Chapter XVI: Part 16

The cue is a rounded rod of seasoned ash about 4 ft. 9 in. in length,
tapering from the butt, which is about 11/2 in. in diameter, to the tip,
which varies in size according to the fancy of the player. The average
tip is, however, 1/2 in. in diameter. The cue weighs generally between
14 and 18 oz. The tip of the cue is usually a leather cap or pad,
which, being liable to slip along the surface of the ball in striking,
is kept covered with chalk. To the leather tip, the invention of a
Frenchman named Mingin (about 1820), and to the control which it gives
the player over the ball, the science of modern play is entirely due.
The butt of the cue is generally spliced with ebony or some other
heavy wood, since a shaft of plain ash is too light for its purpose,
and is furthermore liable to warp. At one time it was lawful to use
the butt of the cue or even a special instrument with a squared
spoon-shaped end called a mace (or mast), in making strokes or giving
misses, but now all strokes must be made with the point. The cue is
held in one hand, and with the other the player makes a "bridge" by
placing wrist and finger-tips on the table, and extending his thumb so
as to make a passage along which to slide his cue and to strike the
ball. As it is not always possible to reach the ball in this way,
longer cues (the "half-butt" and "long butt") are required; they are
used with a "rest," a shaft of wood at the end of which, perpendicular
to the axis, is fastened an x of wood or metal, the cue being rested
on the upper half while the lower is on the cloth. A "long rest,"
about 6 ft. long, is used with the long cues, the "short rest" (or
"jigger") about 4 ft. long, with the ordinary cue. A marking-board and
stands or racks for rests and butts, with iron and brush for the
table, and a cover for the table when not in use, complete the
billiard "furniture" of the room, apart from its seating
accommodation.

The game of _billiards proper_ consists of the making of winning and losing hazards and cannons. It is usually played between two opponents (or four, two against two) for 100 or more points, three being scored for each red hazard, two for each white hazard and two for each cannon. Certain forfeitures on the other hand score to the opponent: running your ball off the table or into a pocket without having hit another ball, 3 (a coup); ordinary misses (not hitting an object-ball), 1. All these forfeits involve the termination of the turn. There are also "foul strokes" which score nothing to the opponent, and only involve the termination of the turn: such as playing with the wrong ball, forcing a ball off the table, hitting a ball twice, &c. When the red ball is pocketed it is replaced on the billiard-spot; if that is occupied, on the pyramid-spot; if that too, on the centre-spot; but if the opponent's white ball is pocketed it remains out of play till his turn comes. Public matches between adepts are played for higher points, but the rules which govern them are the same. The players have alternate turns, each being "in play" and continuing his "break" until he fails to score.

The game commences by stringing for the lead and choice of balls. The
players standing behind the baulk line, strike each a ball from the
semicircle up to the top cushion, and he whose ball on its return
stops nearest the bottom cushion has the choice of lead and balls. The
red ball is placed on the spot at the commencement of the game, and
the first player must "break the balls." The balls are said to be
"broken" when the first player has struck the red or given a miss; and
the opponent's ball when off the table is said to be "in hand."
Breaking the balls thus takes place whenever the position, as at the
beginning of the game, recurs. The first player (or the player at any
stage of the game when he plays after being "in hand") must place his
own ball in any part of the D, or on the lines that form the D, and
must play into the part of the table outside the baulk line, for he
may not hit direct any ball that is "in baulk," i.e. on or behind the
baulk-line; if he wishes to play at it he must first strike a cushion
out of baulk (or, as it is called, _bricole_). If a player fails to
score, the adversary plays, as soon as all the balls are at rest,
either from baulk (if "in hand") or from the place where his own ball
has stopped. If by the same stroke a player makes two scores, i.e. a
cannon and a hazard for instance, or a winning and a losing hazard, he
scores for each of them. Thus if he pockets the red ball and the
cue-ball, he scores six, or if he makes a cannon and holes the red
ball, five. In the case of a cannon and a losing hazard, made by the
same stroke, the value of the hazard depends on the ball first struck.
Thus if the cue-ball strikes the red, cannons on to the white, and
runs into a pocket, the stroke counts five points, but only one cannon
can be made by the same stroke, even if the cue-ball strikes each of
the others twice. If both object-balls are struck simultaneously it is
considered that the red is struck first. Ten points are the most that
can be scored by a single stroke with the cue, namely by striking the
red ball first and then the white, and holing all three. If the white
ball be struck first and the same series occurs, the value of the
stroke is nine points. When the cue-ball and object-ball are
_touching_, whatever the position, the red ball is spotted, the white
object-ball put on the centre-spot, and the player plays from baulk.

There are various subtleties in the art of striking, which may be
indicated, though only practice can really teach them; the simple
stroke being one delivered slightly above the centre of the ball.

The _side-stroke_ is made by striking the object-ball on the side with
the point of the cue. The effect of such a mode of striking the ball
is to make it travel to the right or to the left, according as it is
struck, with a winding or slightly circular motion; and its purpose is
to cause the ball to proceed in a direction more or less slanting than
is usual, or ordinary, when the ball is struck in or about the centre
of its circumference. Many hazards and cannons, quite impossible to be
made with the central stroke, are accomplished with ease and certainty
by the side-stroke. It was the invention of the leather tip which made
_side_ possible. The _screw_, or twist, is made by striking the ball
low down, with a sharp, sudden blow. According as the ball is struck
nearer and nearer to the cushion, it stops dead at the point of
concussion with the object-ball, or recoils by a series of reverse
revolutions, in the manner familiar to the schoolboy in throwing
forward a hoop, and causing it to return to his hand by the twist
given to its first impetus.

The _follow_ is made by striking the ball high, with a flowing or
following motion of the cue. Just as the low stroke impedes the motion
of the ball, the follow expedites it.

In the _drag_ the ball is struck low without the sudden jerk of the
screw, and with less than the onward push of the follow.

The _spot-stroke_ is a series of winning hazards made by pocketing the
red ball in one of the corners from the spot. The great art is, first,
to make sure of the hazard, and next, to leave the striking ball in
such a position as to enable the player to make a similar stroke in
one or other of the corner pockets. To such perfection was the
spot-stroke brought, that at the end of the 19th century it was
necessary to bar it out of the professional matches, and the
"spot-barred" game became consequently the rule for all players. The
leading English professionals so completely mastered the difficulties
of the stroke and made such long successions of hazards that they
practically killed all public interest in billiards, the game being
little more than a monotonous series of spot-strokes. In 1888 W.J.
Peall made 633 "spots" in succession, and in 1890 in a break of
3304--the longest record--no less than 3183 of the points were scored
through spot-stroke breaks. J.G. Sala, by use of the screw-back, made
186 successive hazards in one pocket, but C. Memmott is said to have
made as many as 423 such strokes in succession. The spot-stroke was
known and used in 1825, when a run of twenty-two "spots" caused quite
a sensation. The player, whose name was Carr, offered to play any man
in England, but though challenged by Edwin Kentfield never met him, so
the latter became champion. Kentfield, however, did not regard the
spot-stroke as genuine billiards, rarely played it himself, and had
the pocket of his tables reduced to 3 in., and the billiard-spot moved
nearer to the top of the table, so as to make the stroke exceedingly
difficult. John Roberts, sen., who succeeded Kentfield as champion in
1849, worked hard at the stroke, but never made, in public, a longer
run than 104 in succession. But W. Cook, John Roberts, jun., and
others, assisted by the improvements made in the implements of the
game, soon outdid Roberts, sen., only to be themselves outdone by W.
Peall and W. Mitchell, who made such huge breaks by means of the
stroke that it was finally barred, the Association rules providing
that only two "spots" may be made in succession unless a cannon is
combined with a hazard, and that after the second hazard the red ball
be placed on the centre-spot.

_Top-of-the-Table Play._--When the spot-stroke was dying, many leading
players, headed by John Roberts, jun., assiduously cultivated another
form of rapid scoring, known as "top-of-the-table-play," the first
principle of which is to collect the three balls at the top of the
table near the spot. The balls are then manipulated by means of red
winning hazards and cannons, the winning hazard not being made till
the object-white can be left close to the spot.

_The Push-stroke._--Long series of cannons were also made along the
edge of the cushion, mainly by means of the "push-stroke," and with
great rapidity, but eventually the push-stroke too was barred as
unfair. It was usually employed when cue-ball and object-ball were
very close together and the third ball was in a line, or nearly in a
line with them; then by placing the tip of the cue very close to the
cue-ball and pushing gently and carefully, not striking, the
object-ball could be pushed aside and the cue-ball directed on ball 3.

_Balls Jammed in Pockets._--If the two object-balls get jammed, either
by accident or design, in the jaws of a corner pocket, an almost
interminable series of cannons may be made by a skilful player. T.
Taylor made as many as 729 cannons in 1891, but the American champion,
Frank C. Ives, in a match with John Roberts, jun., easily beat this in
1893, by making 1267 cannons, before he deliberately broke up the
balls. In Ives's case the balls, however, were just outside the jaws,
which were skilfully used to keep the balls close together; but in
this game, which was a compromise between English and American
billiards, {21/4}-in. balls and {31/4}-in. pockets were used. Under the
aegis of the Billiard Association a tacit understanding was arrived at
that the position must be broken up, should it occur. A similar
position came into discredit in 1907, in the case of the
"cradle-double-kiss" or "anchor" cannon, where the balls were not
actually jammed, but so close on each side of a pocket that a long
series of cannons could be made without disturbing the position--a
stroke introduced by Lovejoy and carried to extremes by him, T. Reece
and others (see below).

_The Quill or Feather Stroke._--This stroke was barred early in the
game's history. It could only be made when the cue-ball was in hand
and the object-ball just outside that part of the baulk-line that
helps to form the D. The cue-ball was set so close to the object-ball
as only not to touch it, and was then pushed very gently into the
pocket, grazing the other so slightly as just to shake it, and no
more. A number of similar strokes could thus be made before the
object-ball was out of position.

A _jenny_ is a losing hazard into one of the (generally top) pockets
when the object-ball is close to the cushion along which the pocket
lies: it requires to be played with the side required to turn the ball
into the pocket. Long jennies to the top pockets are a difficult and
pretty stroke: short jennies are into the middle pockets.

_Masse and Pique._--A _masse_ is a difficult stroke made by striking
downwards on the upper surface of the cue-ball, the cue being held
nearly at right angles to the table, and the point not being directed
towards the centre of the ball. It is generally used to effect a
cannon when the three balls are more or less in a line, the cue-ball
and the object-ball being close together. The term _masse_ is often
used irregularly for _pique_, made when the object-ball is as close to
the cue-ball as the latter to the cushion, or the third ball, or to
make screwing impossible; the cue is then raised to an angle of almost
45 deg. or 50 deg. and its axis directed to the centre of the cue-ball, so
that backward rotation is set up. Vignaux, the French player, says,
"_Le masse est un pique_." _Masse_ is in fact _pique_ combined with
side.

The perfection of billiards is to be found in the nice combination of
the various strokes, in such fashion as to leave the balls in a
favourable position after each individual hazard and cannon; and this
perfection can only be attained by the most constant and unremitting
practice. When the cue-ball is so played that its centre is aimed at
the extreme edge of the object-ball, the cue-ball's course is diverted
at what is called the "_natural_" or "_half-ball_" angle. If the balls
were flat discs instead of spheres the edge of one ball would touch
the centre of the other. The object-ball is struck at "three-quarter
ball" or "quarter-ball" according as the edge of the cue-ball appears
to strike mid-way between the half-ball point and the centre or edge
respectively of the object-ball. The half-ball angle is regarded as
the standard angle for billiards, other angles being sometimes termed
rather vaguely as "rather more or less than half-ball." The angle of
the cue-ball's new course would be about 45 deg., were the object-ball
fixed, but as the object-ball moves immediately it is struck, the
cue-ball is not actually diverted more than 33 deg. from the prolongation
of its original course, it being conventional among players to regard
the prolongation of the course and not the original track when
calculating the angle. The natural angle, and all angles, may be
modified by side and screw; the use of strength also makes the ball go
off at a wider angle.

_Development in Billiard Play._--The modern development of English billiards is due mainly to the skill of such leading players as John Roberts, sen., and his son of the same name. Indeed, their careers form the history of modern billiards from 1849 when the elder Roberts challenged Kentfield (who declined to play) for the championship. No useful comparison can be made between the last-named men, and the change of cushions from list to india-rubber further complicates the question. Kentfield represented the best of the old style of play, and was a most skilful performer; but Roberts had a genius for the game, combined with great nerve and physical power. This capacity for endurance enabled him to practise single strokes till they became certainties, when weaker men would have failed from sheer fatigue; and that process applied to the acquisition of the spot-stroke was what placed him decisively in front of the players of his day until a younger generation taught by him came forward. In 1869 the younger generation had caught him up, and soon afterwards surpassed him at this stroke; both W. Cook and J. Roberts, jun., carried it to greater perfection, but they were in turn put entirely in the shade by W. Mitchell and W.J. Peall. It is curious to realize that John Roberts, sen., developed the game chiefly by means of spot-play, whereas his son continued the process by abandoning it. The public, however, liked quick scoring and long breaks, and therefore a substitute had to be devised. This was provided chiefly by the younger Roberts, whose fertility of resource and manual dexterity eventually placed him by a very long way at the head of his profession. In exhibition matches he barred the spot-stroke and gave his attention chiefly to top-of-the-table play.

The next development was borrowed from the French game (see below), which consists entirely of cannons. Both French and American professors, giving undivided attention to cannons and not being permitted to use the _push-stroke_, arrived at a perfection in controlling or "_nursing_" the balls to which English players could not pretend; yet the principles involved in making a long series of cannons were applied, and leading professionals soon acquired the necessary delicacy of touch. The plan is to get the three balls close to each other, say within a space which a hand can cover, and not more than from 4 to 8 in. from a cushion. The striker's ball should be behind the other two, one of which is nearer the cushion, the other a little farther off and farther forward. The striker's ball is tapped quietly on the one next the cushion, and hits the third ball so as to drive it an inch or two in a line parallel to the cushion. The ball first struck rebounds from the cushion, and at the close of the stroke all three balls are at rest in a position exactly similar to that at starting, which is called by the French _position mere_. Thus each stroke is a repetition of the previous one, the positions of the balls being relatively the same, but actually forming a series of short advances along the cushion. With the push-stroke a great number of these cannons could be quickly made, say 50 in 31/2 minutes; and, as that means 100 points, scoring was rapid. Most of the great spot-barred breaks contained long series of these cannons, and their value as records is correspondingly diminished, for in such hair's-breadth distances very often no one but the player, and sometimes not even he, could tell whether a stroke was made or missed or was foul. Push-barred, the cannons are played nearly as fast; but with most men the series is shorter, _masse_ strokes being used when the cannon cannot be directly played.

_Championship._--When Kentfield declined to play in 1849, John Roberts, sen., assumed the title, and held the position till 1870, when he was defeated by his pupil W. Cook. The following table gives particulars of championship matches up to 1885:--

+-------+-------------------+--------------------------------+-----+
|Points.| Date. | Players. | Won |
| | | | by. |
+-------+-------------------+--------------------------------+-----+
| 1200 | Feb. 11, 1870 | Cook b. Roberts, sen. | 117 |
| 1000 | April 14, 1870 | Roberts, jun., b. Cook | 478 |
| 1000 | May 30, 1870 | Roberts, jun., b. Bowles | 246 |
| 1000 | Nov. 28, 1870 | Jos. Bennett b. Roberts, jun. | 95 |
| 1000 | Jan. 30, 1871 | Roberts, jun., b. Bennett | 363 |
| 1000 | May 25, 1871 | Cook b. Roberts, jun. | 15 |
| 1000 | Nov. 21, 1871 | Cook b. Jos. Bennett | 58 |
| 1000 | March 4, 1872 | Cook b. Roberts, jun. | 201 |
| 1000 | Feb. 4, 1874 | Cook b. Roberts, jun. | 216 |
| 1000 | May 24, 1875 | Roberts, jun., b. Cook | 163 |
| 1000 | Dec. 20, 1875 | Roberts, jun., b. Cook | 135 |
| 1000 | May 28, 1877 | Roberts, jun., b. Cook | 223 |
| 1000 | Nov. 8, 1880 | Jos. Bennett b. Cook | 51 |
| 1000 | Jan. 12, 13, 1881 | Jos. Bennett b. Taylor | 90 |
| 3000 | March 30, 31, and | | |
| | April 1, 1885 | Roberts, jun., b. Cook | 92 |
| 3000 | June 1, 2, 3, 4, | | |
| | 1885 | Roberts, jun., b. Jos. Bennett |1640 |
+-------+-------------------+--------------------------------+-----+

These games were played on three-inch-pocket tables, and John Roberts, jun., fairly contended that he remained champion till beaten on such a table under the rules in force when he won the title or under a new code to which he was a consenting party. A match was played for the championship between Roberts and Dawson, in 1899 of 18,000 up, level. The main departure from a championship game lay in the table, which had ordinary, though not easy pockets, instead of three-inch pockets. The match excited much interest, because Dawson, who had already beaten North for the Billiard Association championship, was the first man for many years to play Roberts even; but Roberts secured the game by 1814 points. After this Dawson improved materially, and in 1899, for the second time, he won the Billiard Association championship. His position was challenged by Diggle and Stevenson, who contested a game of 9000 points. Stevenson won by 2900, but lost to Dawson by 2225 points; he beat him in January 1901, and though Dawson won a match before the close of the spring, Stevenson continued to establish his superiority, and at the beginning of 1907 was incontestably the English champion.

_Records._--Record scores at billiards have greatly altered since W.
Cook's break of 936, which included 292 spots, and was made in 1873.
Big breaks are in some degree a measure of development; but too much
weight must not be given to them, for tables vary considerably between
easy and difficult ones, and comparisons are apt to mislead. Peall's
break of 3304 (1890) is the largest "all-in" score on record; and in
the modern spot-barred and push-barred game with a championship table,
H.W. Stevenson in April 1904 made 788 against C. Dawson. In January
1905 John Roberts, however, made 821 in fifty minutes, in a match with
J. Duncan, champion of Ireland; but this was not strictly a "record,"
since the table had not been measured officially by the Billiard
Association. A break of 985 was made by Diggle in 1895 against
Roberts, on a "standard table" (before the reduction in size of the
pockets). On the 5th of March 1907 T. Reece began beating records by
means of the "anchor" stroke, making 1269 (521 cannons), and he made
an unfinished 4593 with the same stroke (2268 cannons) on the 23rd of
March. Further large breaks followed, including 23,769 by Dawson on
the 20th of April 1907, and even more by Reece; and towards the end of
the year the Billiard Association ruled the stroke out.

_Handicapping._--The obvious way of handicapping unequal players is
for the stronger player to allow his opponent an agreed number of
points by way of start. Or he may "owe" points, i.e. not begin to
reckon his score till he has scored a certain number. A good plan is
for the better player to agree to count no breaks that are below a
certain figure. The giver of points scores all forfeits for misses,
&c. If A can give B 20 points, and B can give C 25 points, the number
of points that A can give C is calculated on the following formula,

20 x 25
20 + 25 - ------- = 40.
100

The handicap of "barring" one or more pockets to the better player, he
having only four or five sockets to play into, has been abolished in
company with other methods that tended to make the game tedious.

_Pyramids_ is played by two or four persons--in the latter case in sides, two and two. It is played with fifteen balls, placed close together by means of a frame in the form of a triangle or pyramid, with the apex towards the player, and a white striking ball. The centre of the apex ball covers the second or pyramid spot, and the balls forming the pyramid should lie in a compact mass, the base in a straight line with the cushion.

Pyramids is a game entirely of winning hazards, and he who succeeds in
pocketing the greatest number of balls wins. Usually the pyramid is
made of fifteen red or coloured balls, with the striking ball white.
This white ball is common to both players. Having decided on the lead,
the first player, placing his ball in the baulk-semicircle, strikes it
up to the pyramid, with a view either to lodge a ball in a pocket or
to get the white safely back into baulk. Should he fail to pocket a
red ball, the other player goes on and strikes the white ball from the
place at which it stopped. When either succeeds in making a winning
hazard, he plays at any other ball he chooses, and continues his break
till he ceases to score; and so the game is continued by alternate
breaks until the last red ball is pocketed. The game is commonly
played for a stake upon the whole, and a proportionate sum upon each
ball or life--as, for instance, 3s. game and 1s. balls. The player
wins a life by pocketing a red ball or forcing it over the table; and
loses a life by running his own, the white, ball into a pocket,
missing the red balls, or intentionally giving a miss. In this game
the baulk is no protection; that is to say, the player can pocket any
ball wherever it lies, either within or without the baulk line, and
whether the white be in hand or not. This liberty is a great and
certain advantage under many circumstances, especially in the hands of
a good player. It is not a very uncommon occurrence for an adept to
pocket six or eight balls in a single break. Both Cook and Roberts
have been known, indeed, to pocket the whole fifteen. If four persons
play at pyramids, the rotation is decided by chance, and each plays
alternately--partners, as in billiards, being allowed to advise each
other, each going on and continuing to play as long as he can, and
ceasing when he misses a hazard. Foul strokes are reckoned as in
billiards, except as regards balls touching each other. If two balls
touch, the player proceeds with his game and scores a point for every
winning hazard. When all the red balls but one are pocketed, he who
made the last hazard plays with the white and his opponent with the
red; and so on alternately, till the game terminates by the holing of
one or other ball. The pyramid balls are usually a little smaller than
the billiard balls; the former are about 2 in. in diameter, the latter
2-1/16 in. to 2-1/8 in.

_Losing Pyramids_, seldom played, is the reverse of the last-named
game, and consists of losing hazards, each player using the same
striking ball, and taking a ball from the pyramid for every losing
hazard. As in the other game, the baulk is no protection. Another
variety of pyramids is known as _Shell-out_, a game at which any
number of persons may play. The pyramid is formed as before, and the
company play in rotation. For each winning hazard the striker receives
from each player a small stake, and for each losing hazard he pays a
like sum, till the game is concluded, by pocketing the white or the
last coloured ball.

_Pool_, a game which may be played by two or more persons, consists entirely of winning hazards. Each player subscribes a certain stake to form the pool, and at starting has three chances or lives. He is then provided with a coloured or numbered ball, and the game commences thus:--The white ball is placed on the spot and the red is played at it from the baulk semicircle. If the player pocket the white he receives the price of a life from the owner of the white; but if he fail, the next player, the yellow, plays on the red; and so on alternately till all have played, or till a ball be pocketed. When a ball is pocketed the striker plays on the ball nearest his own, and goes on playing as long as he can score.

The order of play is usually as follows:--The white ball is spotted;
red plays upon white; yellow upon red; then blue, brown, green, black,
and spot-white follow in the order of succession named, white playing
on spot-white. The order is similar for a larger number, but it is not
common for more than seven or eight to join in a pool. The player
_wins_ a life for every ball pocketed, and receives the sum agreed on
for each life from the owner of that ball. He _loses_ a life to the
owner of the ball he plays on and misses; or by making a losing hazard
after striking such ball; by playing at the wrong ball, by running a
coup; or by forcing his ball over the table. Rules governing the game
provide for many other incidents. A ball in baulk may be played at by
the striker whose ball is in hand. If the striker's ball be
angled--that is, so placed in the jaws of the pocket as not to allow
him to strike the previously-played ball--he may have all the balls
except his own and the object ball removed from the table to allow him
to try bricole from the cushion. In some clubs and public rooms an
angled ball is allowed to be moved an inch or two from the corner; but
with a ball so removed the player must not take a life. When the
striker loses a life, the next in rotation plays at the ball nearest
his own; but if the player's ball happen to be in hand, he plays at
the ball nearest to the centre spot on the baulk line, whether it be
in or out of baulk. In such a case the striker can play from any part
of the semicircle. Any ball lying in the way of the striker's ball,
and preventing him from taking fair aim and reaching the object-ball,
must be removed, and replaced after the stroke. If there be any doubt
as to the nearest ball, the distance must be measured by the marker or
umpire; and if the distance be equal, the ball to be played upon must
be decided by chance. If the striker first pocket the ball he plays on
and then runs his own into a pocket, he loses a life to the player
whose ball he pocketed, which ball is then to be considered in hand.
The first player who loses all his three lives can "star"; that is, by
paying into the pool a sum equal to his original stake, he is entitled
to as many lives as the lowest number on the marking board. Thus if
the lowest number be 2, he stars 2; if 1, he stars 1. Only one star is
allowed in a pool; and when there are only two players left in, no
star can be purchased. The price of each life must be paid by the
player losing it, immediately after the stroke is made; and the stake
or pool is finally won by the player who remains longest in the game.
In the event, however, of the two players last left in the pool having
an equal number of lives, they may either play for the whole or divide
the stake. The latter, the usual course, is followed except when the
combatants agree to play out the game. When three players are left,
each with one life, and the striker makes a miss, the two remaining
divide the pool without a stroke--this rule being intended to meet the
possible case of two players combining to take advantage of a third.
When the striker has to play, he may ask which ball he has to play at,
and if being wrongly informed he play at the wrong ball, he does not
lose a life. In clubs and public rooms it is usual for the marker to
call the order and rotation of play: "Red upon white, and yellow's
your player"; and when a ball has been pocketed the fact is
notified--"Brown upon blue, and green's your player, in hand"; and so
on till there are only two or three players left in the pool.

There are some varieties of the game which need brief mention.

_Single Pool_ is the white winning hazard game, played for a stake and
so much for each of three or more lives. Each person has a ball,
usually white and spot-white. The white is spotted, and the other
plays on it from the baulk-semicircle; and then each plays
alternately, spotting this ball after making a hazard. For each
winning hazard the striker receives a life; for each losing hazard he
pays a life; and the taker of the three lives wins the game. No star
is allowed in single pool. The rules regulating pool are observed.

_Nearest-Ball Pool_ is played by any number of persons with the
ordinary coloured balls, and in the same order of succession. All the
rules of pool are followed, except that the baulk _is_ a protection.
The white is spotted, and the red plays on it; after that each striker
plays upon the ball nearest the upper or outer side of the baulk-line;
but if the balls lie within the baulk-line, and the striker's ball be
in hand, he must play up to the top cushion, or place his ball on the
spot. If his ball be not in hand, he plays at the nearest ball,
wherever it may lie.

_Black Pool._--In this game, which lasts for half-an-hour, there are
no lives, the player whose ball is pocketed paying the stake to the
pocketer. Each player receives a coloured ball and plays in order as
in "Following Pool," the white ball being spotted; there is, in
addition, however, a black ball, which is spotted on the centre-spot.
When a player has taken a life he may--in some rooms and clubs
_must_--play on the black ball. If he pockets it he receives a stake
from each player, paying a stake all round if he misses it, or commits
any of the errors for which he would have to pay at "Following Pool."
The black ball cannot be taken in consecutive strokes. Sometimes a
pink ball, spotted on the pyramid spot, is added and a single stake is
paid all round to the man who pockets it, and a double stake on the
black; it is also permitted in some rooms to take blacks and pinks
alternately without pocketing a coloured ball between the strokes.
Again it is the custom in certain rooms to let a player, after the
first round, play on any ball. The game is more amusing when as much
freedom is allowed as possible, so that the taking of lives may be
frequent. At the end of the half-hour the marker announces at the
beginning of the round that it is the last round. White, who lost a
stroke at the beginning by being spotted, has the last stroke. If a
player wishes to enter the game during its progress his ball is put on
the billiard-spot just before white plays, and he takes his first
stroke at the end of the round.

_Snooker Pool._--This is a game of many and elaborate rules. In
principle it is a combination of pyramids and pool. The white ball is
the cue-ball for all players. The pyramid balls, set up as in
pyramids, count one point each, the yellow ball two points, green ball
three, and so on. The black is put on the billiard-spot, the pink on
the centre-spot, blue below the apex ball of the pyramid; brown, green
and yellow on the diameter of the semicircle, brown on the middle
spot, green on the right corner spot of the D, yellow on the left. The
players, having decided the order of play, generally by distributing
the pool balls from the basket, and playing in the order of colours as
shown on the marking board, are obliged to strike a red ball first. If
it is pocketed, the player scores one and is at liberty to play on any
of the coloured balls; though in some clubs he is compelled to play on
the yellow. If he pockets a coloured ball he scores the number of
points which that ball is worth, and plays again on a red ball, the
coloured ball being replaced on its spot, and so on; but a red ball
must always be pocketed before a more valuable ball can be played at.
When all the red balls have been pocketed--none are put back on the
table as at pyramids--the remaining balls _must_ be pocketed in the
pool order and are not replaced. The penalties for missing a ball,
running into a pocket, &c., are deducted from the player's score; they
correspond to the values of the balls, one point if the red be missed,
two if the yellow be missed, &c. If, before hitting the proper ball,
the player hits one of a higher value, the value of that ball is
deducted from his score, but there is no further penalty. A player is
"snookered" if his ball is so placed that he cannot hit a ball on
which he is compelled to play. In this case he is allowed in some
rooms to give a miss, but in such a way that the next player is not
snookered; in others he must make a _bona fide_ attempt to hit the
proper ball off the cushion, being liable to the usual penalty if in
so doing he hits a ball of higher value. In some rooms it is
considered fair and part of the game to snooker an opponent
deliberately; in others the practice is condemned. The rules are so
variable in different places that even the printed rules are not of
much value, owing to local by-laws.

Among other games of minor importance, being played in a less serious
spirit than those mentioned, are _Selling Pool, Nearest Ball Pool,
Cork Pool_ and _Skittle Pool_. The directions for playing them may be
found in _Billiards_ (Badminton Library series).

_French and American Billiards._--French and American billiards is played on a pocketless table, the only kind of table that is used in France, though the English table with six pockets is also occasionally to be found in America. For match purposes the table used measures 10 ft. by 5 ft., but in private houses and clubs 9 ft. by 41/4 ft. is the usual size, while tables 8 ft. by 4 ft. are not uncommon. The balls, three in number as in English billiards, measure from 21/4 to 2-3/8 in., the latter being "match" size. Since they are both larger and heavier than the English balls, the cues are somewhat heavier and more powerful, so that better effects can be produced by means of "side," masses, &c. Only cannons (called in America "caroms," in French _caramboles_) are played, each counting one point.

The three-ball carom game is the recognized form of American
billiards. The table is marked with a centre-spot, "red" spot and
"white" spot. The first is on the centre of an imaginary line dividing
the table longitudinally into halves; the red (for the red ball) and
white spots are on the same line, half-way between the centre-spot and
the end cushions, the white spot being on the string-line
(corresponding to the English baulk-line). The right to play first is
decided, as in England, by "stringing." The opponent's white ball and
the red ball being spotted, the player plays from within the imaginary
baulk-line. Each carom counts one point; a miss counts one to the
opponent. A ball is re-spotted on its proper spot if it has been
forced off the table. Should red be forced off the table and the red
spot be occupied, it is placed on the white spot. White under similar
conditions is set on the red spot. The centre spot is only used when,
a ball having been forced off the table, both spots are occupied. If a
carom be made, and the ball afterwards jumps off the table, it is
spotted and the count allowed. If the striker moves a ball not his own
before he strikes, he cannot count but may play for safety. If he does
so after making a carom the carom does not count, he forfeits one, and
his break is ended. If he touches his own ball before he plays, he
forfeits a point, and cannot play the stroke. Should he, however,
touch his ball a second time, the opponent has the option of having
the balls replaced as exactly as possible, or of playing on them as
they are left. It is a foul stroke to play with the wrong ball, but if
the offence is not detected before a second stroke has been made, the
player may continue.

Such long runs of caroms, chiefly "on the rail" along the cushion,
have been made by professional players (H. Kerkau, the German
champion, making 7156 caroms in 1901 at Zuerich), that various schemes
have been devised to make the game more difficult. One of these is
known as the "continuous baulk-line." Lines are drawn, 8, 14, 18 or
even 22 in. from the rails, parallel to the side of the table, forming
with them eight compartments. Of these 14 and 18 are the most general.
Only one, two or three caroms, as previously arranged, are allowed to
be made in every space, unless one at least of the object-balls is
driven over a line. In the space left in the middle of the table any
number of caroms may be made without restriction. In the case of the
_Triangular Baulk-line_, lines are drawn at the four corners from the
second "sight" on the side-rails to the first sight on the end-rails,
forming four triangles within which only a limited number of caroms
may be made, unless one object-ball at least be driven outside one of
the lines. The _Anchor Baulk-lines_ were devised to checkmate the
"anchor" shot, which consisted in getting the object-balls on the
rail, one on either side of a baulk-line, and delicately manipulating
them so as to make long series of caroms; each ball being in a
different compartment, neither had to be driven over a line. The
"anchor baulk-lines" form a tiny compartment, 6 in. by 3, and are
drawn at the end of a baulk-line where it touches the rail and so
divides the compartment into two squares. Only one shot is allowed in
this "anchor-space," unless a ball be driven out of it. By these
methods, "crotching" (getting them jammed in a corner) the balls, and
long series of rail-caroms were abolished. The push-stroke is strictly
forbidden.

The _Cushion Carom_ game is a variety of the ordinary three-ball game,
in which no carom counts unless the cue-ball touches a cushion before
the carom is completed. There is also _Three-Cushion Carom_, which is
explained by its title, and the _Bank-Shot_ game, in which the
cue-ball must touch a cushion before it strikes either ball. The
cushion carom games are often used in handicapping, other methods of
which are for the better player to make a certain number of caroms "or
no count," and for the weaker to receive a number of points in the
game.

In France billiards was played exclusively by the aristocracy and the
richer middle class until the first part of the 17th century, when the
privilege of keeping billiard-rooms was accorded to the _billardiers
paulmiers_, and billiards became the principal betting game and
remained so until the time of Louis Philippe. The most prominent
French player of late years is Maurice Vignaux. The French game became
the accepted one in the United States about 1870, and the best
American players have proved themselves superior to the French masters
with the exception of Vignaux. The best-known American masters have
been M. Daly, Shaafer, Slosson, Carter, Sexton and Frank C. Ives,
doubtless the most brilliant player who ever lived. His record for the
18-in. baulk-line game was an average of 50, with a high run of 290
points. In cushion-caroms he scored a run of 85.

The four-ball game, the original form of American billiards, is
practically obsolete. It was formerly played on an English six-pocket
table, with a dark-red and a light-red ball and two white ones. At
present when played an ordinary table is used, the rules being
identical with those of the three-ball game.

_Pool_ is played in America on a six-pocket table with fifteen balls,
each bearing a number. There are several varieties of the game, the
most popular being _Continuous Pool_, an expanded form of
_Fifteen-Ball Pool_, in which the balls are set up as in English
pyramids, the game being won by the player pocketing the majority of
the fifteen balls, each ball counting one point, the numbers being
used only to distinguish them, as a player must always name, or
"call," the ball he intends to pocket and the pocket into which he
will drive it. The player who "breaks" (plays first) must send at
least two balls to the cushion or forfeit three points. The usual
method is to strike a corner ball just hard enough to do this but not
hard enough to break up the balls, as in that case the second player
would have too great an advantage. Balls pocketed by chance in the
same play in which a called ball has been legitimately put down are
counted; all others pocketed by accident are replaced on the table. In
Fifteen-Ball Pool each frame (fifteen balls) constitutes a game. In
Continuous Pool the game is for a series of points, generally 100, the
balls being set up again after each frame and the player pocketing the
last ball having the choice whether to break or cause his opponent to
do so.

The balls in Fifteen-Ball Pool are generally all of one colour,
usually red. In _Pyramid Pool_ they are parti-coloured as well as
numbered, and the game, which usually consists of a single frame, is
won by the player who, when all fifteen balls have been pocketed, has
scored the greatest aggregate of the numbers on the balls. In _Chicago
Pool_ each frame constitutes a game and is won by the player scoring
the highest aggregate of numbers on the balls, which are set up round
the cushion opposite the diamond sights, the 1 being placed in the
middle of the top cushion, opposite the player, with the odd-numbered
balls on the player's left and those with even numbers on his right.
The arrangement of the balls, however, varies and is not important.
Each player must strike the lowest-numbered ball still on the table,
forfeiting the number of points represented by the ball should his
ball first hit any other ball, or should he pocket his own ball. If he
pockets the proper ball all others that fall into pockets on that play
count for him also. Missing the ball played at forfeits three points
(sometimes the number on the ball played at), as well as fouls of all
kinds. _Bottle Pool_ is played with a cue-ball, the 1 and 2 pool-balls
and the leather pool-bottle, which is stood upon its mouth in the
middle of the table. A carom on two balls counts 2 points; pocketing
the 1-ball counts 1; pocketing the 2-ball counts 2; upsetting bottle
from carom counts 5; upsetting bottle to standing position counts 10,
or, in many clubs, the game is won when this occurs. Otherwise the
game is for 31 points, which number must be scored exactly, a player
scoring more than that number being "burst," and having to begin over
again. There are many penalties of one point, such as missing the
object-ball, foul strokes, forcing a ball or the bottle off the table,
pocketing one's own ball and upsetting the bottle without hitting a
ball. The game of _Thirty-Four_ is played without a bottle, the
scoring being by caroms or pocketing the two object-balls. Exactly 34
must be scored or the player is "burst."

_High-Low-Jack-Game_ is played with a set of pyramid balls by any
number of players, the order of starting being determined by
distributing the small balls from the pool-bottle. The 15-ball is
High, the 1 Low, the 9 Jack, and the highest aggregate of numbers is
the game, each of these four counting one point, the game consisting
of seven points, and therefore lasting at least for two frames. The
balls are set up with the three counting balls in the centre and
broken as in pyramids, although balls accidentally falling into
pockets count for the player, on which account the balls are sometimes
broken as violently as possible. When two or more players have the
same score the High ball wins before the Low, &c., as in the card game
of the same title.

_Pin Pool_ is played with two white balls, one red and five small pins
set up in diamond form in the centre of the table with the pin
counting 5 (the king-pin) in the middle, the pins being 3 in. apart.
Each player is given a small ball from the bottle and this he keeps
secret until he is able to announce that his points, added to the
number on his small ball, amount to exactly 31. If he "bursts" he must
begin again. Points are made only by knocking down pins, which are
numbered 1 to 5. Should a player knock down with one stroke all four
outside pins, leaving the 5-pin-standing, it is a "natural" and he
wins the game.

Besides these common varieties of pool there are many others which are
played in different parts of America, many of them local in character.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The scientific features of billiards have been
discussed at more or less length in several of the following older
works:--E. White, _Practical Treatise on the Game of Billiards_
(1807), this was partly a translation of a French treatise, published
in 1805, and partly a compilation from the article in the _Academie
universelle des jeux_, issued in the same year, and since frequently
re-edited and reprinted; _Le Musee des jeux_ (Paris, 1820); Monsieur
Mingaud, _The Noble Game of Billiards_ (Paris, 1834); a translation of
the same, by John Thurston (London, 1835); Kentfield, _On Billiards_
(London, 1839), founded principally on the foregoing works: Edward
Russell Mardon, _Billiards, Game 500 up_ (London, 1849); Turner, _On
Billiards_, a series of diagrams with instructions (Nottingham, 1849);
Captain Crawley, _The Billiard Book_ (London, 1866-1875); Roberts, _On
Billiards_ (1868); Fred. Hardy, _Practical Billiards_, edited by W.
Dufton (1867); Joseph Bennett (ex-champion), _Billiards_ (1873). These
older books, however, are largely superseded by such modern
authorities as the following:--J. Roberts, _The Game of Billiards_
(London, 1898); W. Cook, _Billiards_ (Burroughes & Watts); J.P.
Buchanan, _Hints on Billiards_ (Bell & Sons); _Modern Billiards_ (The
Brunswick--Balke--Collender Co., New York); Broadfoot, _Billiards_,
Badminton Library (Longmans); Locock, _Side and Screw_ (Longmans); M.
Vignaux, _Le Billiard_ (Paris, 1889); A. Howard Cady, _Billiards and
Pool_ (Spalding's Home Library, New York); Thatcher, _Championship
Billiards, Old and New_ (Chicago, 1898). For those interested in the
purely mathematical aspect of the game, Hemming, _Billiards
Mathematically Treated_, (Macmillan).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In 1907 an oval table was introduced in England by way of a
change, but this variety is not here considered.

[2] A later form of "lawn-billiards" again enjoyed a brief popularity
during the latter half of the 19th century. It was played on a lawn,
in the centre of which was a metal ring about 51/2 in. in diameter,
planted upright in such a manner as to turn freely on its axis on a
level with the ground. The players, two or more, were provided with
implements resembling cues about 4 ft. long and ending in wire loops
somewhat smaller in diameter than the wooden balls (one for each
player), which were of such a size as barely to pass through the
ring. In modern times such games as billiards have afforded scope for
various imitations and modifications of this sort.