Chapter XII: Part 12

_Physical Aspects._--Assam is a fertile series of valleys, with the
great channel of the Brahmaputra (literally, the _Son of Brahma_)
flowing down its middle, and an infinite number of tributaries and
watercourses pouring into it from the mountains on either side. The
Brahmaputra spreads out in a sheet of water several miles broad during
the rainy season, and in its course through Assam forms a number of
islands in its bed. Rising in the Tibetan plateau, far to the north of
the Himalayas, and skirting round their eastern passes not far from
the Yang-tsze-kiang and the great river of Cambodia, it enters Assam
by a series of waterfalls and rapids, amid vast boulders and
accumulations of rocks. The gorge, situated in Lakhimpur district,
through which the southernmost branch of the Brahmaputra enters, has
from time immemorial been held in reverence by the Hindus. It is
called the Brahmakunda or Parasuramkunda; and although the journey to
it is both difficult and dangerous, it is annually visited by
thousands of devotees. After a rapid course westwards down the whole
length of the Assam valley, the Brahmaputra turns sharply to the
south, spreading itself over the alluvial districts of the Bengal
delta, and, after several changes of name, ends its course of 1800 m.
in the Bay of Bengal. Its first tributaries in Assam, after crossing
the frontier, are the Kundil and the Digaru, flowing from the Mishmi
hills on the north, and the Tengapani and Dihing, which take their
rise on the Singpho hills to the south-east. Shortly afterwards it
receives the Dihang, flowing from the north-east; but its principal
confluent is the Dihong, which, deriving its origin, under the name of
the Tsangpo, from a spot in the vicinity of the source of the Sutlej,
flows in a direction precisely opposite to that river, and traversing
the table-land of Tibet, at the back of the great Himalaya range,
falls into the Brahmaputra in 27 deg. 48' N. lat., 95 deg. 26' E.
long., after a course of nearly 1000 m. Doubts were long entertained
whether the Dihong could be justly regarded as the continuation of the
Tsangpo, but these were practically set at rest by the voyage of F.J.
Needham in 1886. Below the confluence, the united stream flows in a
south-westerly direction, forming the boundary between the districts
of Lakhimpur and Darrang, situated on its northern bank, and those of
Sibsagar and Nowgong on the south; and finally bisecting Kamrup, it
crosses over the frontier of the province and passes into Bengal. In
its course it receives on the left side the Dihing, a river having its
rise at the south-eastern angle of the province; and lower down, on
the opposite side, it parts with a considerable offset termed the Buri
Lohir, which, however, reunites with the Brahmaputra 60 m. below the
point of divergence, bearing with it the additional waters of the
Subansiri, flowing from Tibet. A second offset, under the name of the
Kalang river, rejoins the parent stream a short distance above the
town of Gauhati. The remaining rivers are too numerous to be
particularized. The streams of the south are not rapid, and have no
considerable current until May or June. Among the islands formed by
the intersection and confluence of the rivers is Majuli, or the Great
Island, as it is called by way of pre-eminence. This island extends 55
m. in length by about 10 in breadth, and is formed by the Brahmaputra
on the south-east and the Buri Lohit river on the north-west. In the
upper part of the valley, towards the gorge where the Brahmaputra
enters, the country is varied and picturesque, walled in on the north
and east by the Himalayas, and thickly wooded from the base to the
snow-line. On either bank of the Brahmaputra a long narrow strip of
plain rises almost imperceptibly to the foot of the hills. Gigantic
reeds and grasses occupy the low lands near the banks of the great
river; expanses of fertile rice-land come next; a little higher up,
dotted with villages encircled by groves of bamboos and fruit trees of
great size and beauty, the dark forests succeed, covering the interior
table-land and mountains. The country in the vicinity of the large
rivers is flat, and impenetrable from dense tangled jungle, with the
exception of some very low-lying tracts which are either permanent
marshes or are covered with water during the rains. Jungle will not
grow on these depressions, and they are covered either with water,
reeds, high grasses or rice cultivation. On or near such open spaces
are collected all the villages. As the traveller proceeds farther down
the valley, the country gradually opens out into wide plains. In the
western district of Kamrup the country forms one great expanse, with a
few elevated tracts here and there, varying from 200 to 800 ft. in
height.

_Soils._--The soil is exceedingly rich and well adapted to all kinds
of agricultural purposes, and for the most part is composed of a rich
black loam reposing on a grey sandy clay, though occasionally it
exhibits a light yellow clayey texture. The land may be divided into
three great classes. The first division is composed of hills, the
largest group within the valley being that of the Mikir Mountains,
which stand out upon the plain. Another set of hills project into the
valley at Gauhati. But these latter are rather prolongations of spurs
from the Khasi chain than isolated groups belonging to the plains. The
other hills are all isolated and of small extent. The second division
of the lands is the well-raised part of the valley whose level lies
above the ordinary inundations of the Brahmaputra. The channels of
some of the hill streams, however, are of so little depth that the
highest lands in their neighbourhood are liable to sudden floods. On
the north bank of the great river, lands of this sort run down the
whole length of the valley, except where they are interrupted by the
beds of the hill streams. The breadth of these plains is in some
places very trifling, whilst in others they comprise a tract of many
miles, according to the number and the height of the rocks or hills
that protect them from the aberrations of the river. The alluvial
deposits of the Brahmaputra and of its tributary streams may be
considered as the third general division of lands in Assam. These
lands are very extensive, and present every degree of fertility and
elevation, from the vast _chars_ of pure sand, subject to annual
inundations, to the firm islands, so raised by drift-sand and the
accumulated remains of rank vegetable matter, as no longer to be
liable to flood. The rapidity with which wastes, composed entirely of
sand newly washed forward by the current during floods, become
converted into rich pasture is astonishing. As the freshets begin to
lessen and retire into the deeper channels, the currents form natural
embankments on their edges, preventing the return of a small portion
of water which is thus left stagnant on the sands, and exposed to the
action of the sun's rays. It slowly evaporates, leaving a thin crust
of animal and vegetable matter. This is soon impregnated with the
seeds of the _Saccharum spontaneum_ and other grasses that have been
partly brought by the winds and partly deposited by the water. Such
places are frequented by numerous flocks of aquatic birds, which
resort thither in search of fish and mollusca. As vegetation begins to
appear, herds of wild elephants and buffaloes are attracted by the
supply of food and the solitude of the newly-formed land, and in their
turn contribute to manure the soil.

_Geology._--Geographically the Assam hills lie in the angle between
the Himalayas and the Burmese ranges, but geologically they belong to
neither. The older rocks are like those of Bengal, and the newer beds
show no sign of either the Himalayan or the Burmese folding--on the
top of the plateau they are nearly horizontal, but along the southern
margin they are bent sharply downwards in a simple monoclinal fold.
The greater part of the mass is composed of gneiss and schists. The
Sylhet traps near the southern margin are correlated with the Rajmahal
traps of Bengal. The older rocks are overlaid unconformably by
Cretaceous beds, consisting chiefly of sandstones with seams of coal,
the whole series thinning rapidly towards the north and thus
indicating the neighbourhood of the old shore-line. The fossils are
very similar to those of the South Indian Cretaceous, but very
different from those of the corresponding beds in the Nerbudda valley.
The overlying Tertiary series includes nummulitic beds and valuable
seams of coal.

The border ranges of the east and south of Assam belong to the Burmese
system of mountain chains (see BURMA), and consist largely of Tertiary
beds, including the great coal seams of Upper Assam. The Assam valley
is covered by the alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra.

Of the mineral productions by far the most valuable is coal. Compared
with the Gondwana coal of the peninsula of India the Tertiary coal
seams of Assam are remarkable for their purity and their extraordinary
thickness. The "Thick Seam" of Margherita, in Upper Assam, averages 50
ft., and in some places reaches as much as 80 ft. The average
percentage of ash in 27 assays of Assam coal was 3.8 as against 16.3
in 17 assays of Raniganj coal. The coal seams are commonly associated
with petroleum springs. Gold is found in the alluvial deposits, but
the results of exploration have not been very promising.

_Earthquakes_.--Assam is liable to earthquakes. There was a severe
earthquake in Cachar on the 10th of January 1869, a severe shock in
Shillong and Gauhati in September 1875, and one in Silchar in October
1882; but by far the severest shock known is that which occurred on
the evening of 12th June 1897. The area of this seismic disturbance
extended over north-eastern India, from Manipur to Sikkim; but the
focus was in the Khasi and Garo hills. In the station of Shillong
every masonry building was levelled to the ground. Throughout the
country bridges were shattered, roads were broken up like ploughed
fields, and the beds of rivers were dislocated. In the hills there
were terrible landslips, which wrecked the little Cherrapunji railway
and caused 600 deaths. The total mortality recorded was 1542,
including two Europeans at Shillong. The levels of the country were so
affected that the towns of Goalpara and Barpeta became almost
uninhabitable during the rains.

_Fauna._--The zoology of Assam presents some interesting features.
Wild elephants abound and commit many depredations, entering villages
in large herds, and consuming everything suitable to their tastes.
Many are caught by means of female elephants previously tamed, and
trained to decoy males into the snares prepared for subjecting them to
captivity. A considerable number are tamed and exported from Assam
every year. Many are killed every year in the forests for the sake of
the ivory which they furnish. The government _keddah_ establishment
from Dacca captures large numbers of elephants in the province, and
the right of hunting is also sold by auction to private bidders. The
annual catch of the latter averages about two hundred. The rhinoceros
is found in the denser parts of the forests and generally in swampy
places. This animal is hunted and killed for its skin and its horn.
The skin affords the material for the best shields. The horn is sacred
in the eyes of the natives. Contrary to the usual belief, it is stated
that, if caught young, the rhinoceros is easily tamed and becomes
strongly attached to his keeper. Tigers abound, and though many are
annually destroyed for the sake of the government reward, their
numbers seem scarcely, if at all, to diminish. Leopards and bears are
numerous; and the sand-badger, the _Arctonyx collaris_ of Cuvier, a
small animal somewhat resembling a bear, but having the snout, eyes
and tail of a hog, is found. Among the most formidable animals known
is the wild buffalo or _gaur_ which is of great size, strength and
fierceness. The fox and the jackal exist, and the wild hog is very
abundant. Goats, deer of various kinds, hares, and two or three
species of antelope are found, as are monkeys in great variety. The
porcupine, the squirrel, the civet cat, the ichneumon and the otter
are common. The birds are too various to admit of enumeration. Wild
game is plentiful; pheasants, partridges, snipe and water-fowl of many
descriptions make the country a tempting field for the sportsman.
Vultures and other birds of prey are met with. Crocodiles (commonly
called alligators) swarm in all parts of the Brahmaputra, and are very
destructive to the fish, of which hundreds of varieties are found, and
which supply a valuable article of food. The most destructive of the
_ferae naturae_, as regards human life, are, however, the snakes. Of
these, several poisonous species exist, including the cobra and karait
(_Naja tripudians_ and _Bungarus caeruleus_). The bite of a
fairly-grown healthy serpent of either of these species is deadly; and
it is ascertained that more deaths occur from snake-bite than from all
the other wild beasts put together. Among the non-poisonous serpents
the python ranks first. This is an enormous boa-constrictor of great
length and weight, which drops upon his prey from the branch of a
tree, or steals upon it in the thick grass. He kills his victim by
rolling himself round the body till he breaks its ribs, or suffocates
it by one irresistible convolution round its throat. He seldom or
never attacks human beings unless in self-defence, and loss of life
from this cause is scarcely ever reported.

_Agriculture._--The principal and almost the only food-grain of the
plains portion of the province is rice. The production of this staple
is carried on generally under the same conditions as in Bengal; but
the times of sowing and reaping and the names given to the several
crops vary much in different parts of the province. In 1901-1902 out
of a total cultivated area of 1,736,000 acres, there were 1,194,000
acres under rice. In addition jute is grown to a considerable extent
in Goalpara and Sylhet; cotton is grown in large quantities along the
slopes of the Assam range. Rubber is grown in government plantations
and is also brought in by the hill tribes; while lac, mustard and
potatoes are also produced.

_Tea Plantations._--The most important article of commerce produced in
Assam is tea. The rice crop covers a very great proportion of the
cultivated land, but it is used for local consumption, and the
Brahmaputra valley does not produce enough for its own consumption,
large quantities being imported for the coolies. The tea plantations
are the one great source of wealth to the province, and the
necessities of tea cultivation are the chief stimulants to the
development of Assam. The plant was discovered in 1823 by Mr Robert
Bruce, who had proceeded thither on a mercantile exploration. The
country, however, then formed part of the Burmese dominions. But war
with this monarchy shortly afterwards broke out, and a brother of the
first discoverer, happening to be appointed to the command of a
division of gunboats employed in some part of the operations, followed
up the pursuit of the subject, and obtained several hundred plants and
a considerable quantity of seed. Some specimens were ultimately
forwarded to the superintendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta. In
1832 Captain F. Jenkins was deputed by the governor-general of India,
Lord William Bentinck, to report upon the resources of the country,
and the tea plant was brought to his especial notice by Mr Bruce; in
1834 a minute was recorded by the governor-general on the subject, in
which it is stated that his attention had been called to it in 1827
before his departure from England. In accordance with the views of
that minute, a committee was appointed to prosecute inquiries, and to
promote the cultivation of the plant. Communications were opened with
China with a view to obtain fresh plants and seeds, and a deputation,
composed of gentlemen versed in botanical studies, was despatched to
Assam. Some seeds were obtained from China; but they proved to be of
small importance, as it was clearly ascertained by the members of the
Assam deputation that both the black and the green tea plants were
indigenous here, and might be multiplied to any extent; another result
of the Chinese mission, that of procuring persons skilled in the
cultivation and manufacture of black tea, was of more material
benefit. Subsequently, under Lord Auckland, a further supply of
Chinese cultivators and manufacturers was obtained--men well
acquainted with the processes necessary for the production of green
tea, as the former set were with those requisite for black. In 1838
the first twelve chests of tea from Assam were received in England.
They had been injured in some degree on the passage, but on samples
being submitted to brokers, and others of long experience and tried
judgment, the reports were highly favourable. It was never, however,
the intention of government to carry on the trade, but to resign it to
private adventure as soon as the experimental course could be fairly
completed. Mercantile associations for the culture and manufacture of
tea in Assam began to be formed as early as 1839; and in 1849 the
government disposed of their establishment, and relinquished the
manufacture to the ordinary operation of commercial enterprise. In
1851 the crop of the principal company was estimated to produce
280,000 lb. Since then the enterprise has rapidly developed. Tea is
now cultivated in all the plains district of the provinces. When the
industry was first established, the land which was supposed to be best
for the plant was hill or undulating ground; but now it has been found
in the Surma valley that with good drainage the heaviest crops of tea
can be raised from low-lying land, even such as formerly supported
rice cultivation. At the close of the year 1905 there were 942 gardens
in all, with 422,335 acres, and employing 464,912 coolies. The
majority of gardens are owned by Europeans, 405,486 acres belonging to
them as against 16,849 to Indians. The total out-turn for the province
in 1905 was 193,556,047 lb. Between 1893 and 1898 there was a great
extension of tea cultivation, with the result that the industry began
to suffer from the congestion that follows over-production. Also to
meet the requirements of the industry, an enormous number of coolies
had to be brought into the province from other parts of India, and in
recent years the supply of labour has begun to fall off, causing a
rise in the cost of production. For these reasons there was a crisis
in the tea industry of Assam, which was relieved to some extent by the
reduction of the English duty on tea in 1906.

_Tea-Garden Coolies._--The labour required on the tea gardens is
almost entirely imported, as the natives of the province are too
prosperous to do such work. During the decade 1891-1901, 596,856
coolies were imported, or about a tenth of the total population of the
province. The importation of coolies is controlled by an elaborate
system of legislation, which provides for the registration of
contracts, the medical inspection of coolies during the journey, and
supervision over rates of pay, &c., on the gardens. The first labour
act was passed in 1863, and since then the law on the subject has been
changed by successive enactments. The measure now in force is called
Act VI. of 1901. Under this act the maximum term of the labour
contract is fixed at four years, and a minimum monthly wage is laid
down, the payment of which, however, is contingent on the completion
of a daily task by the labourer. Labourers under contract deserting
are liable to fine and imprisonment, and, subject to certain
restrictions, may be arrested without warrant by their employers. In
addition to the labourers engaged under this act, a large number are
employed under contract enforceable by Act XIII, of 1859, which
provides penalties for breach of the contract, but does not allow of
the arrest of deserters without warrant. Neither does this act
regulate in any way the terms of the contract, nor contain any special
provisions for the protection of the labourer. Many labourers on the
conclusion of their first engagement under Act VI. of 1901 enter into
renewed contracts under Act XIII. of 1859. In 1905 there were in all
664,296 labourers, and 24,209 fresh importations, of whom 62% chose
the old act.

_Railways._--The Assam-Bengal railway runs from the seaport of
Chittagong to the Surma valley, and thence across the hills to
Dibrugarh, at the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to
Gauhati lower down the Brahmaputra. The hill section of this line was
found exceedingly difficult of construction, and extensive damage was
done by the earthquake of 1897; but it is now complete. This railway
is financed by the government, though worked by a company, and
therefore ranks as a state line. At the end of 1904 its open mileage
was 576 m. There are several short lines of light railway or tramway
in the province. The most important is the Dibru-Sadiya railway, at
the head of the Brahmaputra valley, with a branch to the coal-fields.

_Trade_.-The external trade of Assam is conducted partly by steamer,
partly by native boat, and to a small extent by rail. In the
Brahmaputra valley steamers carry as much as 86% of the exports, and
94% of the imports. In the Surma valley native boats carry about 43%
of both. In 1904-1905 the total exports were valued at 726 lakhs of
rupees. The chief items were tea, rice in the husk, oil-seeds,
tea-seed, timber, coal and jute. The imports were valued at 457 lakhs
of rupees. The chief items were cotton piece-goods, rice not in the
husk, sugar, grain and pulse, salt, iron and steel, tobacco, cotton
twist and yarn, and brass and copper. No less than two-thirds of the
total trade is conducted with Calcutta. The trans-frontier trade is
insignificant; and most of it is conducted with the Bengal state of
Hill Tippera. The trade through Chittagong is increasing owing to the
opening of the hill-section of the Assam-Bengal railway, which gives
direct communication between the districts of Upper Assam and the port
of Chittagong, and the incorporation of that port in the new province
of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

_Inhabitants._--The total population of Assam, according to the census of 1901, was 6,126,343, of whom 3,429,099 were Hindus, 1,581,317 Mahommedans and 1,068,334 Animists. The number of foreigners in the population due to immigration by the tea-garden coolies was 775,844. But in spite of this immigration the rate of increase in the population was only 5.9% in the decade, and with the immigrants deducted 1.36%. Amongst native-born Assamese during the decade there was a serious decrease in Nowgong and some other districts, due to _kalaazar_ and other diseases. The Assamese are an interesting race, of distinct origin from the neighbouring Bengalis. A large proportion of them derive their origin from tribes who came from the Himalayan ranges, from Burma or from the Chinese frontier. The most important of these are the Ahoms or Ahams, an offshoot of the Shan race of northern Burma. They were the last conquerors of Assam before the Burmese, and they long preserved their ancient traditions, habits and institutions. Hinduism first made its encroachments among their kings and nobility. Several generations ago they gave up eating beef, and they are now completely Hinduized, except in a few remote recesses of Assam. Hinduism has also impressed its language upon the province, and the vernacular Assamese possesses a close affinity to Bengali, with the substitution of _s_ for the Bengali _ch_, of a guttural _h_ for the Bengali _h_ or _sh_, and a few other dialectic changes. Indeed, so close was the resemblance that for a time Bengali was used as the court and official language of the province under British rule. But with the development of the country the Assamese tongue asserted its claims to be treated as a distinct vernacular, and a resolution of government (1873) re-established it as the language of official life and public business.

The Assam peasant, living in a half-populated province, and surrounded by surplus land, is indolent, good-natured and, on the whole, prosperous. He raises sufficient food for his wants with very little labour, and, with the exception of a few religious ceremonies, he has no demand made upon him for money, saving the light rental of his fields. Under the peaceful influences of British rule, he has completely lost his ancient warlike instincts, and forgotten his predatory habits. In complexion he is a shade or two fairer than the Bengali. His person is in general short and robust, but devoid of the grace and flexibility of the Hindu. A flat face, with high cheek-bones, presents a physiognomy resembling the Chinese, and suggests no idea of beauty. His hair is abundant, black, lank and coarse, but the beard is scanty, and usually plucked out, which gives him an effeminate appearance. The women form a striking contrast to the men; there is more of feminine beauty in them than is commonly seen in the women of Bengal, with a form and feature somewhat approaching the European. The habits of life of the Assamese peasantry are pre-eminently domestic. Great respect is paid to old age; when parents are no longer capable of labour they are supported by their children, and scarcely any one is allowed to become a burden to the public. They have also in general a very tender regard for their offspring, and are generous and kind to their relations. They are hospitable to people of their own caste, but to no others. The use of opium is very general.

_Hill Tribes._--The hill and frontier tribes of Assam include the Nagas, Singphos, Daphlas, Miris, Khamtis, Mishmis, Abors, &c., nearly all of whom, excepting the Nagas, are found near the frontiers of Lakhimpur district. The principal of these, in point of numbers, are the Nagas, who inhabit the hills and forests along the eastern and south-eastern frontier of Assam. They reside partly in the British district of the Naga hills and partly in independent territory under the political control of the deputy-commissioner of the adjoining districts. They cultivate rice, cotton, yams and Indian corn, and prepare salt from the brine springs in their hills. The different tribes of Nagas are independent of and unconnected with one another, and are often at war with each other. The Singphos are another of the main population of the same race, who occupy in force the hilly country between the Patkai and Chindwin rivers, and are nominally subject to Burma. The Akas, Daphlas, Miris, Abors, Mishmis and Khamtis are described under separate headings. Under regulation V. of 1873, an inner line has been laid down in certain districts, up to which the protection of British authority is guaranteed, and beyond which, except by special permission, it is not lawful for British subjects to go. This inner line has been laid down in Darrang towards the Bhutias, Akas and Daphlas; in Lakhimper towards the Daphlas, Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Singphos and Nagas; and in Sibsagar towards the Nagas. The inner line formerly maintained along the Lushai border has since 1895 been allowed to fall into desuetude, but Lushais visiting Cachar are required to take out passes from the superintendent of the Lushai hills. The line is marked at intervals by frontier posts held by military police and commanding the roads of access to the tract beyond; and any person from the plains who has received permission to cross the line has to present his pass at these posts.

_History._--Assam was the province of Bengal which remained most stubbornly outside the limits of the Mogul empire and of the Mahommedan polity in India. Indeed, although frequently overrun by Mussulman armies, and its western districts annexed to the Mahommedan vice-royalty of Bengal, the province maintained an uncertain independence till its invasion by the Burmese towards the end of the 18th century, and its final cession to the British in 1826. It seems to have been originally included, along with the greater part of north-eastern Bengal, in the old Hindu territory of Kamrup. Its early legends point to great religious revolutions between the rival rites of Krishna and Siva as a source of dynastic changes. Its roll of kings extends deep into prehistoric times, but the first rajah capable of indentification flourished about the year 76 A.D. Kamrup, the Pragjotishpur of the ancient Hindus, was the capital of a legendary king Narak, whose son Bhagadatta distinguished himself in the great war of the _Mahabharata_.

When Hsuan Tsang visited the country in A.D. 640, a prince named Kumar Bhaskara Barman was on the throne. The people are described as being of small stature with dark yellow complexions; they were fierce in appearance, but upright and studious. Hinduism was the state religion, and the number of Buddhists was very small. The soil was deep and fertile, and the towns were surrounded by moats with water brought from rivers or banked-up lakes. Subsequently we read of Pal rulers in Assam. It is supposed that these kings were Buddhist and belonged to the Pal dynasty of Bengal. Although the whole of Kamrup appears from time to time to have been united into one kingdom under some unusually powerful monarch, it was more often split up into numerous petty states; and for several centuries the Koch, the Ahom and the Chutia powers contested for the Assam valley. In the early part of the 13th century the Ahoms or Ahams, from northern Burma and the Chinese frontiers, poured into the eastern districts of Assam, founded a kingdom, and held it firmly for several centuries. The Ahoms were Shans from the ancient Shan kingdom of Pong. Their manners, customs, religion and language were, and for a long time continued to be, different from those of the Hindus; but they found themselves compelled to respect the superior civilization of this race, and slowly adopted its customs and language. The conversion of their king Chuchengpha to Hinduism took place in the year A.D. 1655, and all the Ahoms of Assam gradually followed his example. In medieval history, the Assamese were known to the Mussulman population as a warlike, predatory race, who sailed down the Brahmaputra in fleets of innumerable canoes, plundered the rich districts of the delta, and retired in safety to their forests and swamps. As the Mahommedan power consolidated itself in Bengal, repeated expeditions were sent out against these river pirates of the north-east. The physical difficulties which an invading force had to contend with in Assam, however, prevented anything like a regular subjugation of the country; and after repeated efforts, the Mussulmans contented themselves with occupying the western districts at the mouth of the Assam valley. The following details will suffice for the history of a struggle in which no great political object was attained, and which left the Assamese still the same wild and piratical people as when their fleets of canoes first sallied forth against the Bengal delta. In 1638, during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan, the Assamese descended the Brahmaputra, and pillaged the country round the city of Dacca; they were expelled by the governor of Bengal, who retaliated upon the plunderers by ravaging Assam. During the civil wars between the sons of Shah Jahan, the king of Assam renewed his predatory incursions into Bengal; upon the termination of the contest, Aurangzeb determined to avenge these repeated insults, and despatched a considerable force for the regular invasion of the Assamese territory (1660-1662). His general, Mir Jumla, defeated the rajah, who fled to the mountains, and most of the chiefs made their submission to the conqueror. But the rains set in with unusual violence, and Mir Jumla's army was almost annihilated by famine and sickness. Thus terminated the last expedition against Assam by the Mahommedans, whose fortunes in this country were never prosperous. A writer of the Mahommedan faith says:--"Whenever an invading army has entered their territories, the Assamese have sheltered themselves in strong posts, and have distressed the enemy by stratagems, surprises and alarms, and by cutting off their provisions. If these means failed, they have declined a battle in the field, but have carried the peasants into the mountains, burned the grain and left the country desert. But when the rainy season has set in upon the advancing enemy, they have watched their opportunity to make excursions and vent their rage; the famished invaders have either become their prisoners or been put to death. In this manner powerful and numerous armies have been sunk in that whirlpool of destruction, and not a soul has escaped." The same writer states that the country was spacious, populous and hard to be penetrated; that it abounded in dangers; that the paths and roads were beset with difficulties; and that the obstacles to conquest were more than could be expressed. The inhabitants, he says, were enterprising, well-armed and always prepared for battle. Moreover, they had lofty forts, numerously garrisoned and plentifully provided with warlike stores; and the approach to them was opposed by thick and dangerous jungles, and broad and boisterous rivers. The difficulties in the way of successful invasion are of course not understated, as it was the object of the writer to exalt the prowess and perseverance of the faithful. He accounts for their temporary success by recording that "the Mussulman hordes experienced the comfort of fighting for their religion, and the blessings of it reverted to the sovereignty of his just and pious majesty." The short-lived triumph of the Mussulmans might, however, have warranted a less ambitious tone. About the middle of the 17th century the chief became a convert to Hinduism. By what mode the conversion was effected does not clearly appear, but whatever were the means employed, it seems that the decline of the country commenced about the same period. Internal dissensions, invasion and disturbances of every kind convulsed the province, and neither prince nor people enjoyed security. Late in the 18th century some interference took place on the part of the British government, then conducted by Lord Cornwallis; but the successor of that nobleman, Sir John Shore, adopting the non-intervention policy, withdrew the British force, and abandoned the country to its fate. Its condition encouraged the Burmese to depose the rajah, and to make Assam a dependency of Ava. The extension of their encroachments on a portion of the territory of the East India Company compelled the British government to take decisive steps for its own protection. Hence arose the series of hostilities with Ava known in Indian history as the first Burmese War, on the termination of which by treaty in February 1826, Assam remained a British possession. In 1832 that portion of the province denominated Upper Assam was formed into an independent native state, and conferred upon Purandhar Singh, the ex-rajah of the country; but the administration of this chief proved unsatisfactory, and in 1838 his principality was reunited with the British dominions. After a period of successful administration and internal development, under the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, it was erected into a separate chief-commissionership in 1874.

In 1886 the eastern Dwars were annexed from Bhutan; and in 1874 the district of Goalpara, the eastern Dwars and the Garo hills were incorporated in Assam. In 1898 the southern Lushai hills were transferred from Bengal to Assam, and the north and south Lushai hills were amalgamated as a district of Assam, and placed under the superintendent of the Lushai hills. Frontier troubles occasionally occur with the Akas, Daphlas, Abors and Mishmis along the northern border, arising out of raids from the independent territory into British districts. In October 1905 the whole province of Assam was incorporated in the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

See E.A. Gait, _The History of Assam_ (1906).

ASSAMESE, the Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Assam valley. In 1901 the number of its speakers was 1,350,846. It is closely related to Bengali and Oriya, forming with them and with Bihari the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars. For further particulars see BENGALI.

ASSAROTTI, OTTAVIO GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1829), the founder of schools for the education of deaf-mutes in Italy, was born at Genoa in 1753. After qualifying himself for the church, he entered the society of the Pietists, "Scuole Pie," who devoted themselves to the training of the young. His superior learning caused him to be appointed to lecture on theology to the students of the order. In 1801 he heard of the Abbe Sicard's training of deaf-mutes in Paris, and resolved to try something similar in Italy. He began with one pupil, and had by degrees collected a small number round him, when, in 1805, Napoleon, hearing of his endeavours, ordered a convent to be given him for a school-house, and funds for supporting twelve scholars to be taken from the convent revenues. This order was scarcely attended to till 1811, when it was renewed, and in the following year Assarotti, with a considerable number of pupils, took possession of the new school. Here he continued, with the exception of a short interval in 1814, till his death in 1829. A pension, which had been awarded him by the king of Sardinia, he bequeathed to his scholars.

ASSARY, or ASSARION, a Roman copper coin, the "farthing" of Matthew x. 29.

ASSASSIN (properly _Hashishin_, from _Hashish_, the opiate made from the juice of hemp leaves), a general term for a secret murderer, originally the name of a branch of the Shiite sect (see SHIITES), known as Isma'ilites, founded by Hassan (ibn) Sabbah at the end of the 11th century, and from that time active in Syria and Persia until crushed in the 13th century by the Mongols under Hulaku (Hulagu) in Persia, and by the Mameluke Bibars in Syria. The father of Hassan Sabbah, a native of Khorasan, and a Shiite, had been frequently compelled to profess Sunnite orthodoxy, and from prudential motives had sent his son to study under an orthodox doctor at Nishapur. Here Hassan made the acquaintance of Nizam-ul-Mulk, afterwards vizier of the sultan Malik-Shah (see SELJUKS). During the reign of Alp-Arslan he remained in obscurity, and then appeared at the court of Malik-Shah, where he was at first kindly received by his old friend the vizier. Hassan, who was a man of great ability, tried to supplant him in the favour of the sultan, but was outwitted and compelled to take his departure from Persia. He went to Egypt (1078-79), and, on account of his high reputation, was received with great honour by the lodge at Cairo. He soon stood so high in the caliph Mostansir's favour as to excite against him the jealousy of the chief general, and a cause of open enmity soon arose. The caliph had nominated first one and then another of his sons as his successor, and in consequence a party division took place among the leading men. Hassan, who adopted the cause of Nizar, the eldest son, found his enemies too strong for him, and was forced to leave Egypt. After many adventures he reached Aleppo and Damascus, and after a sojourn there, settled near Kuhistan (Kohistan). He gradually spread his peculiar modification of Isma'ilite doctrine, and, having collected a considerable number of followers, formed them into a secret society. In 1090 he obtained, by stratagem, the strong mountain fortress of Alamut in Persia, and, removing there with his followers, settled as chief of the famous society afterwards called the Assassins.

The speculative principles of this body were identical with those of the Isma'ilites, but their external policy was marked by one peculiar and distinctive feature--the employment of secret "assassination" against all enemies. This practice was introduced by Hassan, and formed the essential characteristic of the sect. In organization they closely resembled the western lodge at Cairo. At the head was the supreme ruler, the _Sheik-al-Jabal_ (_Jebel_), i.e. Chief, or, as it is commonly translated, Old Man of the Mountains. Under him were three _Da'i-al-Kirbal_, or, as they may be called, grand priors, who ruled the three provinces over which the sheik's power extended. Next came the body of _Da'is_, or priors, who were fully initiated into all the secret doctrines, and were the emissaries of the faith. Fourth were the _Refiqs_, associates or fellows, who were in process of initiation, and who ultimately advanced to the dignity of _da'is_. Fifth came the most distinctive class, the _Fedais_ (i.e. the devoted ones), who were the guards or assassins proper. These were all young men, and from their ranks were selected the agents for any deed of blood. They were kept uninitiated, and the blindest obedience was exacted from and yielded by them. When the sheik required the services of any of them, the selected _fedais_ were intoxicated with the _hashish_. When in this state they were introduced into the splendid gardens of the sheik, and surrounded with every sensual pleasure. Such a foretaste of paradise, only to be granted by their supreme ruler, made them eager to obey his slightest command; their lives they counted as nothing, and would resign them at a word from him. Finally, the sixth and seventh orders were the _Lasiqs_, or novices, and the common people. Hassan well knew the efficacy of established law and custom in securing the obedience of a mass of people; accordingly, upon all but the initiated, the observances of Islam were rigidly enforced. As for the initiated, they knew the worthlessness of positive religion and morality; they believed in nothing, and scoffed at the practices of the faithful.

The Assassins soon began to make their power felt. One of their first victims was Hassan's former friend, Nizam-ul-Mulk, whose son also died under the dagger of a secret murderer. The death by poison of the sultan Malik-Shah was likewise ascribed to this dreaded society, and contributed to increase their evil fame. Sultan Sinjar, his successor, made war upon them, but he was soon glad to come to terms with enemies against whose operations no precaution seemed available. After a long and prosperous rule Hassan died at an advanced age in 1124. He had previously slain both his sons, one on suspicion of having been concerned in the murder of a _da'i_ at Kuhistan, the other for drinking wine, and he was therefore compelled to name as his successor his chief _da'i_, Kia-Busurg-Omid.

During the fourteen years' reign of this second leader, the Assassins were frequently unfortunate in the open field, and their castles were taken and plundered; but they acquired a stronghold in Syria, while their numerous murders made them an object of dread to the neighbouring princes, and spread abroad their evil renown. A long series of distinguished men perished under the daggers of the _fedais_; even the most sacred dignity was not spared. The caliph Mostarshid was assassinated in his tent, and not long after, the caliph Rashid suffered a similar fate. Busurg-Omid was succeeded by his son Mahommed I., who, during the long period of twenty-five years, ruthlessly carried out his predecessor's principles. In his time Massiat became the chief seat of the Syrian branch of the society. Mahommed's abilities were not great, and the affections of the people were drawn towards his son Hassan, a youth of great learning, skilled in all the wisdom of the initiated, and popularly believed to be the promised Imam become visible on earth. The old sheik prevented any attempt at insurrection by slaying 250 of Hassan's adherents, and the son was glad to make submission. When, however, he attained the throne, he began to put his views into effect. On the 17th of the month Ramadan, 1164, he assembled the people and disclosed to them the secret doctrines of the initiated; he announced that the doctrines of Islam were now abolished, that the people might give themselves up to feasting and joy. Soon after, he announced that he was the promised Imam, the caliph of God upon earth. To substantiate these claims he gave out that he was not the son of Mahommed, but was descended from Nizar, son of the Egyptian caliph Mostansir, and a lineal descendant of Isma'il. After a short reign of four years Hassan was assassinated by his brother-in-law, and his son Mahommed II. succeeded. One of his first acts was to slay his father's murderer, with all his family and relatives; and his long rule, extending over a period of forty-six years, was marked by many similar deeds of cruelty. He had to contend with many powerful enemies, especially with the great Atabeg sultan Nureddin, and his more celebrated successor, Saladin, who had gained possession of Egypt after the death of the last Fatimite caliph, and against whom even secret assassination seemed powerless. During his reign, also, the Syrian branch of the society, under their _da'i_, Sinan, made themselves independent, and remained so ever afterwards. It was with this Syrian branch that the Crusaders made acquaintance; and it appears to have been their emissaries who slew Count Raymund of Tripoli and Conrad of Montferrat.

Mahommed II. died from the effects of poison, administered, it is believed, by his son, Jelaleddin Hassan III., who succeeded. He restored the old form of doctrine--secret principles for the initiated, and Islam for the people--and his general piety and orthodoxy procured for him the name of the new Mussulman. During his reign of twelve years no assassinations occurred, and he obtained a high reputation among the neighbouring princes. Like his father, he was removed by poison, and his son, 'Ala-ed-din Mahommed III., a child of nine years of age, weak in mind and body, was placed on the throne. Under his rule the mild principles of his father were deserted, and a fresh course of assassination entered on. In 1255, after a reign of thirty years, 'Ala-ed-din was slain, with the connivance of his son, Rukneddin, the last ruler of the Assassins. In the following year Hulaku (Hulagu), brother of the Tatar, Mangu Khan, invaded the hill country of Persia, took Alamut and many other castles, and captured Rukneddin (see MONGOLS). He treated him kindly, and, at his own request, sent him under escort to Mangu. On the way, Rukneddin treacherously incited the inhabitants of Kirdkuh to resist the Tatars. This breach of good faith was severely punished by the khan, who ordered Rukneddin to be put to death, and sent a messenger to Hulaku (Hulagu) commanding him to slay all his captives. About 12,000 of the Assassins were massacred, and their power in Persia was completely broken. The Syrian branch flourished for some years longer, till Bibars, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, ravaged their country and nearly extirpated them. Small bodies of them lingered about the mountains of Syria, and are believed still to exist there. Doctrines somewhat similar to theirs are still to be met with in north Syria.

See J. von Hammer, _Geschichte der Assassinen_ (1818); S. de Sacy,
_Memoires de l'lnstitut_, iv. (1818), who discusses the etymology
fully; _Calcutta Review_, vols. lv., lvi.; A. Jourdain in Michaud's
_Histoire des Croisades_, ii. pp. 465-484, and trans. of the Persian
historian Mirkhond in _Notices et extraits des manuscrits_, xiii. pp.
143 sq.; cf. R. Dozy, _Essai sur l'histoire de l'Islamisme_ (Leiden
and Paris, 1879); ch. ix. (G. W. T.)

ASSAULT (from Lat. _ad_, to or on, and _saltare_, to leap), in English law, "an attempt or offer with force or violence to do corporal hurt to another, as by striking at another with a stick or other weapon, or without a weapon, though the party misses his aim." Notwithstanding ancient opinions to the contrary, it is now settled that mere words, be they ever so provoking, will not constitute an assault. Coupled with the attempt or threat to inflict corporal injury, there must in all cases be the means of carrying the threat into effect. A _battery_ is more than a threat or attempt to injure the person of another; the injury must have been inflicted, but it makes no difference however small it may be, as the law does not "draw the line between degrees of violence," but "totally prohibits the first and lowest stage of it." Every battery includes an assault. A common assault is a misdemeanour, and is punishable by imprisonment with or without hard labour to the extent of one year, and if it occasions bodily harm, with penal servitude for three years, or imprisonment to the extent of two years, with or without hard labour. There are various different kinds of assaults which are provided against by particular enactments of parliament, such as the Offences against the Person Act 1861, the Prevention of Crimes Act 1871, &c.; and there are also certain aggravated assaults for which the punishment is severer than for common assault, as an assault with intent to murder, with intent to commit a rape, &c. In certain cases an assault and battery is sometimes justifiable, as in the case where a person in authority, as a parent or schoolmaster, inflicts moderate punishment upon a child, or in certain cases of self-defence, or in defence of one's goods and chattels. An assault may be both a tort and a crime, giving a civil action for damages to the person injured, as well as being the subject of a criminal prosecution.

_United States._--The general principles applicable throughout the United States are the same as in England. Riding a horse threateningly near a person; or riding a bicycle against another (_Mercer v. Corbin_, 117 Indiana Rep. 450); waking one from sleep to present a milk bill (_Richmond v. Fiske_, 160 Mass. 34), are assaults. A minor is liable for damages for an assault (_Hildreth v. Hancock_, 156 Illinois Rep. 618). In Texas it has been held that an assault with a knife is not necessarily an aggravated assault (_Warren v. State_, 3 S.W. 240), and an axe is not necessarily a "deadly weapon" with which to assault (_Gladney v. State_, 12 S.W. 868), and the State must prove that it would be likely to produce death or serious bodily injury (_Melton v. State_, 17 S.W. 257). Neither a pistol nor brass knuckles are necessarily deadly weapons; the State must show their size or manner of use in making the assault (_Ballard v. State_, 13 S.W. 674; _Miles v. State_, 5 S.W. 250). But in 1903 a pistol was held by the Texas Supreme Court to be a deadly weapon if not used simply as a club (_Lockland v. State_, 73 S.W. 1054), and the same court held in 1904 that a pistol is a deadly weapon (_Pace v. State_, 79 S.W. 531), and so the assault was an aggravated assault. In North Carolina it has been held that an axe is _ex vi termini_ a "deadly weapon" (_State v. Shields_, 110 N.C. 49).

ASSAYE, a village of Hyderabad or the Nizam's Dominions, in southern India, just beyond the Berar frontier. The place is celebrated as the site of a battle fought on the 23rd of September 1803 between the combined Mahratta forces Under Sindhia and the rajah of Berar and the British under Major-General Wellesley, afterwards the duke of Wellington. The Mahratta force consisted of 50,000 men, supported by 100 pieces of cannon served by French artillerymen, and entrenched in a strong position. Against this the English had but a force of 4500 men, which, however, after a severe struggle, gained the most complete victory that ever crowned British valour in India. Of the enemy 12,000 were killed and wounded; and General Wellesley lost 1657--one-third of his little force--killed and wounded. Assaye is 261 m. north-west of Hyderabad.

ASSAYING. To "assay" (or "essay"; Fr. _essayer_) is in general to try, or attempt, so to make trial or test. In a restricted sense the term assaying is applied in metallurgy to the determination of the amount of gold or silver in ores or alloys; in this article, however, it will be used in a wider technical signification, and will include a description of the methods for the quantitative determination of those elements in ores which affect their value in metallurgical operations. It would be impossible to give in detail here all the precautions necessary for the successful use of the methods, and the descriptions will therefore be confined to the principles involved and the general manner in which they are applied to secure the desired results.

_Gold and Silver._--Ores containing gold or silver are almost invariably assayed in the dry way; that is, by fusion with appropriate fluxes and ultimate separation of the elements in the metallic form. One of the customs which has grown out of our peculiar system of weights is the form of statement of the results of such an assay. Instead of expressing the amounts of gold and silver in percentages of the weight of ore, they are expressed in ounces to the ton, the ounce being the troy ounce and the ton that of 2000 avoirdupois pounds. To simplify calculation and to enable the assayer to use the metric system of weights employed in all chemical calculations, the "assay ton" ("A.T." = 29.166 grammes) has been devised, which bears the same relation to the ton of 2000 lb. avoirdupois that one milligram does to the troy ounce; when one assay ton of ore is used, each milligram of gold or silver found represents one ounce to the ton.