Chapter IX: Act 1894: is important as the first practical attempt of any importance (5)

There are several features which are peculiarly characteristic of the Archean rocks:--(1) the extraordinary complexity of the assemblage of igneous materials; (2) the extreme metamorphism and deformation which nearly all the rocks have suffered; and (3) the inextricable intermixture of igneous rocks with those for which a sedimentary origin is postulated. Wherever the Archean rocks have been closely examined two great groups of rocks are distinguishable, an older, schistose group and a younger, granitoid and gneissic group. For many years the latter was supposed to be the older, hence the epithets "primitive" or "fundamental" were applied to it. Now, however, it has been shown, both in Europe and in North America, that in certain regions a schistose series is penetrated by a gneissose series and when this occurs the schists must be the older. But bearing in mind the difficulties of interpretation, it is not at all unreasonable to assume that there may yet be regions where the gneissose rocks are the oldest; for where no schistose series is present there may be no criterion for estimating the age of the granites and gneisses. The exceedingly great difficulties which lie in the way of every attempt to unravel the history of an Archean rock-complex cannot be too forcibly emphasized; for to be able to demonstrate the order of events and succession of rocks we should at least know whether we are dealing with sediments, flows of volcanic material, or intrusions, yet in many instances this cannot be done. In some areas the gradual passage of highly foliated and metamorphosed schists may be traced into comparatively unaltered arkoses, greywackes, conglomerates; or into volcanic lava-flows, pyro-clastic rocks or dikes; or again through a gneissose rock into a granite or a gabbro; but the districts wherein these relationships have been thoroughly worked out are very few.

This much may be said, that where the Archean system has been most carefully studied, there appears to be (1) a schistose series, of itself by no means simple but containing the foliated equivalents of sedimentary and igneous rocks; into this series a gneissose group (2) has been intruded in the form of batholites, great sheets and sills with accompanying intrusional prolongations into the schists; subsequently, into the gneisses and schists, after they had been further deformed, sheared and foliated, another set (3) of dikes or thin sheet-like intrusions penetrated. All this, namely, the formation of sediments, the outpouring of volcanic rocks, their repeated deformation by powerful dynamic agencies and then their penetration by dikes and sheets had been completed and erosion had been at work upon the hardened and exposed rocks, before the earliest pre-Cambrian sediment was deposited.

There has been much premature speculation as to the nature and origin of these very ancient rocks. The prevalence of regular foliation with layers of different mineral composition, producing a close resemblance to bedding, has led some to imagine that the gneisses and schists were themselves the product of the primeval oceans, a supposition that is no longer worthy of further discussion. Others have supposed that the gneisses were largely produced by the resorption and fusion of older sediments in the molten interior of the earth; there is no evidence that this has taken place upon an extended scale, though there is reason to believe that something of this kind has happened in places, and there is in the hypothesis nothing radically untenable. In one way the sedimentary schists have undoubtedly been incorporated within the gneissose mass, namely, by the extremely thorough and intimate penetration of the former by the latter along planes of foliation; and when a complex mass such as this has been further sheared and metamorphosed, a uniform gneiss appears to result from the intermixture.

A not uncommon cause of the apparently bedded arrangement of layers of different mineralogical composition may be traced to the original differentiation of the granitoid magma into different mineral-sheets. When these mineralogically different layers were forced into other rocks, sometimes before the complete consolidation of the former and sometimes subsequent to it, in the generally metamorphosed condition of the whole, it is easy to see a superficial resemblance to bedding.

The Archean rocks have frequently been spoken of as the original crust of the earth; but even granting a cooling molten globe with a first-formed stony surface, it is tolerably clear that such a crust has nowhere yet been found, nor is it ever likely to be discovered. The very earliest recognizable sediments are the result of the destruction of still earlier exposures of rock; the oldest known volcanic rocks were poured upon a surface we can no longer distinguish, and as for the great granitoid masses, they could only have been formed under the pressure of superincumbent masses of material. The earliest known sediments must have been deep in the zones of shearing and rock flowage before the first pre-Cambrian denudation. The time required for these changes is difficult to conceive.

As regards the life of the Archean, or, as some call it, the "Archeozoic" period, we know nothing. The presence of carbonaceous shale and graphitic schists as well as of the altered sedimentary iron ores has been taken as indicative of vegetable life. Similarly, the occurrence of limestones suggests the existence of organic activity, but direct evidence is wanting. Much interest naturally attaches to this remote period, and when Sir William E. Logan in 1854 found the foraminifera-like _Eozoon Canadense_, high hopes of further discoveries were entertained, but the inorganic nature of this structure has since been clearly proved.

_Distribution._--It is generally assumed that the Archean rocks underlie all the younger formations over the whole globe, and presumably this is the only system that does so. Naturally, the area of its outcrop is limited, for, directly or indirectly, all the younger rock groups must rest upon it.

It has been estimated that Archean rocks appear at the surface over one-fifth of the land area (omitting coverings of superficial drifts). This estimate is no more than the roughest approximation, and is liable at any time to revision as our knowledge of little-known regions is increased. It must ever be borne in mind that the presence of a gneissose or schistose complex does not in itself imply the Archean age of such a set of rocks. Local manifestations of a similar petrological facies may and do appear which are of vastly inferior geological age; and unless there is unequivocal evidence that such rocks lie beneath the oldest fossil-bearing strata, there can be no absolute certainty as to their antiquity. It is more than likely that certain occurrences of gneiss and schist, at present regarded as Archean, may prove on fuller examination to be metamorphosed representatives of younger periods.

_Britain._--The most important exposure of Archean rocks in Britain is
in the north-west of Scotland, where they form the mainland in
Sutherland and Ross-shire, and appear also in the outer Hebrides.
Their great development in the isle of Lewis has given rise to the
term "Lewisian" (Hebridean), by which the gneisses of this region are
now generally known. The Lewisian series comprises two great groups of
rocks, (1) the so-called "fundamental complex," an assemblage of acid,
basic and intermediate irruptive rocks, associated together in a
complex of extraordinary intricacy, and (2) a series of dikes, which
like the rocks they traverse, show every gradation from ultra-basic to
ultra-acid types. But the above bald statement conveys no idea of the
complexity of the series, for before the "fundamental complex" had
been pierced by the later dike system it had been subjected to severe
dynamo-metamorphism and many of the massive rocks had been folded,
thrust and sheared, and a very general state of foliation had been
produced. Nor was this all, for after the intrusion of the dikes,
great movements brought about vertical dislocations, and thrust
planes, which traversed the rocks at all angles, accompanied by still
further internal shearing and superinduced foliation.

In the valley of Loch Maree and thence south-westward into Glenelg, a
series of mica-schists, quartz-schists, saccharoid limestones and
graphitic schists has been regarded as a group of sedimentary origin
through which the Lewisian rocks have been irrupted.

In England several small masses of gneiss, notably at Primrose Hill on
the Wrekin, Shropshire, in the Malvern hills, and on the island of
Anglesey in North Wales, are supposed to correspond with the Lewisian
of Scotland.

_North America._--In this continent there is a great development of
Archean rocks in Canada. On the eastern side it covers nearly the
whole of the Labrador peninsula, and extends into Baffin Bay and
possibly over much of Greenland; a broad tract unites the great lake
region with Labrador, and from the same region, by way of the
Mackenzie valley, a similar tract extends in a north-westerly
direction to the Arctic Ocean. This northern (Canadian) area of
Archean includes portions of the states of Minnesota, Michigan,
Wisconsin and the Adirondack region of New York. On the western side
of the continent a series of disconnected exposures of Archean rocks
runs downwards in a narrow belt from Alaska to New Mexico; and on the
eastern side a similar belt reaches from Newfoundland to Alabama.

Much attention is now being given to the more scattered exposures of
Archean rocks, but the best-known area is the classical ground in the
vicinity of Lake Superior and Lake Huron and in the Ottawa gneiss
region of Canada. Some of the more important districts are the
following:--

Rainy Lake district, Canada: The Archean rocks here consist of altered
diorites and diabases (the lower Keewatin series) and black hornblende
schists (probably altered igneous rocks), with mica gneisses which are
perhaps of sedimentary origin.

The Mona and Kiticni schists; metamorphosed lava and tuffs, with
serpentine and dolomite, probably derived from peridotites; there are
also gneissic granites and syenites.

In the Menominee region of Michigan and Wisconsin, the Quinnesec
schist series mainly consist of schistose quartz porphyry with
associated gneisses.

In the Mesaba district of Minnesota the Archean consists of a complex
of more or less foliated igneous rocks mostly basic in character.

The Archean of the Vermilion district of Minnesota comprises the
Soudan formation, an altered sedimentary series with banded cherts,
jasper and magnetite schists; the iron ores are extensively mined. At
the base is a conglomerate containing pebbles from the formation
below, the Ely greenstone, which is made up of altered basalts and
andesites, generally in a schistose condition, but occasionally
exhibiting spherulitic structures. Into these two formations a series
of granites have been intruded.

_Europe._--In Scandinavia, as in Scotland, the pre-Cambrian is
represented by an earlier and a later series of rocks of which the
former (Grundfjeldet, Urberget) may be taken to be the equivalent of
the Lewisian gneisses. This assemblage of coarse red and grey banded
gneisses, with associated granulites and many varieties of acid, basic
and intermediate rocks in a gneissose condition, is intimately related
to a highly metamorphosed sedimentary series comprising limestones,
quartzites and schists, which, as in Scotland, is apparently older
than the gneisses. Similar rocks occur in Sweden and Finland.

In Bavaria and Bohemia the Archean is divisible into a lower red
gneiss, a comparatively simple series, called by C.W. von Gumbel the
"gneiss of Bojan"; and an upper, grey gneiss with other schistose
rocks, serpentine and graphitic limestone, termed by the same author
the "Hercynian gneiss."

In Brittany a gneissose and schistose igneous series lies at the base
of the pre-Cambrian. The pre-Cambrian cores of the eastern and central
Pyrenees, consisting of gneiss, schists and altered limestones, are
presumably of Archean age.

_Asia, Australia, &c._--In northern China, mica-gneisses and
granite-gneisses with associated schists may be regarded as Archean.
In India the system is represented by the Bundelkhand gneiss and the
central older gneisses of the Himalayas. In Japan, in the Abukuma
plateau, there is much granite, gneiss and schist which may be of this
age. In Australia, similar rocks are recognized as Archean in South
Australia and Westralia, and they are estimated to cover an area of no
less than 20,000 sq. m.; in Tasmania they are well developed on the
western side. Although a great area is occupied by crystalline rocks
in New Zealand, the Archean age of any portion of the series is not
yet satisfactorily established; the lower granites and gneisses may
belong to this period. Africa contains enormous tracts of crystalline
gneisses, granites and schists, and some of these are almost certainly
of Archean age; but in the present state of our knowledge it is
impossible to speak more exactly.

REFERENCES.--A good general account of the Archean system will be
found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text Book of Geology_, vol. ii., 4th ed.
(1903), and in T.C. Chamberlin and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol.
ii. (1906); these volumes contain references to all important
literature. (J. A. H.)

ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA (1st century B.C.), general of Mithradates the Great in the war against Rome. In 87 B.C. he was sent to Greece with a large army and fleet, and occupied the Peiraeus after three days' fighting with Bruttius Sura, prefect of Macedonia, who in the previous year had defeated Mithradates' fleet under Metrophanes and captured the island of Sciathus. Here he was besieged by Sulla, compelled to withdraw into Boeotia, and completely defeated at Chaeroneia (86). A fresh army was sent by Mithradates, but Archelaus was again defeated at Orchomenus, after a two days' battle (85). On the conclusion of peace, Archelaus, finding that he had incurred the suspicion of Mithradates, deserted to the Romans, by whom he was well received. Nothing further is known of him.

Appian, _Mithrid_. 30, 49, 56, 64; Plutarch, _Sulla_, 11, 16-19, 20,
23; _Lucullus_, 8.

ARCHELAUS, king of Egypt, was his son. In 56 B.C. he married Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, queen of Egypt, but his reign only lasted six months. He was defeated by Aulus Gabinius and slain (55).

See Strabo xii. p. 558, xvii. p. 796; Dio Cassius xxxix. 57-58;
Cicero, _Pro Rabirio_, 8; Hirtius (?), _Bell. Alex_. 66; also
PTOLEMIES.

ARCHELAUS, king of Cappadocia, was grandson of the last named. In 41 B.C. (according to others, 34), he was made king of Cappadocia by Mark Antony, whom, however, he deserted after the battle of Actium. Octavian enlarged his kingdom by the addition of part of Cilicia and Lesser Armenia. He was not popular with his subjects, who even brought an accusation against him in Rome, on which occasion he was defended by Tiberius. Subsequently he was accused by Tiberius, when emperor, of endeavouring to stir up a revolution, and died in confinement at Rome (A.D. 17). Cappadocia was then made a Roman province. Archelaus was said to have been the author of a geographical work, and to have written treatises _On Stones_ and _Rivers_.

Strabo xii. p. 540; Suetonius, _Tiberius_, 37, _Caligula_, 1; Dio
Cassius xlix. 32-51; Tacitus, _Ann_. ii. 42.

ARCHELAUS, king of Judaea, was the son of Herod the Great. He received the kingdom of Judaea by the last will of his father, though a previous will had bequeathed it to his brother Antipas. He was proclaimed king by the army, but declined to assume the title until he had submitted his claims to Augustus at Rome. Before setting out, he quelled with the utmost cruelty a sedition of the Pharisees, slaying nearly 3000 of them. At Rome he was opposed by Antipas and by many of the Jews, who feared his cruelty; but Augustus allotted to him the greater part of the kingdom (Judaea, Samaria, Ituraea) with the title of ethnarch. He married Glaphyra, the widow of his brother Alexander, though his wife and her second husband, Juba, king of Mauretania, were alive. This violation of the Mosaic law and his continued cruelty roused the Jews, who complained to Augustus. Archelaus was deposed (A.D. 7) and banished to Vienne. The date of his death is unknown.

Archelaus is mentioned in Matt. ii. 22, and the parable of Luke xix. 11 f. probably refers to his journey to Rome.

See Schurer, _Gesch. des judischen Volkes_, i. 449-453.
(J. H. A. H.)

ARCHELAUS, king of Macedonia (413-399 B.C.), was the son of Perdiccas and a slave mother. He obtained the throne by murdering his uncle, his cousin and his half-brother, the legitimate heir, but proved a capable and beneficent ruler. He fortified cities, constructed roads and organized the army. He endeavoured to spread among his people the refinements of Greek civilization, and invited to his court, which he removed from Aegae to Pella, many celebrated men, amongst them Zeuxis, Timotheus, Euripides and Agathon. In 399 he was killed by one of his favourites while hunting; according to another account he was the victim of a conspiracy.

Diodorus Siculus xiii. 49, xiv. 37; Thucydides ii. 100. See MACEDONIA.

ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS, Greek philosopher of the 5th century B.C., was born probably at Athens, though Diogenes Laertius (ii. 16) says at Miletus. He was a pupil of Anaxagoras, and is said by Ion of Chios (_ap_. Diog. Laert. ii. 23) to have been the teacher of Socrates. Some argue that this is probably only an attempt to connect Socrates with the Ionian school; others (e.g. Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_) uphold the story. There is similar difference of opinion as regards the statement that Archelaus formulated certain ethical doctrines. In general, he followed Anaxagoras, but in his cosmology he went back to the earlier Ionians. He postulated primitive Matter, identical with air and mingled with Mind, thus avoiding the dualism of Anaxagoras. Out of this conscious "air," by a process of thickening and thinning, arose cold and warmth, or water and fire, the one passive, the other active. The earth and the heavenly bodies are formed from mud, the product of fire and water, from which springs also man, at first in his lower forms. Man differs from animals by the possession of the moral and artistic faculty. No fragments of Archelaus remain; his doctrines have to be extracted from Diogenes Laertius, Simplicius, Plutarch and Hippolytus.

See IONIAN SCHOOL; for his ethical theories see T. Gomperz, _Greek
Thinkers_ (Eng. trans., 1901), vol. i. p. 402.

ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON (1743-1812), German historian, was born at Langfuhr, a suburb of Danzig, on the 3rd of September 1743. From the Berlin Cadet school he passed into the Prussian army at the age of sixteen, and took part in the last campaigns of the Seven Years' War. Retiring from military service, on account of his wounds, with the rank of captain in 1763, he travelled for sixteen years and visited nearly all the countries of Europe, and resided in England for ten years (1769-1779). Returning to Germany in 1780, he obtained a lay canonry at the cathedral of Magdeburg, and immediately entered upon a literary career by publishing the periodical _Litteratur- und Volkerkunde_ (Leipzig, 1782-1791). This was followed in 1785 by _England und Italien_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1787), in which he gives a remarkably unprejudiced appreciation of English political and social institutions. Between 1789 and 1798 he published his _Annalen der britischen Geschichte_ (20 vols). But the work by which he is best known to fame is his brilliantly written history of the Seven Years' War, _Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges_ (first published in the _Berliner historisches Taschenbuch_ of 1787, and later in 2 vols., Berlin, 1793; 13th ed., Leipzig, 1892). This work, though as regards the main facts and details it only follows other writers, is still a useful source of information upon the epoch with which it deals. In 1792 Archenholz removed to Hamburg, and there, from 1792 to 1812, edited the journal _Minerva_, which had a great reputation for its literary, historical and political information. Archenholz died at his country seat, Oyendorf, near Hamburg, on the 28th of February 1812.

ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856- ), English critic, was born at Perth on the 23rd of September 1856, and was educated at Edinburgh University. He became a leader-writer on the _Edinburgh Evening News_ in 1875, and after a year in Australia returned to Edinburgh. In 1879 he became dramatic critic of the _London Figaro_, and in 1884 of the _World_. In London he soon took a prominent literary place. Mr Archer had much to do with introducing Ibsen to the English public by his translation of _The Pillars of Society_, produced at the Gaiety Theatre, London, in 1880. He also translated, alone or in collaboration, other productions of the Scandinavian stage: Ibsen's _Doll's House_ (1889), _Master Builder_ (1893); Edvard Brandes's _A Visit_ (1892); Ibsen's _Peer Gynt_ (1892); _Little Eyolf_ (1895); and _John Gabriel Borkman_ (1897); and he edited _Henrik Ibsen's Prose Dramas_ (5 vols., 1890-1891). Among his critical works are:--_English Dramatists of To-day_ (1882); _Masks or Faces?_ (1888); five vols. of critical notices reprinted, _The Theatrical World_ (1893-1897); _America To-day, Observations and Reflections_; _Poets of the Younger Generation_ (1901); _Real Conversations_ (1904).

ARCHERMUS, a Chian sculptor of the middle of the 6th century B.C. His father Micciades, and his sons, Bupalus and Athenis, were all sculptors of marble, using doubtless the fine marble of their native land. The school excelled in draped female figures. Archermus is said by a scholiast (on Aristophanes' _Birds_, v. 573) to have been the first to represent Victory and Love with wings. This statement gives especial interest to a discovery made at Delos of a basis signed by Micciades and Archermus which was connected with a winged female figure in rapid motion (see GREEK ART), a figure naturally at first regarded as the Victory of Archermus. Unfortunately further investigation has discredited the notion that the statue belongs to the basis, which seems rather to have supported a sphinx.

ARCHERY,

History in war.

the art and practice of shooting with the bow (_arcus_) and arrow, or with crossbow and bolts. Though these weapons are by no means widely used amongst savage tribes of the present day, their origin is lost in the mists of antiquity. Amongst the great peoples of ancient history the Egyptians were the first and the most famous of archers, relying on the bow as their principal weapon in war. Their bows were somewhat shorter than a man, and their arrows varied between 2 ft. and 2 ft. 8 in. in length. Here, as elsewhere, flint heads for arrows were by no means rare, but bronze was the usual material employed. The Biblical bow was of reed, wood or horn, and the Israelites used it freely both in war (Gen. xlviii. 22) and in the chase (xxi. 20). The Assyrians also were a nation of archers. Amongst the Greeks of the historic period archery was not much in evidence, in spite of the tradition of Teucer, Ulysses and many other archers of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. The Cretans, however, supplied Greek armies with the bowmen required. In the "Ten Thousand" figured two hundred Cretan bowmen of Sosias' corps. Rustow and Kochly (_Geschichte des griechischen Kriegwesens_, p. 131) estimate the range of the Cretan bow at eighty to one hundred paces, as compared with the sling-bullet's forty or fifty, and the javelin's thirty to forty. The Romans as a nation were, equally with the Greeks, indifferent to archery; in their legions the archer element was furnished by Cretans and Asiatics. On the other hand nearly all Asiatic and derived nations were famous bowmen, from the nations who fought under Xerxes' banner onwards. The Persian, Scythian and Parthian bow was far more efficient than the Cretan, though the latter was not wanting in the heterogeneous armies of the East. The _sagittarii_, three thousand strong, who fought in the Pharsalian campaign, were drawn from Crete, Pontus, Syria, &c. But the Roman view of archery was radically altered when the old legionary system perished at Adrianople (A.D. 378). After this time the armies of the empire consisted in great part of horse-archers. Their missiles, we are told, pierced cuirass and shield with ease, and they shot equally well dismounted and at the gallop. These troops, combined with heavy cavalry and themselves not unprovided with armour, played a decisive part in the Roman victories of the age of Belisarius and Narses. The destruction of the Franks at Casilinum (A.D. 554) was practically the work of the horse-archers.

In the main, the nations whose migrations altered the face of Europe were not archers. Only with the Welsh, the Scandinavians, and the peoples in touch with the Eastern empire was the bow a favourite weapon. The edicts of Charlemagne could not succeed in making archery popular in his dominions, and Abbot Ebles, the defender of Paris in 886, is almost the only instance of a skilled archer in the European records of the time. The sagas, on the other hand, have much to say as to the feats of northern heroes with the bow. With English, French and Germans the bow was the weapon of the poorest military classes. The Norman archers, who doubtless preserved the traditions of their Danish ancestors, were in the forefront of William's line at Hastings (1066), but contemporary evidence points conclusively to the short bow, drawn to the chest, as the weapon used on this occasion. The combat of Bourgtheroulde in 1124 shows that the Normans still combined heavy cavalry and archers as at Hastings. Horse-archers too (contrary to the usual belief) were here employed by the English.

Yet the "Assize of Arms" of 1181 does not mention the bow, and Richard I. was at great pains to procure crossbowmen for the Crusades. The crossbow had from about the 10th century gradually become the principal missile weapon in Europe, in spite of the fact that it was condemned by the Lateran Council of 1139. As early as 1270 in France, and rather later in Spain, the master of the crossbowmen had become a great dignitary, and in Spain the weapon was used by a _corps d'elite_ of men of gentle birth, who, with their gay apparel, were a picturesque feature of continental armies of the period. But the Genoese, Pisans and Venetians were the peoples which employed the crossbow most of all. Many thousand Genoese crossbowmen were present at Crecy.

It was in the Crusades that the crossbow made its reputation, opposing heavier weight and greater accuracy to the missiles of the horse-archers, who invariably constituted the greatest and most important part of the Asiatic armies. So little change in warfare had centuries brought about that a crusading force in 1104 perished at Carrhae, on the same ground and before the same mounted-archer tactics, as the army of Crassus in 55 B.C. But individually the crusading crossbowman was infinitely superior to the Turkish or Egyptian horse-archer.

English use.

England, which was to become the country of archers _par excellence_, long retained the old short bow of Hastings, and the far more efficient crossbow was only used as a rule by mercenaries, such as the celebrated Falkes de Breaute and his men in the reign of John. South Wales, it seems certain, eventually produced the famous long-bow. In Ireland, in Henry II.'s time, Strongbow made great use of Welsh bowmen, whom he mounted for purposes of guerrilla warfare, and eventually the prowess of Welsh archers taught Edward I. the value of the hitherto discredited arm. At Falkirk (q.v.), once for all, the long-bow proved its worth, and thenceforward for centuries it was the principal weapon of English soldiers. By 1339, archers had come to be half of the whole mass of footmen, and later the proportion was greatly increased. In 1360 Edward III. mounted his archers, as Strongbow had done. The long-bow was about 5 ft., and its shaft a cloth-yard long. Shot by a Welsh archer, a shaft had penetrated an oak door (at Abergavenny in 1182) 4 in. thick and the head stood out a hand's breadth on the inner side. Drawn to the right ear, the bow was naturally capable of long shooting, and in Henry VIII.'s time practice at a less range than one furlong was forbidden. In rapidity it was the equal of the short bow and the superior of the crossbow, which weapon, indeed, it surpassed in all respects. Falkirk, and still more Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt, made the English archers the most celebrated infantry in Europe, and the kings of England, in whatever else they differed from each other, were, from Edward II. to Henry VIII., at one in the matter of archery. In 1363 Edward III. commanded the general practice of archery on Sundays and holidays, all other sports being forbidden. The provisions of this act were from time to time re-issued, particularly in the well-known act of Henry VIII. The price of bows and arrows was also regulated in the reign of Edward III., and Richard III. ordained that for every ton of certain goods imported ten yew-bows should be imported also, while at the same time long-bows of unusual size were admitted free of duty. In order to prevent the too rapid consumption of yew for bow-staves, bowyers were ordered to make four bows of wych-hazel, ash or elm to one of yew, and only the best and most useful men were allowed to possess yew-bows. Distant and exposed counties were provided for by making bowyers, fletchers, &c., liable (unless freemen of the city of London) to be ordered to any point where their services might be required. In Scotland and Ireland also, considerable attention was paid to archery. In 1478 archery was encouraged in Ireland by statute, and James I. and James IV. of Scotland, in particular, did their best to stimulate the interest of their subjects in the bow, whose powers they had felt in so many battles from Falkirk to Homildon Hill.

Decline as weapon.

The introduction of hand-firearms was naturally fatal to the bow as a warlike weapon, but the conservatism of the English, and the non-professional character of wars waged by them, added to the technical deficiencies of early firearms, made the process of change in England very gradual. The mercenary or professional element was naturally the first to adopt the new weapons. At Pont de l'Arche in 1418 the English had "_petits canons_" (which seem to have been hand guns), and during the latter part of the Hundred Years' War their use became more and more frequent. The crossbow soon disappeared from the more professional armies of the continent. Charles the Bold had, before the battle of Morat (1476), ten thousand _coulevrines a main_. But in the hands of local forces the crossbow lingered on, at least in rural France, until about 1630. Its last appearance in war was in the hands of the Chinese at Taku (1860). But the long-bow, an incomparably finer weapon, endured as one of the principal arms of the English soldier until about 1590. Edward IV. entered London after the battle of Barnet with 500 "smokie gunners" (foreign mercenaries), but at that engagement Warwick's centre consisted solely of bows and bills (1471). The new weapons gradually made their way, but even in 1588, the year of the Armada, the local forces of Devonshire comprised 800 bows to 1600 "shot," and 800 bills to 800 pikes. But the Armada year saw the last appearance of the English archer, and the same county in 1598 provides neither archers nor billmen, while in the professional army in Ireland these weapons had long given way to musket and caliver, pike and halberd. Archers appeared in civilized warfare as late as 1807, when fifteen hundred "baskiers," horse-archers, clad in chain armour, fought against Napoleon in Poland.

As a weapon of the chase the bow was in its various forms employed even more than in war. The rise of archery as a sport in England was, of course, a consequence of its military value, which caused it to be so heartily encouraged by all English sovereigns.

Japan.

The Japanese were from their earliest times great archers, and the bow was the weapon _par excellence_ of their soldiers. The standard length of the bow (usually bamboo) was 7 ft. 6 in., of the arrow 3 ft. to 3 ft. 9 in. Numerous feats of archery are recorded to have taken place in the "thirty-three span" halls of Kioto and Tokyo, where the archer had to shoot the whole length of a very low corridor, 128 yds. long. Wada Daihachi in the 17th century shot 8133 arrows down the corridor in twenty-four consecutive hours, averaging five shots a minute, and in 1852 a modern archer made 5583 successful shots in twenty hours, or over four a minute.

History of Sport.

_The Pastime of Archery._--The use of the bow and arrow as a pastime naturally accompanied their use as weapons of war, but when the gun began to supersede the bow the pastime lost its popularity. Charles II., however, and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, interested themselves in English archery, the queen in 1676 presenting a silver badge or shield to the "Marshall of the Fraternity of Archers," which badge, once the property of the Finsbury Archers, was transferred to the keeping of the Royal Toxophilite Society, when in 1841 the two clubs combined. The Toxophilite Society was founded in 1781; for though in the north archery had long been practised, its resuscitation in the south really dates from the formation of this club by Sir Ashton Lever. This society received the title of "Royal" in 1847, though it had long been patronized by royalty. It is an error to suppose that the Finsbury Archers were connected with the Archers' division of the Hon. Artillery Company, but many members of the Toxophilite Society joined that division, and used its ground for shooting, securing, however, a London ground of their own in the district where Gower Street, W.C., now is. When this ground became unavailable, the shooting probably took place at Highbury, and later in 1820, on Lord's cricket ground, the present ground in the Inner Circle of Regent's Park, near the Botanical Gardens, not being acquired till 1833. The society may be regarded as the most important body connected with archery, most of the leading archers belonging to it, though the Grand National Archery Society controls the public meetings. Among its more important events is the shooting of 144 arrows at 100 yds. for the Crunder Cup and Bugle. In the early days of the club targets of different sizes were used at the different ranges, and the scores were recorded in money (e.g. "Mr Elwin, 86 hits, L5:5:6"). The Woodmen of Arden can claim an almost equal antiquity, having been founded--some say "revived"--in 1785. The number of members is limited to 80; at one time there were 81, Sir Robert Peel having been elected as a supernumerary by way of compliment. The headquarters of the Woodmen are at Meriden in Warwickshire; the club has a nominal authority over vert and venison, whence its officers bear appropriate names-warden, master-forester and verderers; and the annual meeting is called the Wardmote. The master-forester, or captain for the year, is the maker of the first "gold" at the annual target; he who makes the second is the senior verderer. The club devotes itself to the old-fashioned clout-shooting at long ranges, reckoned by "scores," nine score meaning 180 yds., and so on. (_Vide_ "Clout-shooting" _infra_.) The chief matches in which the Woodmen engage are those against the Royal Company of Scottish Archers. The Royal British Bowmen date back to the end of the 18th century. Like many others, during the Napoleonic war they suspended operations, revived when peace was made. The club was finally dissolved in 1880. The Royal Kentish Bowmen were founded in 1785, but did not survive the war. John O'Gaunt's Bowmen, who still meet at Lancaster, were revived, not created, at the same time, and still flourish. The Herefordshire Bowmen only shoot at 60 yds., while the West Berks Society is limited to twelve members, who meet at each other's houses, except for their Autumn Handicap, shot on the Toxophilite Grounds--216 arrows at 100 yds. The Royal Company of Archers is the chief Scottish society. Originally a semi-military body constituted in 1676, it practised archery as a pastime from the time of its foundation, several meetings being held in the first few years of its existence. It devoted itself to "rovers," or long-range shooting at the "clout," among its most interesting trophies being the "Musselburgh Arrow," first shot for in 1603, possibly even earlier, in that town; the competition was then open to all comers, for archery was long popular in Scotland, especially at Kilwinning, the headquarters of popinjay (q.v.) shooting. Other prizes are the "Peebles Silver Arrow," dating back to 1626, the "Edinburgh Silver Arrow" (1709), the "Selkirk Arrow," a very ancient prize, the "Dalhousie Sword," the "Hopetoun Royal Commemoration Prize," and others, shot for at ranges of 180 or 200 yds. The most curious is the "Goose Medal." Originally a goose was buried in a butt with only its head visible, and this was the archers' mark; now a small glass globe is substituted. The "Popingo (Popinjay) Medal," for which a stuffed parrot was once used as the mark, is now contested at the ordinary butts. The Kilwinning Society of Archers, founded in 1688, did not disband till 1870; the Irvine Toxophilites flourished from 1814 till about 1867. But of all societies the Grand National Archery Society, regulating the great meetings, though comparatively young, is the most important. Various open meetings were already in existence, but in 1844 a few leading archers projected a Grand National Meeting, which was held in York in that year and in 1845 and 1846, and subsequently in other places. But the society did not exist as such till 1861, after the meeting held at Liverpool, since when, notwithstanding some financial troubles, it has been the legislative and managing body of English archery. The chief meetings are the "Championship," the "Leamington and Midland Counties," the "Crystal Palace," the "Grand Western" and the "Grand Northern." For some years a "Scottish Grand National" was held, but fell into abeyance. The "Scorton Arrow" is no longer shot for in the Yorkshire village of that name, but the meeting, held regularly in the county, dates back to 1673 by record, and is probably far older. The silver arrow and the captaincy are awarded to the man who makes the first gold; the silver bugle and lieutenancy to the first red; the gold medal to most hits, and a horn spoon to the last white.

In the United States archery has had a limited popularity. The only one of the early clubs that lasted long was the "United Bowmen of Philadelphia," founded in 1828, but defunct in 1859. There was a revival twenty years later, when a National Association was formed; and various meetings were held annually and championships instituted, but there was never any popular enthusiasm for the sport, though it showed signs of increasing favour towards the end of the 19th century. The longer ranges are not greatly favoured by American archers, though at some meetings the regulation "York Round" (_vide infra_ under "Targets") and the "National" are shot. Other rounds are the "Potomac," 24 arrows at 80, 24 at 70, and 24 at 60 yds.; the "Double American," 60 arrows each at 60, 50 and 40 yds.; and the "Double Columbia," for ladies, 48 each at 50, 40 and 30 yds. In team matches ladies shoot 96 arrows at 50 yds., gentlemen 96 at 60.

_The Bow._--As used in the pastime of archery the length of the bows
does not vary much, though it bears some relation to the length of
the arrow and the length of the arrow to the strength of the archer,
to which the weight of the bow has to be adapted. The proper weight of
a bow is the number of lb. which, attached to the string, will draw a
full-length arrow to its head. For men's bows the drawing-power varies
from 40 to 60 lb., anything above this being extreme; ladies' bows
draw from 24 to 32 lb. Estimating 50 lb. as a fair average, such a bow
would be 6 ft. 1 in. long for a 30-in., 6 ft. for a 28-in., and 5 ft.
11 in. for a 27-in. arrow, but the height as well as the strength of
the archer have to be considered. Similarly a lady's bow on the
average measures about 5 ft. 6 in. and her arrows 25 in. Modern bows
are either made entirely of yew (occasionally of other woods), when
they are called "self-bows," or of a combination of woods, when they
are called "backed-bows." Self-bows are rarely or never made in a
single stave, owing to the difficulty of obtaining true and flawless
wood of the necessary length; hence two staves joined by a double
fish-joint, which forms the centre of the bow, are used, tested and
adjusted so that they may be as equally elastic as possible. The best
yew is imported from Italy and Spain, and is allowed to season for
three years before it is made into a bow, which again is not used till
it is two years older. In backed-bows the belly, the rounded part
nearest to the string, is generally but not necessarily made of yew,
the back, or flat part, of yew (the best), hickory, lance or other
woods, glued together in strips. The centre of the bow, for about 18
in., should be stiff and resisting, then tapering off gradually to the
horns in which the string is fitted, the greatest care being taken
that the two limbs are uniform. The bow of self-yew is generally
considered more agreeable to handle and has a better "cast," throwing
the arrow more smoothly and with less jar, and since no glued parts
are exposed, it is less liable to injury from wet. On the other hand,
"crysals" (tiny cracks, which are apt to extend) are more frequent in
this class of bow. Self-yew bows cost L8 or L10, where a good
backed-bow can be bought for about half that. The self-bow is more
sensitive than other bows, and its work is mostly done during the last
few inches of the pull, where the backed-bow pulls evenly throughout.
The backed-bow should be perfectly straight in the back, but after use
often loses its shape either by "following the string," i.e. getting
bent inwards on the string-side, or by becoming "reflex" (bending the
opposite way). Self-bows are even more apt to lose their shape than
backed-bows, as there is no hard wood to counteract the natural grain.
A bow that is strongly reflexed at the ends is known as a "Cupid's
bow." To form the handle the wood of the bow is left thick in the
centre, and braid, leather or indiarubber is wound round it to give a
better grip.

_The String and Stringing._--The string is made of three strands of
hemp, dressed with a preparation of glue, and should be perfectly
round, smooth and not frayed, as a broken string may result in a
broken bow. The string, at its centre, is 6 in. from the belly of the
man's bow; 5 in. in the lady's bow. The clenched fist with the thumb
upright was the old, rough and ready estimate, known as "fist-mele."
For a few inches above and below the nocking point the string is
lapped with carpet-thread to save it from fraying by contact with the
arm; the nocking point being made by another lapping of filoselle
silk, so that the string may exactly fit the nock of the arrow. When a
bow is properly strung the string should be longitudinally along the
middle of the belly.

_Arrows and Nocking._--The parts of the arrow are the shaft, the
"nock" or notch, the "pile" or point, and the feathers. The shaft is
made of seasoned red deal, and may be "self" or "footed." Most arrows
are "footed," i.e. a piece of hard wood to which the pile is attached
is spliced to the deal shaft, which should be perfectly straight and
stiff. The shaft is made in several shapes. Most archers prefer the
"parallel" pattern--the shaft being the same size from nock to pile;
the next is the "barrelled," the shape being thick in the centre and
tapering towards the ends. The "bob-tail" diminishes from the pile to
the nock; the "chested" tapers from the middle to the pile. The pile
should not be taper but cylindrical, "broadshouldered" where the point
begins. The nock is cut square. There are three feathers, the body
feathers of a turkey or peacock being the best. They should all curve
the same way, are about 1-1/2 in. long and 1/2 in. deep, with the ends
near the nock either square, or balloon-shaped. The weight of an arrow
is its weight in new English silver; a five-shilling arrow is heavy
for a man's bow, while four-shillings is light. A 28-in. arrow for a
50-lb. bow may weigh four-and-ninepence; a 27-in. arrow
four-and-sixpence. This may serve as a rough standard.

_Other Implements._--The archer uses finger-tips, or a "tab" of
leather, to protect the fingers against the string, and a leather
"bracer" to protect the left arm from its blow. Quivers are not now
used except by ladies. A special box for carrying bows and arrows
about; a proper cupboard, known as an "ascham," in which they may be
kept at home in a dry, even temperature, not too hot; and a baize or
leather case for use on the ground, are important minor articles of
equipment.

_Targets, Scoring and Handicapping._--The targets, 4 ft. in diameter,
are made of straw 3 to 4 in. thick, and are supported sloping slightly
backwards by an iron stand. The faces are of floor-cloth painted with
concentric rings, 4-4/5 in. each in breadth. The outer ring, white,
counts one point; the next, black, three; the next, blue, five; the
next, red, seven; and the next, gold--a complete circle of 4-4/5 in.
radius--nine. The exact centre of the gold is called the "pin-hole."
The targets are set up in pairs, facing each other, the distances for
men being 100, 80 and 60 yds.; for ladies, 60 and 50; for convenience,
5 yds. are added to allow for a shooting-line that distance in front
of each target. The centre of the gold should be 4 ft. from the
ground. Each archer shoots three arrows--an "end"--at one target; they
then cross over and mark the scores. If an arrow cuts two rings, the
archer is credited with the value of the higher one. In matches a
"York Round" or a "St George's Round" is usually shot by men, the
former consisting of 144 arrows, 72 at 100 yds., 48 at 80 yds., and 24
at 60 yds., the latter of 36 arrows at each of these distances. One
York Round only is shot on a day; a double York Round is shot, one on
each day, at the more important meetings. Ladies usually shoot the
"National Round" of 48 arrows at 60 yds. and 24 at 50 yds. At most
meetings the prizes are awarded on the gross scores; at others,
including the Championship meeting, on points, two points for the
highest score on the round and two for most hits on the round, one
point each for highest score and most hits at each of the three
ranges, ten points in all. Ladies' scores are calculated similarly. To
decide the Championship, the Grand National Archery Society passed a
rule in 1894 that "The Champion prizes shall be awarded to the archer
gaining the greatest number of points, provided that those for gross
hits or gross score are included; any points won by other archers
shall be redistributed among those gaining the points for gross hits
or gross score." Handicapping may be done by "rings," the winner of a
first prize not being allowed to count "whites" at subsequent
meetings, and "blacks" and "blues" being lost for further successes.
Better methods are (1) to deduct a percentage from the gross score of
successful shooters, (2) to handicap by points, as in other pastimes,
or (3) to rate a shooter according to the average of his last year's
performances, re-rating him monthly, or at convenient intervals, the
system being to add his average of the current year to his average of
last year, and divide the sum by two to form his new rating.

_Clout and Long Distance Shooting._--This form of archery is chiefly
supported by the Woodmen of Arden and the Royal Company. At 100 yds.,
the target (smaller by 4 in. than the usual one, but with an inner
white circle instead of the blue) is set up against a butt only 18 in.
from the ground, but for nine-score, ten-score, and twelve-score
shooting it is a white target, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, with a black
centre. The target, the centre and the arrow that hits the centre are
each known as a "clout." Hits and misses are signalled by a marker
stationed, rather perilously, by the side of the butt. The target is
sloped backwards to an angle of 60 deg., with rings marked round it on
the ground at distances of 1-1/2 ft., 3 ft., 6 ft. and 9 ft., a hit in
the outer ring counting one, and in the next two, and so on, the clout
or centre counting six. For the longer ranges lighter arrows are used.
The Scottish clout was a piece of canvas, stretched on a frame; the
range 180 or 200 yds.; all arrows counted one that were within 24 ft.
of the target, the clout counting two. Modern archers have paid scant
attention to mere distance-shooting, which is an art of its own, but
their experiments prove that with a fairly heavy bow, say 60 lb. or 63
lb., and a long light arrow, known as a "flight arrow," a good archer
should be able to reach 300 or 310 yds. With a heavier bow, properly
under control, 50 or 60 yds. might be added to this by a strong man.
These experiments seem to be verified by a quotation from Shakespeare
(Henry IV. Act iii. Sc. 2): "A' would have clapped i' the clout and
twelve score, and carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen
and a half," i.e. 280 or 290 yds. Instances are recorded of Englishmen
shooting 340 and 360 yds., but in 1795 Mahmoud Effendi of the Turkish
embassy shot 482 yds. with a Turkish bow, and Sultan Selim 972. The
Turk, however, used a Turkish bow and a 14-in. arrow, with a grooved
rest on his left arm along which the arrow passed, to compensate for
the difference between the draw of the bow and the shortness of the
arrow. The diplomatist's shot is supported by good evidence, but the
sultan's is regarded as improbable at least.

_Championship and Scores._--The British championship meetings,
instituted in 1844, are conducted under the laws of the Grand National
Archery Society: the prizes, apart from the Challenge prizes, are
given in money, there being also a rule that any one who makes three
golds at one end receives a shilling from all others of the same sex
who are shooting. The most notable champion was Horace A. Ford (d.
1880), who held the title for eleven consecutive years, 1849 to 1859
inclusive, and again in 1867. He made a four-figure score at four
other championship meetings, his highest, 1251 (in 1857) for 245 hits
being unapproached. To him the modern scientific practice of archery
must largely be attributed, together with its improvement and its
popularity. The names of G. Edwards, Major C. Hawkins Fisher, H.H.
Palairet, C.E. Nesham, and G.E.S. Fryer, are also notable as
champions. Among ladies Mrs Horniblow was champion for eleven years
between 1852 and 1881, Miss Legh for nineteen years between 1880 and
1908; Mrs Piers Legh, Miss Betham and Mrs Bowly claim the title on
four occasions. Mrs Bowly's score of 823 (1894) was the highest made
for the championship till Miss Legh made 825 with 143 hits--only one
arrow missed altogether--in 1898; beating her own record with a score
of 841 (143 hits) in 1904. It should not be forgotten that as the
championship is awarded by points, the highest score does not
necessarily win.

See Roger Ascham, _Toxophilus_ (1545), edited by Edward Arber (London,
1868); _The Arte of Warre_, by William Garrard (London 1591); _The
Arte of Archerie_, by Gervase Markham (London, 1634); _Ancient and
Modern Methods of Arrow Release_, by E.S. Morse (1885); _The English
Bowman_, by T. Roberts (London, 1801); _A Treatise on Archery_, by
Thomas Waring (London, 9th ed., 1832); _The Theory and Practice of
Archery_, by Horace A. Ford (new ed., London, 1887); _Archery_, by
C.J. Longman and H. Walrond (Badminton Library, London, 1894).
(W. J. F.)