, the Polygonal column, sometimes in error called the
Protodoric, which was cut in the rock in imitation of a wooden column,
and a second variety known as the Lotus column, which is employed
inside, supporting the rock-cut roof, but having such slender
proportions as to suggest that it was copied from the posts of a
porch, round which the Lotus plant had been tied.

The culminating period of the Egyptian style begins with the kings of
the eighteenth dynasty, their principal capital being Thebes,
described by Herodotus as the "City with the Hundred Gates"; and
although the execution of the masonry is inferior to that of the older
dynasties, the grandeur of the conception of their temples, and the
wealth displayed in their realization entitle Thebes to the most
important position in the history of the Egyptian style, especially as
the temples there grouped on both sides of the river exceed in number
and dimensions the whole of the other temples throughout Egypt. This
to a certain extent may possibly be due to the distance of Thebes from
the Mediterranean, which has contributed to their preservation from
invaders. We have already referred to the probable origin of the
peculiar batter or raking side given to the walls of the pylons and
temples, with the Torus moulding surrounding the same and crowned with
the cavetto cornice. What, however, is more remarkable is the fact
that, once accepted as an important and characteristic feature, it
should never have been departed from, and that down to and during the
Roman occupation the same batter is found in all the temples, though
constructively there was no necessity for it. The strict adherence to
tradition may possibly account for this, but it has resulted in a
magnificent repose possessed by these structures, which seem built to
last till eternity.

A, Pylon.
B, Great court.
C, Hall of columns.
D, Priest's hall.
E, Sanctuary.]

An avenue with sphinxes on both sides forms the approach to the
temple. These avenues were sometimes of considerable length, as in the
case of that reaching from Karnak to Luxor, which is 1-1/2 m. long.
The leading features of the temple (see fig. 1) were:--(A) The pylon,
consisting of two pyramidal masses of masonry crowned with a cavetto
cornice, united in the centre by an immense doorway, in front of which
on either side were seated figures of the king and obelisks. (B) A
great open court surrounded by peristyles on two or three sides. (C) A
great hall with a range of columns down the centre on either side,
forming what in European architecture would be known as nave and
aisles, with additional aisles on each side; these had columns of less
height than those first mentioned, so as to allow of a clerestory,
lighting the central avenue. (D) Smaller halls with their flat roofs
carried by columns. And finally (E) the sanctuary, with passage round
giving access to the halls occupied by the priest.

Broadly speaking, the temples bear considerable resemblance to one
another (see TEMPLE), except in dimensions. There is one important
distinction, however, to be drawn between the Theban temples and those
built under the Ptolemaic rule. In these latter the halls are not
enclosed between pylons, but left open on the side of the entrance
court with screens in between the columns, the hall being lighted from
above the screens. The temples of Edfu, Esna and Dendera are thus
arranged.