Chapter IX: Part 9

14. _Indo-China._--This is an appropriate name for Burma, Siam, Cambodia, Annam, &c., for both in position and in civilization they lie between India and China. Indian influence is predominant as far as Cambodia (though with a Chinese tinge), Indian alphabets being employed and the Buddhism being of the Sinhalese type, but in Annam and Tongking the Chinese script and many Chinese institutions are in use. The population belongs to various races, and also comprises little-known wild tribes, (i.) Languages of the group known as Mon-Annam are spoken in Annam and in Pegu, an ancient kingdom originally distinct from Burma though now confounded with it. This distribution seems to indicate that they once spread over the whole region, and were divided by the later advance of the Siamese and others. Until Annam was taken by the French, its history consisted of a struggle with the Chinese, who alternately asserted and lost their sovereignty. The Annamese are, however, a distinct race. Cochin China was once the seat of a kingdom called Champa, which appears to have had a hinduized Malay civilization and to have been subsequently absorbed by Annam. (ii.) The Burmese are linguistically allied to the Tibetans, and probably entered Burma from the north-west. The early history consists largely of conflicts between the Burmese and Talaings. The kingdom which was annexed by Britain in 1885 was founded about 1750 by Alompra, who united his countrymen and broke the power of the Talaings. He also invaded Siam. (iii.) The Khmers or Cambodians, whose languages appear to belong to the Mon-Annam group, form a relatively ancient kingdom, much reduced in the last few centuries by the advance of the Siamese and new a French protectorate. Remarkable ruins dating from perhaps A.D. 800 to 1000 attest the former prevalence of strong Hindu influence, (iv.) The Siamese or Thai, who speak a monosyllabic language of the Chinese type, but written in an Indian alphabet, represent a late invasion from southern China, whence they descended about the 13th century.

15. _Malays._--This widely-scattered race has no political union and its distribution is a puzzle for ethnography. At present it occupies the extremity of the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines and other islands of the Malay Archipelago as well as Madagascar, while the inhabitants of most islands in the South Seas, including New Zealand and Hawaii, speak languages which if not Malay have at least undergone a strong Malay influence. It would seem from this distribution that the Malays are not continental, but a seafaring race with exceptional powers of dispersal, who have spread over the ocean from some island centre--perhaps Java. The latest theory, however, is that there is a great linguistic group (which may or may not prove to correspond to an ethnic unity) comprising the Munda, Monkhmer, Malay, Polynesian and Micronesian languages, and that the stream of immigration which distributed them started from the extreme west. Three periods can be traced in the history of the Asiatic Malays. In the first (in which such tribes as the Dyaks have remained) they were semi-barbarous. In the second, Hindu civilization reached the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra and other islands. The presence of Hindu ruins, as well as of numerous Indian words and customs, testifies to the strength of this influence. It was, however, superseded by Islam, which spread to the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula before the 16th century. At the present time the Arabic alphabet is used on the mainland, but Indian alphabets in Java, Sumatra, &c.

16. _Tibet._--This remote and mountainous country has a peculiar civilization. It has entirely escaped Islam, and though it is a nominal vassal of China, direct Chinese influence has not been strong. The most striking feature is the religion, a corrupt form of late Indian Buddhism, known as Lamaism, which, largely in consequence of the favour shown by Jenghiz Khan and his successors, has attained temporal power and developed into an ecclesiastical state curiously like the papacy.

17. _Mongols._--Such civilization as the Mongols possess is a mixture of Chinese and Indian, the latter derived chiefly through Tibet, but their alphabet is a curious instance of transplantation. It is an adaptation of the Syriac writing introduced by the early Nestorian missionaries.

Literature, art, science.

18. Almost all Asiatic countries have a literature, but it is often not indigenous and consists of foreign works, chiefly religious, read either in translations or the original. Thus with the exception of a little folklore the literature of Indo-China, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea and Manchuria is mainly Indian or Chinese. The chief original literatures are Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali, Arabic and Persian. The Japanese have produced few books of importance, and their compositions are chiefly remarkable as being lighter and more secular than is usual in Asia, but the older Chinese works take high rank both for their merits and the effect they have had. The extensive Sanskrit literature, which has reached in translations China, Japan and Java, is chiefly theological and poetical, history being conspicuously absent. India has also a considerable medieval and modern literature in various languages. Pali, though only a form of Hindu literature, has a separate history, for it died in India and was preserved in Ceylon, whence it was imported to Burma and Siam as the language of religion. The Pali versions of Buddha's discourses are among the most remarkable products of Asia. The literatures of all Moslem peoples are largely inspired by Arabic, which has produced a voluminous collection of works in prose and poetry. Persian, after being itself transformed by Arabic, has in its turn largely influenced all west Asiatic Moslem literature from Hindustani to Turkish.

If one excepts the Old Testament, which is a product of the extreme west of Asia, it is remarkable how small has been the influence of Asiatic literature on Europe. Though Greek and Slavonic almost ceased to be written languages under Turkish rule, Europeans showed no disposition to replace them by Ottoman or Arabic literature.

Without counting subdivisions there would seem to be three main schools of art in Asia at present--Chinese, Indian and Moslem. The first contains many original elements. It is feeblest in architecture and strongest in the branches demanding skill and care in a limited compass, such as painting, porcelain and enamel. It is the main inspiration of Japanese art, which, however, shows great originality in its treatment of borrowed themes. Both China and Japan have felt through Buddhism the influence of Indian art, which contains at least two elements--one indigenous and the other Greco-Persian. Unlike Chinese art it has a genius for architecture and sculpture rather than painting. Mahommedan art is also largely architectural and has affected nearly all Moslem countries. Except that the use of Arabic inscriptions is one of its principal methods of decoration, it owes little to Arabia and much to Byzantium. The Persian variety of this art is more ornate, and less averse to representations of living beings. Both Moslem and Chinese art are closely connected with calligraphy, but Hindus rarely use writing for ornament.

In both art and literature modern Asia is inferior to the past more conspicuously than Europe.

As for science, astronomy was cultivated by the Babylonians at an early period, and it is probably from them that a knowledge of the heavenly bodies and their movements spread over Asia. Grammar and prosody were studied in India with a marvellous accuracy and minuteness several centuries before Christ. Mathematics were cultivated by the Chinese, Indians and Arabs, but nearly all the sciences based on the observation of nature, including medicine, have remained in a very backward condition. Much the same, however, might have been said of Europe until two centuries ago, and the scientific knowledge of the Arabs under the earlier Caliphates was equal or superior to that of any of their contemporaries. Histories and accounts of travels have been composed both in Arabic and Chinese.

Influence of Asia on other continents.

19. It is only natural that Europe should have chiefly felt the influence of western Asia. Though Europeans may be indebted to China for some mechanical inventions, she was too distant to produce much direct effect, and the influence of India has been mainly directed towards the East. The resemblances between primitive Christianity and Buddhism appear to be coincidences, and though both early Greek philosophy and later Alexandrine ideas suggest Indian affinities, there is no clear connexion such as there is between certain aspects of Chinese thought and India.

Any general statement as to the debt owed by early European civilizations to western Asia would at present be premature, for though important discoveries have been made in Crete and Babylonia the best authorities are chary of positive conclusions as to the relations of Cretan civilization to Egypt and Babylonia. Egyptian influence within the Aegean area seems certain, and the theory that Greek writing and systems for reckoning time are Babylonian in origin has not been disproved, though the history of the alphabet is more complex than was supposed.

In historic times Asia has attempted to assert her influence over Europe by a series of invasions, most of which have been repulsed. Such were the Persian wars of Greece, and perhaps one may add Hannibal's invasion of Italy, if the Carthaginians were Phoenicians transplanted to Africa. The Roman empire kept back the Persians and Parthians, but could not prevent a series of incursions by Avars, Huns, Bulgarians, and later by Mongols and Turks. Islam has twice obtained a footing in Europe, under the Arabs in Spain and under the Turks at Constantinople. The earlier Asiatic invasions were conducted by armies operating at a distance from their bases, and had little result, for the soldiery retired after a time (like Alexander from India), or more rarely (e.g. the Bulgarians) settled down without keeping up any connexion with Asia. The Turks, and to some extent the Arabs in Spain, were successful because they first conquered the parts of Asia and Africa adjoining Europe, so that the final invaders were in touch with Asiatic settlements. Though the Turks have profoundly affected the whole of eastern Europe, the result of their conquests has been not so much to plant Asiatic culture in Europe as to arrest development entirely, the countries under their rule remaining in much the same condition as under the moribund Byzantine empire.

In general, Europe has in historic times shown itself decidedly hostile to Asiatic institutions and modes of thought. It is only of recent years that the writings of Schopenhauer and the researches of many distinguished orientalists have awakened some interest in Asiatic philosophy.

The influence of Asia on Africa has been considerable, and until the middle of the 10th century greater than that of Europe. Some authorities hold that Egyptian civilization came from Babylonia, and that the so-called Hamitic languages are older and less specialized members of the Semitic family. The connexion between Carthage and Phoenicia is more certain, and the ancient Abyssinian kingdom was founded by Semites from south Arabia. The traditions of the Somalis derive them from the same region. The theory that the ruins in Mashonaland were built by immigrants from south Arabia is now discredited, but there was certainly a continuous stream of Arab migration to East Africa which probably began in pre-Moslem times and founded a series of cities on the coast. The whole of the north of Africa from Egypt to Morocco has been mahommedanized, and Mahommedan influence is general and fairly strong from Timbuktu to Lake Chad and Wadai. South of the equator, Arab slave-dealers penetrated from Zanzibar to the great lakes and the Congo during the second and third quarters of the 19th century, but their power, though formidable, has disappeared without leaving any permanent traces.

The relation to Asia of the pre-European civilizations of America is another of those questions which admit of no definite answer at present, though many facts support the theory that the semi-civilized inhabitants of Mexico and Central America crossed from Asia by Bering Straits and descended the west coast. Some authorities hold that Peruvian civilization had no connexion with the north and was an entirely indigenous product, but Kechua is in structure not unlike the agglutinative languages of central and northern Asia.

Influence of Europe on Asia.

20. European influence on Asia has been specially strong at two epochs, firstly after the conquests of Alexander the Great, and secondly from the 16th century onwards. Alexander's conquests resulted in the foundation of Perso-Greek kingdoms in Asia, which not only hellenized their own area but influenced the art and religion of India and to some extent of China. Then follows a long period in which eastern Europe was mainly occupied in combating Asiatic invasions, and had little opportunity of Europeanizing the East. Somewhat later the Crusades kept up communication with the Levant, and established there the power of the Roman Church, somewhat to the detriment of oriental Christianity, but intercourse with farther Asia was limited to the voyages of a few travellers. Looking at eastern Europe and western Asia only, one must say that Asiatic influences have on the whole prevailed hitherto (though perhaps the tide is turning), for Islam is paramount in this region and European culture at a low ebb. But the case is quite different if one looks at the two continents as a whole, for improvement in means of communication has brought about strange vicissitudes, and western Europe has asserted her power in middle and eastern Asia.

In the 16th century a new era began with the discovery by the Portuguese of the route to India round the Cape, and the naval powers of Europe started one after another on careers of oriental conquest. The movement was maritime and affected the nations in the extreme west of Europe rather than those nearer Asia, who were under the Turkish yoke. Also the parts of Asia affected were chiefly India and the extreme East. The countries west of India, being less exposed to naval invasion, remained comparatively untouched. It will thus be seen that European (excluding Russian) power in Asia is based almost entirely on improved navigation. There was no attempt to overwhelm whole empires by pouring into them masses of troops, but commerce was combined with territorial acquisition, and a continuity of European interest secured by the presence of merchants and settlers. The course of oriental conquest followed the events of European politics, and the possessions of European powers in the East generally changed hands according to the fortunes of their masters at home. Portugal was first on the scene, and in the 16th century established a considerable littoral empire on the coasts of East Africa, India and China, fragments of which still remain, especially Goa, where Portuguese influence on the natives was considerable. Before the century was out the Dutch appeared as the successful rivals of the Portuguese, but the real struggle for supremacy in southern Asia took place between France and England about 1740-1783. Both entered India as commercial companies, but the disorganized condition of the Mogul empire necessitated the use of military force to protect their interests, and allured them to conquest. The companies gradually undertook the financial control of the districts where they traded and were recognized by the natives as political powers. The ultimate victory of England seems due less to any particular aptitude for dealing with oriental problems than to a better command of the seas and to considerations of European politics. At the end of the Napoleonic wars Portugal had Macao and Goa, Holland Java, Sumatra and other islands, France some odds and ends in India, while England emerged with Hong Kong, Singapore, Ceylon and a free hand in India. Guided by such administrators as Warren Hastings, the East India Company had assumed more and more definitely the functions of government for a great part of India. In 1809 its exclusive trading rights were taken away by Parliament, but its administrative status was thus made clearer, and when after the mutiny of 1857 it was desirable to define British authority in India there seemed nothing unnatural in declaring it to be a possession of the crown.

Another category of European possessions in Asia comprises those acquired towards the end of the 19th century, such as Indo-China (France), Burma and Wei-Hai-Wei (Britain), and Kiao-Chow (Germany). Whereas the earlier conquests were mostly the results of large half-conscious national movements working out their destinies in the East, these later ones were annexations deliberately planned by European cabinets. It seemed to be assumed that Asia was to be divided among the powers of Europe, and each was anxious to get its share or more.

The advance of Russia in Asia is entirely different from that of the other powers, since it has taken place by land and not by sea. Though the geographical extent of Russian territory and influence is enormous, she has always moved along the line of least resistance. She is a moderately strong empire lying to the north of the great Moslem states, and having for neighbours a series of very weak principalities or semi-civilized tribes. The conquest of Siberia and central Asia presented no real difficulties: Persia and Constantinople were left on one side, and Russia was defeated as soon as she was opposed by a vigorous power in the Far East. As the Russian possessions in Asia are continuous with European Russia, it is only natural that they should have been russified far more thoroughly than the British possessions have been anglicized.

There has been great difference of opinion as to the extent to which Alexander's conquests influenced Asia, and it is equally hard to say what is the effect now being produced by Europe. Clearly such alterations as the construction of railways in nearly all parts of the continent, and the establishment of peace over formerly disturbed areas like India, are of enormous importance, and must change the life of the people. But the mental constitution of Asiatics is less easily modified than their institutions, and even Japan has assimilated European methods rather than European ideas. (C. El.)

AUTHORITIES.--The modern bibliography of Asia, including the works of
travellers and explorers since 1880, is voluminous. It is impossible
to refer to all that has been written in the Survey Reports and
Gazetteers of the government of India, or in the records of the Royal
Asiatic Society, or the Asiatic Society, Bengal; but amongst the more
important popular works are the following:--Richthofen, "China, Japan,
and Korea," vol. iv. _Jour. R.G.S._, _China_ (Berlin, 1877); Regel,
"Upper Oxus," vol. i. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1879; Dr Bellew, _Afghanistan
and the Afghans_ (London, 1879); Nicolas Prjevalski, "Explorations in
Asia," see vols. i., ii., v., ix. and xi. of the _Proc. R.G.S._,
1879-1889; W. Blunt, "A Visit to Jebel Shammar," vol ii. _Proc.
R.G.S._, 1880; Captain W Gill, _The River of Golden Sand_ (London,
1880); Sir R. Temple, "Central Plateau of Asia," vol. iv. _Proc.
R.G.S._ 1882; Baker, "A Journey of Exploration in Western Ssu-Chuan,"
vol. i. _Supplementary Papers R.G.S._, 1882-1885; Sir C. Wilson,
"Notes on Physical and Historical Geography of Asia Minor," vol. vi.
_Proc. R.G.S._, 1884; General J.T. Walker, "Asiatic Explorers of the
Indian Survey," vol. viii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1885; Samuel Beal,
_Buddhist Records of the Western World_ (Boston, 1885); Charles
Doughty, _Travels in Northern Arabia_ (Cambridge, 1886); _Travels in
Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888); Venukoff, "Explorations," vol.
viii. _Proc. G.R.S._, 1886; Ney Elias, "Explorations in Central Asia,"
see vols. viii. and ix. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1886-1887; Arthur Carey,
"Explorations in Turkestan," see vol. ix. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1887; Henry
Lansdell, _Through Central Asia_ (London, 1887); Archibald Colquhoun,
_Report on Railway Connexion between Burma and China_ (London, 1887);
Major C. Yate, _Northern Afghanistan_ (Edinburgh, 1888); Captain F.
Younghusband, _The Heart of a Continent_ (London, 1893); _A Journey
through Manchuria, &c._ (Lahore, 1888); also see vol. x. _Proc.
R.G.S._, and vol. v. _Jour. R.G.S._; Dutreuil de Rhins, _L'Asie
Centrale_ (Paris, 1889); Pierre Bonvalot, _Through the Heart of Asia_,
trans. Pitman (London, 1889); _From Paris to Tonkin_, trans. Pitman
(London, 1891); Roborovski, translation from Russian _Invalide_,
October 1889, vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._; "Central Asia," vol. viii.
_Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Colonel Mark Bell, "Trade Routes of Asia," vol.
xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; W.W. Rockhill, "An American in Tibet,"
_Century Magazine_, November 1890; _The Land of the Lamas_ (London,
1891); Theodore Bent, "Hadramut," vol. iv. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894;
"Southern Arabia," vol. vi. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; "Bahrein Islands,"
vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; Grombcherski, "Explorations in Kuen
Lun," vol. xii. _Proc. R.G.S._, 1890; Lydekker, "The Geology of the
Kashmir Valley and Chamba Territories," vols. xiii. and xiv.
_Geological Survey of India_; Max Muller, _The Sacred Books of the
East_ (Oxford, 1890-1894); Elisee Reclus, _The Earth and its
Inhabitants_ (series, 1890); G.W. Leitner, _Dardistan_; H.F. Blanford,
_Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and Ceylon_ (London, 1890);
_Guide to the Climate and Weather of India_ (London, 1889); Lord
Dunmore, _The Pamirs_ (London, 1892); A. Tissandier, _Voyage au tour
du monde_ (Paris, 1892); Lord Curzon, _Persia and the Persian
Question_ (London, 1892); _Russia and the Anglo-Russian Question_
(London, 1889); _Problems of the Far East_ (London, 1894); Captain
Hamilton Bower, _Diary of a Journey across Tibet_ (Calcutta, 1893);
Szechenyi, _Die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse der Reise des Grafen
Bela Szechenyi in Ostasien_ (Wien, 1893); R.D. Oldham, "Evolution of
Indian Geology," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894; Baron Toll,
"Siberia," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894; Delmar Morgan, "The
Mountain Systems of Central Asia," _Scottish Geological Magazine_, No.
10, of 1894; Sir Frederick Goldsmid, "Persian Geography," vol. vi.
_Jour. R.G.S._, 1895; Warrington Smyth, "Siam," vol. vi. _Jour.
R.G.S._, 1895; "Siamese East Coast," vol xi. _Jour._ 1898; Prince
Kropotkin, "Siberian Railway," vol. v. _R.G.S. Jour._, 1895; W.R.
Lawrence, _The Vale of Kashmir_ (Oxford, 1895); Captain Vaughan,
"Persia," vol. viii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Prince H. d'Orleans, "Yunan
to India," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; "Tonkin to Talifu," vol.
viii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Sir T. Holdich, "Ancient and Medieval
Makran," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; _The Indian Borderland_
(London, 1901); India (Oxford, 1904); Colonel Woodthorpe, "Shan
States," vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; _Report of the Pamir Boundary
Commission_ (Calcutta, 1896); St George Littledale, "Journey Across
the Pamirs from North to South," vol. iii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1894, and
vol. vii. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1896; Sir G. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the
Hindu Kush_ (London, 1896); Captain Stiffe, "Persian Gulf Trading
Centres," vols. viii., ix. and x. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1897; Ney Elias and
Ross, _A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia, from the
Tarskh-i-Rastisdi of Mirza Haidar_ (London, 1898); Grenard, _Mission
scientifique sur la Haute Asie_ (Paris, 1898); Dr Sven Hedin, _Through
Asia_ (London, 1898); Central Asia and Tibet (1903); _Geographie des
Hochlandes van Pamir_ (Berlin, 1894); Captain M.S. Wellby, "Through
Tibet," _R.G.S. Jour._, September 1898; Captain P.M. Sykes, "Persian
Explorations," vol. x. _Jour. R.G.S._, 1898; _Ten Thousand Miles in
Persia_ (1902); Kronshin, "Old Beds of the Oxus," _Jour. R.G.S._,
September 1898; Sir W. Hunter, _History of British India_, vol. i.
(London, 1898); Captain H. Deasy, "Western Tibet," vol. ix. _Jour.
R.G.S._; In Tibet and Chinese Turkestan (London, 1901); A. Little,
_The Far East_ (Oxford, 1905); Captain Rawling, _The Great Plateau_
(London, 1905); _Journal of the Royal Geogl. Society_, vols. xv. to
xxv. (1900-1905); Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a Frontier_
(London, 1899); R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_ (London, 1900).
(T. H. H.*)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Authorities differ in their methods and results of computation of
these and other similar measurements.

ASIA, in a restricted sense, the name of the first Roman province east of the Aegean, formed (133 B.C.) out of the kingdom left to the Romans by the will of Attalus III. Philometor, king of Pergamum. It included Mysia, Lydia, Caria and Phrygia, and therefore, of course, Aeolis, Ionia and the Troad. In 84 B.C., on the close of the Mithradatic War, Sulla reorganized the province, forming 40 _regiones_ for fiscal purposes, and it was later divided into _conventus_. From 80 to 50 B.C. the upper Maeander valley and all Phrygia, except the extreme north, were detached and added to Cilicia. In 27 B.C. Asia was made a senatorial province under a pro-consul. As the wealthiest of Roman provinces it had most to gain by the _pax Romana_, and therefore welcomed the empire, and established and maintained the most devout cult of Augustus by means of the organization known as the _Koinon_ or Commune, a representative council, meeting in the various _metropoleis_. In this cult the emperor came to be associated with the common worship of the Ephesian Artemis. By the reorganization of Diocletian, A.D. 297, Asia was broken up into several small provinces, and one of these, of which the capital was Ephesus, retained the name of the original province (see ASIA MINOR).

ASIA MINOR, the general geographical name for the peninsula, forming part of the empire of Turkey, on the extreme west of the continent of Asia, bounded on the N. by the Black Sea, on the W. by the Aegean, and on the S. by the Mediterranean, and at its N.W. extremity only parted from Europe by the narrow straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On the east, no natural boundary separates it from the Armenian plateau; but, for descriptive purposes, it will suffice to take a line drawn from the southern extremity of the Giaour Dagh, east of the Gulf of Alexandretta along the crest of that chain, then along that of the eastern Taurus to the Euphrates near Malatia, then up the river, keeping to the western arm till Erzingan is reached, and finally bending north to the Black Sea along the course of the Churuk Su, which flows out west of Batum. This makes the Euphrates the main eastern limit, with radii to the north-east angle of the Levant and the south-east angle of the Black Sea, and roughly agrees with the popular conception of Asia Minor as a geographical region. But it must be remembered that this term was not used by classical geographers (it is first found in Orosius in the 5th century A.D.), and is not in local or official use now. It probably arose in the first instance from a vague popular distinction between the continent itself and the Roman province of "Asia" (q.v.), which at one time included most of the peninsula west of the central salt desert (_Axylon_). The name _Anatolia_, in the form _Anadol_, is used by natives for the western part of the peninsula (_cis Halym_) and not as including ancient Cappadocia and Pontus. Before the reconstitution of the provinces as _vilayets_ it was the official title of the principal _eyalet_ of Asia Minor, and was also used more generally to include all the peninsular provinces over which the beylerbey of Anadoli, whose seat was at Kutaiah, had the same paramount military jurisdiction which the beylerbey of "Rumili" enjoyed in the peninsular provinces of Europe. The term "Anatolia" appears first in the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (10th century).

The greatest length of Asia Minor, as popularly understood, is along
its north edge, 720 m. Along the south it is about 650 m. The greatest
breadth is 420 m. from _C. Kerembe_ to _C. Anamur_; but at the waist
of the peninsula, between the head of the Gulf of Alexandretta and the
southernmost bight of the Black Sea (at Ordu), it is not quite 300 m.
The greater portion of Asia Minor consists of a plateau rising
gradually from east to west, 2500 ft. to 4500 ft.; east of the Kizil
Irmak (Halys), the ground rises more sharply to the highlands of
Armenia (q.v.). On the south the plateau is buttressed by the Taurus
range, which stretches in a broken irregular line from the Aegean to
the Persian frontier. On the north the plateau is supported by a range
of varying altitude, which follows the southern coast of the Black Sea
and has no distinctive name. On the west the edge of the plateau is
broken by broad valleys, and the deeply indented coast-line throws out
long rocky promontories towards Europe. On the north, excepting the
deltas formed by the Kizil and Yeshil Irmaks, there are no
considerable coast plains, no good harbours except Sinope and Vona,
and no islands. On the west there are narrow coast plains of limited
extent, deep gulfs, which offer facilities for trade and commerce, and
a fringe of protecting islands. On the south are the isolated plains
of Pamphylia and Cilicia, the almost land-locked harbours of
Marmarice, Makri and Kekova, the broad bay of Adalia, the deep-seated
gulf of Alexandretta (Iskanderun), and the islands of Rhodes with
dependencies, Castelorizo and Cyprus.

_Mountains._--The Taurus range, perhaps the most important feature in
Asia Minor, runs the whole length of the peninsula on the south,
springing east of Euphrates in the Armeno-Kurdish highlands, and being
prolonged into the Aegean Sea by rocky promontories and islands. It
attains in Lycia an altitude of 10,500 ft., and in the Bulgar Dagh
(Cilicia) of over 10,000 ft. The average elevation is about 7000 ft.
East of the Bulgar Dagh the range is pierced by the Sihun and Jihun
rivers, and their tributaries, but its continuity is not broken. The
principal passes across the range are those over which Roman or
Byzantine roads ran:--(1) from Laodicea to Adalia (Attalia), by way of
the Khonas pass and the valley of the Istanoz Chai; (2) from Apamea or
from Pisidian Antioch to Adalia, by Isbarta and Sagalassus; (3) from
Laranda, by Coropissus and the upper valley of the southern
Calycadnus, to Germanicopolis and thence to Anemourium or Kelenderis;
(4) from Laranda, by the lower Calycadnus, to Claudiopolis and thence
to Kelenderis or Seleucia; (5) from Iconium or Caesarea Mazaca,
through the Cilician Gates (Gulek Boghaz, 3300 ft.) to Tarsus; (6)
from Caesarea to the valley of the Sarus and thence to Flaviopolis on
the Cilician Plain; (7) from Caesarea over Anti-Taurus by the Kuru
Chai to Cocvsus (Geuksun) and thence to Germanicia (Marash). Large
districts on the southern slopes of the Taurus chain are covered with
forests of oak and fir, and there are numerous _yailas_ or grassy
"alps," with abundant water, to which villagers and nomads move with
their flocks during the summer months.

Anti-Taurus is a term of rather vague and doubtful application, (a)
Some have regarded it as meaning the more or less continuous range
which buttresses up the central plateau on the north, parallel to the
Taurus, (b) Others take it to mean the line of heights and mountain
peaks which separates the waters running to the Black Sea and the
Anatolian plateau from those falling to the Persian Gulf and the
Mediterranean. This has its origin in the high land, near the source
of the Kizil Irmak, and thence runs south-west towards the volcanic
district of Mt. Argaeus, which, however, can hardly be regarded as
orographically one with it. After a low interval it springs up again
at its southern extremity in the lofty sharp-peaked ridge of Ala Dagh
(11,000 ft.), and finally joins Taurus. (c) South of Sivas a line of
bare hills connects this chain with another range of high forest-clad
mountains, which loses itself southwards in the main mass of Taurus,
and is held to be the true Anti-Taurus by geographers. It throws off,
in the latitude of Kaisarieh, a subsidiary range, the Binboa Dagh,
which separates the waters of the Sihun from those of the Jihun. The
principal passes are those followed by the old roads:--(1) from
Sebasteia to Tephrike and the upper valley of the western Euphrates;
(2) from Sebasteia to Melitene, by way of the pass of Delikli Tash and
the basin of the Tokhma Su; (3) from Caesarea to Arabissus, by the
Kuru Chai and the valley of Cocysus (Geuksun). The range of Amanus
(Giaour Dagh) is separated from the mass of Taurus by the deep gorge
of the Jihun, whence it runs south-south-west to Ras el-Khanzir,
forming the limit between Cilicia and Syria, various parts bearing
different names, as Elma Dagh above Alexandretta. It attains its
greatest altitude in Kaya Duldul (6500 ft.), which rises abruptly from
the bed of the Jihun, and it is crossed by two celebrated passes:--(1)
the Amanides Pylae (Baghche Pass), through which ran the road from the
Cilician Plain to Apamea-Zeugma, on the Euphrates; (2) the Pylae
Syriae or "Syrian Gates" (Beilan Pass), through which passed the great
Roman highway from Tarsus to Syria. On the western edge of the plateau
several short ranges, running approximately east and west, rise above
the general level:--Sultan Dagh (6500 ft.); Salbacus-Cadmus (8000
ft.); Messogis (3600 ft.); Latmus (6000 ft.); Tmolus (5000 ft.);
Dindymus (8200 ft.); Ida (5800 ft.); and the Mysian Olympus (7600
ft.). The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and Caicus facilitate
communication between the plateau and the Aegean, and the descent to
the Sea of Marmora along the valleys of the Tembris and Sangarius
presents no difficulties. The northern border range, though not
continuous, rises steadily from the west to its culmination in the
Galatian Olympus (Ilkaz Dagh), south of Kastamuni. East of the Kizil
Irmak there is no single mountain chain, but there are several short
ranges with elevations sometimes exceeding 9000 ft. The best routes
from the plateau to the Black Sea were followed by the Roman roads
from Tavium and Sebasteia to Sinope and Amisus, and those from
Sebasteia to Cotyora and Cerasus-Pharnacia, which at first ascend the
upper Halys. Several minor ranges rise above the level of the eastern
plateau, and in the south groups of volcanic peaks and cones extend
for about 150 m. from Kaisarieh (Caesarea) to Karaman. The most
important are Mt. Argaeus (Erjish Dagh, 13,100 ft.) above Kaisarieh
itself, the highest peak in Asia Minor; Ali Dagh (6200 ft.); Hassan
Dagh (8000 ft.); Karaja Dagh; and Kara Dagh (7500 ft.). On the west of
the plateau evidences of volcanic activity are to be seen in the
district of Kula (Katakekaumene), coated with recent erupted matter,
and in the numerous hot springs of the Lycus, Maeander, and other
valleys. Earthquakes are frequent all over the peninsula, but
especially in the south-east and west, where the Maeander valley and
the Gulf of Smyrna are notorious seismic foci. The centre of the
plateau is occupied by a vast treeless plain, the _Axylon_ of the
Greeks, in which lies a large salt lake, Tuz Geul. The plain is
fertile where cultivated, fairly supplied with deep wells, and in many
places covered with good pasture. Enclosed between the Taurus and
Amanus ranges and the sea are the fertile plains of Cilicia Pedias,
consisting in great part of a rich, stoneless loam, out of which rise
rocky crags that are crowned with the ruins of Greco-Roman and
Armenian strongholds, and of Pamphylia, partly alluvial soil, partly
travertine, deposited by the Taurus rivers.

_Rivers._--The rivers of Asia Minor are of no great importance. Some
do not flow directly to the sea; others find their way to the coast
through deep rocky gorges, or are mere torrents; and a few only are
navigable for boats for short distances from their mouths. They cut so
deep into the limestone formation of the plateau as to over-drain it,
and often they disappear into swallow holes (_duden_) to reappear
lower down. The most important rivers which flow to the Black Sea are
the following:--the Boas (Churuk Su) which rises near Baiburt, and
flows out near Batum; the Iris (Yeshil Irmak), with its tributaries
the Lycus (Kelkit Irmak), which rises on the Armenian plateau, the
Chekerek Irmak, which has its source near Yuzgat, and the Tersakan Su;
the Halys (Kizil Irmak) is the longest river in Asia Minor, with its
tributaries the Delije Irmak (Cappadox), which flows through the
eastern part of Galatia, and the Geuk Irmak, which has its sources in
the mountains above Kastamuni. With the exception of Sivas, no town
of importance lies in the valley of the Kizil Irmak throughout its
course of over 600 m. The Sangarius (Sakaria) rises in the Phrygian
mountains and, after many changes of direction, falls into the Black
Sea, about 80 m. east of the Bosporus. Its tributaries are the Pursak
Su (Tembris), which has its source in the Murad Dagh (Dindymus), and,
after running north to Eski-shehr, flows almost due east to the
Sakaria, and the Enguri Su, which joins the Sakaria a little below the
junction of the Pursak. To the Black Sea, about 40 m. east of Eregli,
also flows the Billaeus (Filiyas Chai). Into the Sea of Marmora run
the Rhyndacus (Edrenos Chai) and the Macestus (Susurlu Chai), which
unite about 12 m. from the sea. The most celebrated streams of the
Troad are the Granicus (Bigha Chai) and the Scamander (Menderes Su),
both rising in Mt. Ida (Kaz Dagh). The former flows to the Sea of
Marmora; the latter to the Dardanelles. The most northerly of the
rivers that flow to the Aegean is the Caicus (Bakir Chai), which runs
past Soma, and near Pergamum, to the Gulf of Chanderli. The Hermus
(Gediz Chai) has its principal sources in the Murad Dagh, and,
receiving several streams on its way, runs through the volcanic
district of Katakekaumene to the broad fertile valley through which it
flows past Manisa to the sea, near Lefke. So recently as about 1880 it
discharged into the Gulf of Smyrna, but the shoals formed by its
silt-laden waters were so obstructive to navigation that it was turned
back into its old bed. Its principal tributaries are--the Phrygius
(Kum Chai), which receives the waters of the Lycus (Gurduk Chai), and
the Cogamus (Kuzu Chai), which in its upper course is separated from
the valley of the Maeander by hills that were crossed by the Roman
road from Pergamum to Laodicea. The Caystrus (Kuchuk Menderes) flows
through a fertile valley between Mt. Tmolus and Messogis to the sea
near Ephesus, where its silt has filled up the port. The Maeander
(Menderes Chai) takes its rise in a celebrated group of springs near
Dineir, and after a winding course enters the broad valley, through
which it "meanders" to the sea. Its deposits have long since filled up
the harbours of Miletus, and converted the islands which protected
them into mounds in a swampy plain. Its principal tributaries are the
Glaucus, the Senarus (Banaz Chai), and the Hippurius, on the right
bank. On the left bank are the Lycus (Churuk Su), which flows
westwards by Colossae through a broad open valley that affords the
only natural approach to the eleated plateau, the Harpasus (Ak Chai),
and the Marsyas (China Chai). The rivers that flow to the
Mediterranean, with two exceptions, rise in Mt. Taurus, and have short
courses, but in winter and spring they bring down large bodies of
water. In Lycia are the Indus (Gereniz Chai), and the Xanthus (Eshen
Chai). The Pamphylian plain is traversed by the Cestrus (Ak Su), the
Eurymedon (Keupri Su), and the Melas (Menavgat Chai), which, where it
enters the sea, is a broad, deep stream, navigable for about 6 m. The
Calycadnus (Geuk Su) has two main branches which join near Mut and
flow south-east, and enter the sea, a deep rapid river, about 12 m.
below Selefke. The Cydnus (Tersous or Tarsus Chai) is formed by the
junction of three streams that rise in Mt. Taurus, and one of these
flows through the narrow gorge known as the Cilician Gates. After
passing Tarsus, the river enters a marsh which occupies the site of
the ancient harbour. The Cydnus is liable to floods, and its deposits
have covered Roman Tarsus to a depth of 20 ft. The Sarus (Sihun) is
formed by the junction of the Karmalas (Zamanti Su), which rises in
Uzun Yaila, and the Sarus (Saris), which has its sources in the hills
to the south of the same plateau. The first, after entering Mt.
Taurus, flows through a deep chasm walled in by lofty precipices, and
is joined in the heart of the range by the Saris. Before reaching the
Cilician Plain the river receives the waters of the Kerkhun Su, which
cuts through the Bulgar Dagh, and opens a way for the roads from the
Cilician Gates to Konia and Kaisarieh. After passing Adana, to which
point small craft ascend, the Sihun runs south-west to the sea. There
are, however, indications that at one period it flowed south-east to
join the Pyramus. The Pyramus (Jihun) has its principal source in a
group of large springs near Albistan; but before it enters Mt. Taurus
it is joined by the Sogutli Irmak, the Khurman Su and the Geuk Su. The
river emerges from Taurus, about 7 m. west of Marash, and here it is
joined by the Ak Su, which rises in some small lakes south of Taurus.
The Jihun now enters a remarkable defile which separates Taurus from
the Giaour Dagh, and reaches the Cilician Plain near Budrun. From this
point it flows west, and then south-west past Missis, until it makes a
bend to discharge its waters south of Ayas Bay. The river is navigable
as far as Missis. The only considerable tributary of the Euphrates
which comes within our region is the Tokhma Su, which rises in Uzun
Yaila and flows south-east to the main river not far from Malatia. In
the central and southern portions of the plateau the streams either
flow into salt lakes, where their waters pass off by evaporation, or
into freshwater lakes, which have no visible outlets. In the latter
cases the waters find their way beneath Taurus in subterranean
channels, and reappear as the sources of rivers flowing to the coast.
Thus the Ak Geul supplies the Cydnus, and the Beishehr, Egirdir and
Kestel lakes feed the rivers of the Pamphylian plain.

_Lakes._--The salt lakes are Tuz Geul (anc. _Tatta_), which lies in
the great central plain, and is about 60 m. long and 10 to 30 m. broad
in winter, but in the dry season it is hardly more than a saline
marsh; Buldur Geul, 2900 ft. above sea-level; and Aji-tuz Geul, 2600
ft. The freshwater lakes are Beishehr Geul (anc. _Karalis_), 3770 ft.,
a fine sheet of water 30 m. long, which discharges south-east to the
Soghla Geul; Egirdir Geul (probably anc. _Limnae_, a name which
included the two bays of Hoiran and Egirdir, forming the lake), 2850
ft., which is 30 m. long, but less broad than Beishehr and noted for
the abundance and variety of its fish. In the north-west portion of
Asia Minor are Isnik Geul (L. Ascania), Abulliont Geul (L. Apollonia),
and Maniyas Geul (L. Miletopolis).

_Springs._--Asia Minor is remarkable for the number of its thermal and
mineral springs. The most important are:--Yalova, in the Ismid sanjak;
Brusa, Chitli, Terje and Eskishehr, in the Brusa vilayet; Tuzla, in
the Karasi; Cheshme, Ilija, Hierapolis (with enormous alum deposits),
and Alashehr, in the Aidin; Terzili Hammam and Iskelib in the Angora;
Boli in the Kastamuni; and Khavsa, in the Sivas. Many of these were
famous in antiquity and occur in a list given by Strabo. The Maeander
valley is especially noted for its hot springs.

_Geology._--The central plateau of Asia Minor consists of nearly
horizontal strata, while the surrounding mountain chains form a
complex system, in which the beds are intensely folded. Around the
coast flat-lying deposits of Tertiary age are found, and these often
extend high up into the mountain region. The deposits of the central,
or Lycaonian, plateau consist of freshwater marls and limestones of
late Tertiary or Neogene age. Along the south-eastern margin, in front
of the Taurus, stands a line of great volcanoes, stretching from
Kara-Dagh to Argaeus. They are now extinct, but were probably active
till the close of the Tertiary period. On its southern side the
plateau is bounded by the high chains of the Taurus and the
Anti-Taurus, which form a crescent with its convexity facing
southwards. Devonian and Carboniferous fossils have been found in
several places in the Anti-Taurus. Limestones of Eocene or Cretaceous
age form a large part of the Taurus, but the interior zone probably
includes rocks of earlier periods. The folding of the Anti-Taurus
affects the Eocene but not the Miocene, while in the Taurus the
Miocene beds have been elevated, but without much folding, to great
heights. North of the Lycaonian plateau lies another zone of folding
which may be divided into the East Pontian and West Pontian arcs. In
the east a well-defined mountain system runs nearly parallel to the
Black Sea coast from Batum to Sinope, forming a gentle curve with its
convexity facing southwards. Cretaceous limestones and serpentine take
a large part in the formation of these mountains, while even the
Oligocene is involved in the folds. West of Sinope Cretaceous beds
form a long strip parallel to the shore line. Carboniferous rocks
occur at Eregli (Heraclea Pontica), where they have been worked for
coal. Devonian fossils have been found near the Bosporus and
Carboniferous fossils at Balia Maden in Mysia. Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous beds form a band south of the Sea of Marmora, probably the
continuation of the Mesozoic band of the Black Sea coast. Farther
south there are zones of serpentine, and of crystalline and schistose
rocks, some of which are probably Palaeozoic. The direction of the
folds of this region is from west to east, but on the borders of
Phrygia and Mysia they meet the north-westerly extension of the Taurus
folds and bend around the ancient mass of Lydia. Marine Eocene beds
occur near the Dardanelles, but the Tertiary deposits of this part of
Asia Minor are mostly freshwater and belong to the upper part of the
system. In western Mysia they are much disturbed, but in eastern Mysia
they are nearly horizontal. They are often accompanied by volcanic
rocks, which are mainly andesitic, and they commonly lie unconformably
upon the older beds. In the western part of Asia Minor there are
several areas of ancient rocks about which very little is known. The
Taurus folds here meet another system which enters the region from the
Aegean Sea.

_Climate._--The climate is varied, but systematic observations are
wanting. On the plateau the winter is long and cold, and in the
northern districts there is much snow. The summer is very hot, but the
nights are usually cool. On the north coast the winter is cold, and
the winds, sweeping across the Black Sea from the steppes of Russia,
are accompanied by torrents of rain and heavy falls of snow. East of
Samsun, where the coast is partially protected by the Caucasus, the
climate is more moderate. In summer the heat is damp and enervating,
and, as Trebizond is approached, the vegetation becomes almost
subtropical. On the south coast the winter is mild, with occasional
frosts and heavy rain; the summer heat is very great. On the west
coast the climate is moderate, but the influence of the cold north
winds is felt as far south as Smyrna, and the winter at that place is
colder than in corresponding latitudes in Europe. A great feature of
summer is the _inbat_ or north wind, which blows almost daily, often
with the force of a gale, off the sea from noon till near sunset.

_Products, &c._--The mineral wealth of Asia Minor is very great, but
few mines have yet been opened. The minerals known to exist are--alum,
antimony, arsenic, asbestos, boracide, chrome, coal, copper, emery,
fuller's earth, gold, iron, kaolin, lead, lignite, magnetic iron,
manganese, meerschaum, mercury, nickel, rock-salt, silver, sulphur and
zinc. The vegetation varies with the climate, soil and elevation. The
mountains on the north coast are clothed with dense forests of pine,
fir, cedar, oak, beech, &c. On the Taurus range the forests are
smaller, and there is a larger proportion of pine. On the west coast
the ilex, plane, oak, valonia oak, and pine predominate. On the
plateau willows, poplars and chestnut trees grow near the streams,
but nine-tenths of the country is treeless, except for scrub. On the
south and west coasts the fig and olive are largely cultivated. The
vine yields rich produce everywhere, except in the higher districts.
The apple, pear, cherry and plum thrive well in the north; the orange,
lemon, citron and sugar-cane in the south; styrax and mastic in the
south-west; and the wheat lands of the Sivas vilayet can hardly be
surpassed. The most important vegetable productions are--cereals,
cotton, gum tragacanth, liquorice, olive oil, opium, rice, saffron,
salep, tobacco and yellow berries. Silk is produced in large
quantities in the vicinity of Brusa and Amasia, and mohair from the
Angora goat all over the plateau. The wild animals include bear, boar,
chamois, fallow red and roe deer, gazelle, hyena, ibex, jackal,
leopard, lynx, moufflon, panther, wild sheep and wolf. The native
reports of a maneless lion in Lycia (_arslan_) are probably based on
the existence of large panthers. Amongst the domestic animals are the
buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel, bred from a Bactrian sire
and Syrian mother. Large numbers of sheep and Angora goats are reared
on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on the Uzun Yaila; but no
effort is made to improve the quality of the wool and mohair or the
breed of horses. Good mules can be obtained in several districts, and
small hardy oxen are largely bred for ploughing and transport. The
larger birds are the bittern, great and small bustard, eagle,
francolin, goose; giant, grey and red-legged partridge, sand grouse,
pelican, pheasant, stork and swan. The rivers and lakes are well
supplied with fish, and the mountain streams abound with small trout.

The principal manufactures are:--Carpets, rugs, cotton, tobacco,
mohair and silk stuffs, soap, wine and leather. The exports
are:--Cereal, cotton, cotton seed, dried fruits, drugs, fruit, gall
nuts, gum tragacanth, liquorice root, maize, nuts, olive oil, opium,
rice, sesame, sponges, storax, timber, tobacco, valonia, walnut wood,
wine, yellow berries, carpets, cotton yarn, cocoons, hides, leather,
mohair, silk, silk stuffs, rugs, wax, wool, leeches, live stock,
minerals, &c. The imports are:--Coffee, cotton cloths, cotton goods,
crockery, dry-salteries, fezzes, glass-ware, haberdashery, hardware,
henna, ironware, jute, linen goods, manufactured goods, matches,
petroleum, salt, sugar, woollen goods, yarns, &c.

_Communications._--There are few metalled roads, and those that exist
are in bad repair, but on the plateau light carts can pass nearly
everywhere. The lines of railway now open are:--(1) From Haidar Pasha
to Ismid, Eski-shehr and Angora; (2) from Mudania to Brusa; (3) from
Eski-shehr to Afium-Kara-hissar, Konia and Bulgurli, east of Eregli
(the first section of the Bagdad railway). These lines are worked by
the German _Gesellschaft der anatolischen Eisenbahnen_. (4) From
Smyrna to Manisa, Ala-shehr and Afium-Kara-hissar, with a branch line
from Manisa to Soma. This line is worked by a French company. (5) From
Smyrna to Aidin and Dineir, with branches to Odemish, Tireh, Sokia,
Denizli, Ishekli, Seidi Keui and Bouja, constructed and worked by an
English company. (6) From Mersina to Tarsus and Adana, an English line
under a control mainly French. There are two competing routes for the
eastern trade--one running inland from Constantinople (Haidar Pasha),
the other from Smyrna. The first is connected by ferry with the
European railway system; the second with the great sea routes from
Smyrna to Trieste, Marseilles and Liverpool. The right to construct
all railways in Armenia and north-eastern Asia Minor has been conceded
to Russia, and the Germans have a virtual monopoly of the central
plateau.