Chapter XII: Part 12

Beginning at the mouth of the Arroyo del Chuy, at the southern extremity of a long sandbank separating Lake Mirim from the Atlantic (33 deg.45' S. lat.), the boundary line between Brazil and Uruguay passes up that rivulet and across to the most southerly tributary of Lake Mirim, thence down the western shore of that lake to the Jaguarao and up that river to its most southerly source. The line then crosses to the hill-range called Cuchilla de Sant' Anna, which is followed in a north-west direction to the source of the Cuareim, or Quarahy, this river becoming the boundary down to the Uruguay. This line was fixed by the treaty of 1851, by which the control of Lake Mirim remains with Brazil. Beginning at the mouth of the Quarahy, the boundary line between Brazil and Argentina ascends the Uruguay, crosses to the source of the Santo Antonio, and descends that small stream and the Iguassu to the Parana, where it terminates. This line was defined by the treaty of 1857, and by the decision of President Cleveland in 1895 with regard to the small section between the Uruguay and Iguassu rivers. The boundary with Paraguay was definitely settled in 1872. It ascends the Parana to the great falls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and thence westward along the water-parting of the Sierra de Maracayu to the _cerro_ of that name, thence northerly along the Sierra d'Amambay to the source of the Estrella, a small tributary of the Apa, and thence down those two streams to the Paraguay. From this point the line ascends the Paraguay to the mouth of the Rio Negro, the outlet of the Bahia Negra, where the Bolivian boundary begins. As regards the Peruvian boundary, an agreement was reached in 1904 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the president of Argentina in case further efforts to reach an amicable settlement failed. The provisional line, representing the Brazilian claim, begins at the termination of the Bolivian section (the intersection of the 11th parallel with the meridian of 72 deg. 26' W. approx.) and follows a semicircular direction north-west and north to the source of the Javary (or Yavary), to include the basins of the Purus and Jurua within Brazilian jurisdiction. The line follows the Javary to its junction with the Amazon, and runs thence north by east direct to the mouth of the Apaporis, a tributary of the Yapura, in about 1 deg. 30' S. lat., 69 deg. 20' W. long., where the Peruvian section ends. The whole of this line, however, was subject to future adjustments, Peru claiming all that part of the Amazon valley extending eastward to the Madeira and lying between the Beni and the east and west boundary line agreed upon by Spain and Portugal in 1750 and 1777, which is near the 7th parallel. With regard to the section between the Amazon and the Apaporis river, already settled between Brazil and Peru, the territory has been in protracted dispute between Peru, Ecuador and Colombia; but a treaty of limits between Brazil and Ecuador was signed in 1901 and promulgated in 1905. The boundary with Colombia, fixed by treaty of April 24, 1907, follows the lower rim of the Amazon basin, as defined by Brazil. The Colombian claim included the left bank of the Amazon eastward to the Auahy or Avahy-parana channel between the Amazon and Yapura, whence the line ran northward to the Negro near the intersection of the 66th meridian. The Brazilian line ran north and north-west from the mouth of the Apaporis to the 70th meridian, which was followed to the water-parting south of the Uaupes basin, thence north-east to the Uaupes river, which was crossed close to the 69th meridian, thence easterly along the Serra Tunaji and Isana river to Cuyari, thence northerly up the Cuyari and one of its small tributaries to the Serra Capparro, and thence east and south-east along this range to the Cucuhy rock (Pedra de Cucuhy) on the left bank of the Negro, where the Colombian section ends. Negotiations for the settlement of this controversy, which involved fully one-third of the state of Amazonas, were broken off in 1870, but were resumed in 1905. The boundary with Venezuela, which was defined by a treaty of 1859, runs south-eastward from Cucuhy across a level country intersected by rivers and channels tributary to both the Negro and Orinoco, to the Serra Cupuy watershed which separates the rivers of the Amazon and Orinoco valleys. This watershed includes the ranges running eastward and northward under the names of Imeri, Tapiira-peco, Curupira, Parima and Pacaraima, the Venezuelan section terminating at Mt. Roraima. On the 9th of December 1905 protocols were signed at Caracas accepting the line between Cucuhy and the Serra Cupuy located in 1880, and referring the remainder, which had been located by a Brazilian commission in 1882 and 1884, to a mixed commission for verification.

The disputed boundary between Brazil and British Guiana, which involved the possession of a territory having an estimated area of 12,741 sq. m., was settled by arbitration in 1904 with the king of Italy as arbitrator, the award being a compromise division by which Great Britain received about 7336 sq. m. and Brazil about 5405. The definite boundary line starts from Mt. Roraima and follows the water-parting east and south to the source of the Ireng or Mahu river, which with the Takutu forms the boundary as far south as 1 deg. N. to enclose the basin of the Essequibo and its tributaries, thence it turns east and north of east along the Serra Acaria to unite with the unsettled boundary line of Dutch Guiana near the intersection of the 2nd parallel north with the 56th meridian. Negotiations were initiated in 1905 for the definite location of the boundary with Dutch Guiana. Running north-east and south-east to enclose the sources of the Rio Paru, it unites with the French Guiana line at 2 deg. 10' N., 55 deg. W., and thence runs easterly along the water-parting of the Serra Tumuc-Humac to the source of the Oyapok, which river is the divisional line to the Atlantic coast. The boundary with French Guiana (see GUIANA), which had long been a subject of dispute, was settled by arbitration in 1900, the award being rendered by the government of Switzerland. The area of the disputed territory was about 34,750 sq. m.

_Physical Geography._--A relief map of Brazil shows two very irregular
divisions of surface: the great river basins, or plains, of the
Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata, which are practically connected by low
elevations in Bolivia, and a huge, shapeless mass of highlands filling
the eastern projection of the continent and extending southward to the
plains of Rio Grande do Sul and westward to the Bolivian frontier.
Besides these there are a narrow coastal plain, the low plains of Rio
Grande do Sul, and the Guiana highlands on the northern slope of the
Amazon basin below the Rio Negro.

Relief.

The coastal plain consists in great part of sandy beaches, detritus
formations, and partially submerged areas caused by uplifted beaches
and obstructed river channels. Mangrove swamps, lagoons and marshes,
with inland canals following the coast line for long distances, are
characteristic features of a large extent of the Brazilian coast.
Parts of this coastal plain, however, have an elevation of 100 to 200
ft., are rolling and fertile in character, and terminate on the coast
in a line of bluffs. In the larger depressions, like that of the
Reconcavo of Bahia, there are large alluvial areas celebrated for
their fertility. This plain is of varying width, and on some parts of
the coast it disappears altogether. In Rio Grande do Sul, where two
large lakes have been created by uplifted sand beaches, the coastal
plain widens greatly, and is merged in an extensive open, rolling
grassy plain, traversed by ridges of low hills (_cuchillas_), similar
to the neighbouring republic of Uruguay. The western part of this
plain is drained by the Uruguay and its tributaries, which places it
within the river Plate (La Plata) basin.

The two great river basins of the Amazon-Tocantins and La Plata
comprise within themselves, approximately, three-fifths of the total
area of Brazil. Large areas of these great river plains are annually
flooded, the flood-plains of the Amazon extending nearly across the
whole country and comprising thousands of square miles. The Amazon
plain is heavily forested and has a slope of less than one inch to the
mile within Brazilian territory--one competent authority placing it at
about one-fifth of an inch per mile. The La Plata basin is less
heavily wooded, its surface more varied, and its Brazilian part stands
at a much higher elevation.

Of the two highland regions of Brazil, that of the northern slope of
the Amazon basin belongs physically to the isolated mountain system
extending eastward from the Negro and Orinoco to the Atlantic, the
water-parting of which forms the boundary line between the Guianas and
Brazil. The culminating point is near the western extremity of this
chain and its altitude is estimated at 8500 ft. The ranges gradually
diminish in elevation towards the east, the highest point of the
Tumuc-Humac range, on the frontier of French Guiana, being about 2600
ft. The Brazilian plateau slopes southward and eastward, traversed by
broken ranges of low mountains and deeply eroded by river courses. The
table-topped hills of Almeyrin (or Almeirim) and Erere, which lie near
the lower Amazon and rise to heights of 800 and 900 ft., are generally
considered the southernmost margin of this plateau, though Agassiz and
others describe them as remains of a great sandstone sheet which once
covered the entire Amazon valley. Its general elevation has been
estimated to be about 2000 ft. It is a stony, semi-arid region, thinly
wooded, having good grazing _campos_ in its extreme western section.
Its semi-arid character is due to the mountain ranges on its northern
frontier, which extract the moisture from the north-east trades and
leave the Brazilian plateau behind them with a very limited rainfall,
except near the Atlantic coast. The more arid districts offer no
inducement for settlement and are inhabited only by a few roving bands
of Indians, but there were settlements of whites in the grazing
districts of the Rio Branco at an early date, and a few hundreds of
adventurers have occupied the mining districts of the east. In
general, Brazilian Guiana, as this plateau region is sometimes called,
is one of the least attractive parts of the republic.

The great Brazilian plateau, which is the most important physical
division of Brazil, consists of an elevated tableland 1000 to 3000 ft.
above the sea-level, traversed by two great mountain systems, and
deeply eroded and indented by numerous rivers. A thick sandstone sheet
once covered the greater part if not all of it, remains of which are
found on the elevated _chapadas_ of the interior and on isolated
elevations extending across the republic toward its western frontier.
These chapadas and elevations, which are usually described as mountain
ranges, are capped by horizontal strata of sandstone and show the
original surface, which has been worn away by the rivers, leaving here
and there broad flat-topped ridges between river basins and narrower
ranges of hills between river courses. From the valleys their rugged,
deeply indented escarpments, stretching away to the horizon, have the
appearance of a continuous chain of mountains. The only true mountain
systems, however, so far as known, are the two parallel ranges which
follow the contour of the coast, and the central, or Goyana, system.
The first consists of an almost continuous range crossing the northern
end of Rio Grande do Sul and following the coast northward to the
vicinity of Cape Frio, and thence northward in broken ranges to the
vicinity of Cape St Roque, and a second parallel range running from
eastern Sao Paulo northeast and north to the eastern margin of the Sao
Francisco basin in northern Bahia, where that river turns eastward to
the Atlantic. The first of these is generally known as the Serra do
Mar, or Coast Range, though it is locally known under many names. Its
culminating point is in the Organ Mountains (Serra dos Orgaos), near
Rio de Janeiro, which reaches an elevation of 7323 ft. The inland
range, which is separated from the Coast Range in the vicinity of Rio
de Janeiro by the valley of the Parahyba do Sul river, is known as the
Serra da Mantiqueira, and from the point where it turns northward to
form the eastern rim of the Sao Francisco basin, as the Serra do
Espinhaco. This range is also known under various local names. Its
culminating point is toward the western extremity of the Mantiqueira
range where the Itatiaya, or Itatiaia-assu, peak rises to an elevation
of 8898 ft. (other measurements give 9823 ft.), probably the highest
summit in Brazil. This range forms the true backbone of the maritime
mountainous belt and rises from the plateau itself, while the Coast
Range rises on its eastern margin and forms a rim to the plateau.
North of Cape Frio the Coast Range is much broken and less elevated,
while the Serra do Espinhaco takes a more inland course and is
separated from the coast by great gently-sloping, semi-barren
terraces. The second system--the Central or Goyana--consists of two
distinct chains of mountains converging toward the north in the
elevated _chapadao_ between the Tocantins and Sao Francisco basins.
The eastern range of this central system, which crosses western Minas
Geraes from the so-called Serra das Vertentes to the valley of the
Paracatu, a western tributary of the Sao Francisco, is called the
Serra da Canastra and Serra da Matta da Corde. Its culminating point
is toward its southern extremity in the Serra da Canastra, 4206 ft.
above sea-level. The western range, or what is definitely known of it,
runs across southern Goyaz, south-west to north-east, and forms the
water-parting between the Parana and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. Its
culminating point is in the Montes Pyreneos, near the city of Goyaz,
and is about 4500 ft. above sea-level.

The great part of this immense region consists of _chapadoes_, as the
larger table-land areas are called, _chapadas_ or smaller sections of
the same, and broadly excavated river valleys. How extensive this work
of erosion has been may be seen in the Tocantins-Araguaya basin, where
a great pear-shaped depression, approximately 100 to 500 m. wide, 700
m. long, and from 1000 to 1500 ft. deep, has been excavated northward
from the centre of the plateau. Southward the Parana has excavated
another great basin and eastward the Sao Francisco another. Add to
these the eroded river basins of the Xingu, Tapajos and Guapore on the
north and west, the Paraguay on the south-west, and the scores of
smaller rivers along the Atlantic coast, and we may have some
conception of the agencies that have been at work in breaking down and
shaping this great table-land, perhaps the oldest part of the
continent. The most southern of these _chapadoes_, that of the Parana
basin, in which may be included the northern part of the Uruguay and
eastern part of the Paraguay basins, includes the greater part of the
states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Parana and Sao Paulo,
the south-western corner of Minas Geraes, a part of southern Goyaz,
and the south-eastern corner of Matto Grosso. The greatest elevation
is on its eastern or Atlantic margin where the average is about 3280
ft. above sea-level. The plateau breaks down abruptly toward the sea,
and slopes gradually some hundreds of feet toward the south and west.
There has been considerable denudation toward the west, the eastern
tributaries of the Parana rising very near the coast. The northern and
western parts of this plateau have an average elevation a little less
than that of the Atlantic margin, and their slopes are toward the
south and east, those of Goyaz and Matto Grosso being abrupt and
deeply eroded. This great _chapadao_ is in many respects the best part
of Brazil, having a temperate climate, extensive areas of fertile
soil, rich forests and a regular rainfall. Its Atlantic slopes are
heavily wooded, but the western slopes exhibit grass-covered _campos_
between the river courses. The Sao Francisco _chapadao_, which has a
general elevation of about 2600 ft., covers the greater part of the
states of Minas Geraes and Bahia, and a small part of western
Pernambuco, and might also be considered continuous with those of the
Parnahyba and Tocantins-Araguaya basins. This region is more tropical
in character, partially barren, and has an uncertain rainfall, a large
part of the Sao Francisco basin and the upper Atlantic slope of its
eastern rim being subject to long-continued droughts. This region is
well wooded along the river courses of Minas Geraes, the lower
Atlantic slopes of Bahia, which are perhaps outside the plateau
proper, and on the weather side of some of the elevated ridges where
the rainfall is heavy and regular. It has extensive _campos_ and large
areas of exposed rock and stony steppes, but is richly provided with
mineral deposits. It breaks down less abruptly toward the Atlantic,
the slopes in Bahia being long and gradual. The Parnahyba _chapadao_
covers the state of Piauhy, the southern part of Maranhao, and the
western part of Ceara. Its general elevation is less than that of the
Sao Francisco region, owing to the slope of the plateau surface toward
the Amazon depression and to denudation. It resembles the Sao
Francisco region in its uncertain rainfall and exposure to droughts,
and in having large areas of _campos_ suitable for grazing purposes.
It is thinly wooded, except in the north, where the climatic
conditions approach those of the Amazon valley. Its climate is more
tropical and its development has gone forward less rapidly than in the
more temperate regions of the south. The Amazonian _chapadao_, which
includes the remainder of the great Brazilian plateau west of the Sao
Francisco and Parnahyba regions and which appears to be the
continuation of these tablelands westward, is much the largest of
these plateau divisions. It covers the greater part of the states of
Matto Grosso and Goyaz, a large part of southern Para, the southern
margin of Amazonas, and a considerable part of western Maranhao. It
includes the river basins of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapajos,
and the eastern tributaries of the Guapore-Madeira. A considerable
part of it has been excavated by these rivers to a level which gives
their valleys the elevation and character of lowlands, though isolated
hills and ranges with the characteristic overlying horizontal
sandstone strata of the ancient plateau show that it was once a
highland region. The southern margin of this plateau breaks down
abruptly toward the south and overlooks the Parana and Paraguay basins
from elevations of 2600 to 3000 ft. There is great diversity in the
character and appearance of this extensive region. It lies wholly
within the tropics, though its more elevated districts enjoy a
temperate climate. Its _chapadas_ are covered with extensive _campos_,
its shallow valleys with open woodlands, and its deeper valleys with
heavy forests. The rainfall is good, but not heavy. The general slope
is toward the Amazon, and its rivers debouch upon the Amazonian plain
through a succession of falls and rapids.

There remains only the elevated valley of the Parahyba do Sul, lying
between the so-called Serra das Vertentes of southern Minas Geraes and
the Serra do Mar, and extending from the Serra da Bocaina, near the
city of Sao Paulo, eastward to Cape Frio and the coastal plain north
of that point. It includes a small part of eastern Sao Paulo, the
greater part of the state of Rio de Janeiro, a small corner of
Espirito Santo, and a narrow strip along the southern border of Minas
Geraes. It is traversed by two mountain chains, the Serra da
Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar, and the broad, fertile valley of the
Parahyba do Sul which lies between them, and which slopes gently
toward the east from a general elevation exceeding 2000 ft. in Sao
Paulo. This region is the smallest of the _chapadao_ divisions of the
great plateau, and might be considered either a southward extension of
the Sao Francisco or an eastward extension of the Parana _chapadao_.
It is one of the most favoured regions of Brazil, having an abundant
rainfall, extensive forests of valuable timber, and large areas of
fertile soil. The mountain slopes are still masses of dense forest,
though their lower elevations and neighbouring valleys have been
cleared for cultivation and by dealers in rosewood and other valuable
woods. This elevated valley is noted for its fertility and was once
the principal coffee-producing district of Brazil.

Scale, 1:17,000,000]

Rivers.

Outside the two great river systems of the Amazon and river Plate (Rio
de la Plata), which are treated under their respective titles, the
rivers of Brazil are limited to the numerous small streams and three
or four large rivers which flow eastward from the plateau regions
directly into the Atlantic. The Amazon system covers the entire
north-western part of the republic, the state of Amazonas, nearly the
whole of Para and the greater part of Matto Grosso being drained by
this great river and its tributaries. If the Tocantins-Araguaya basin
is included in the hydrographic system, the greater part of Goyaz and
a small part of Maranhao should be added to this drainage area. The
Tocantins is sometimes treated as a tributary of the Amazon because
its outlet, called the Rio Para, is connected with that great river by
a number of inland channels. It is an entirely separate river,
however, and the inland communication between them is due to the
slight elevation of the intervening country above their ordinary
levels and to the enormous volume of water brought down by the Amazon,
especially in the flood season. As the outlet of the Tocantins is so
near to that of the Amazon, and their lower valleys are conterminous,
it is convenient to treat them as parts of the same hydrographic
basin.

In the extreme north-east corner of the republic where the Brazilian
Guiana plateau slopes toward the Atlantic there is a small area lying
outside the drainage basin of the Amazon. Its rivers flow easterly
into the Atlantic and drain a triangular-shaped area of the plateau
lying between the northern frontier and the southern and western
watersheds of the Araguary, whose extreme limits are about 0 deg. 30'
N. lat. and 53 deg. 50' W. long. The more important of these rivers
are the Araguary, Amapa, Calcoene, Cassipore and Oyapok. The Araguary
rises in the Tumuc-Humac mountains, in about 2 deg. 30' N. lat., 52
deg. 10' W. long., and follows a tortuous course south and north-east
to the Atlantic. Its largest tributary, the Amapary, rises still
farther west. Little is known of the country through which it flows,
and its channel is broken by rapids and waterfalls where it descends
to the coastal plain. The Amapa is a short river rising on the eastern
slopes of the same range and flowing across a low, wooded plain,
filled with lagoons. The Calcoene and Cassipore enter the Atlantic
farther north and have a north-east course across the same plain. All
these small rivers are described as auriferous and have attracted
attention for this reason. The Oyapok, or Vicente Pinzon, is the
best-known of the group and forms the boundary line between Brazil and
French Guiana under the arbitration award of 1900. It rises in about 2
deg. 05' N., 53 deg. 48' W., and flows easterly and north-easterly to
the Atlantic. Its course is less tortuous than that of the Araguary.

The rivers of the great Brazilian plateau which flow directly to the
Atlantic coast may be divided into two classes: those of its northward
slope which flow in a northerly and north-easterly direction to the
north-east coast of the republic, and those which drain its eastern
slope and flow to the sea in an easterly direction. The former reach
the coastal plain over long and gradual descents, and are navigable
for considerable distances. The latter descend from the plateau much
nearer the coast, and are in most cases navigable for short distances
only. In both classes navigation is greatly impeded by sandbars at the
mouths of these rivers, while in the districts of periodical rainfall
it is greatly restricted in the dry season. The more important rivers
of the first division, which are described in more detail under the
titles of the Brazilian states through which they flow, are the
following: the Gurupy, Tury-assu, Mearim, Itapicuru and Balsas, in the
state of Maranhao; the Parnahyba and its tributaries in Piauhy;
Jaguaribe in Ceara; and the Apody and Piranhas in Rio Grande do Norte.
Of these the Parnahyba is the most important, having a total length of
about 900 m., broken at intervals by rapids and navigable in sections.
It receives only one important tributary from Maranhao--the Rio das
Balsas, 447 m. long--and five from Piauhy, the Urussuhy-assu,
Gurgueia, Caninde, Poty and Longa. Piauhy is wholly within its
drainage basin, although the river forms the boundary line between
that state and Maranhao throughout its entire length. All the rivers
in this division are influenced by the periodical character of the
rainfall, their navigable channels being greatly shortened in the dry
season (August-January). In Ceara the smaller rivers become dry
channels in the dry season, and in protracted droughts the larger ones
disappear also.

The rivers of the second division are included in a very great
extension of coast and are influenced by wide differences in climate.
Their character is also determined by the distance of the Serra do Mar
from the coast, the more southern rivers having short precipitous
courses. The more northern rivers are subject to periodical variations
in volume caused by wet and dry seasons, but the greater distance of
the coast range and the more gradual breaking down of the plateau
toward the sea, give them longer courses and a greater extent of
navigable water. North of the Sao Francisco the watershed projecting
from the plateau eastward toward Cape St Roque, known as the Serra da
Borborema in Parahyba and Rio Grande do Norte where its direction
becomes north-east, leaves a triangular section of the easterly slope
in which the river courses are short and much broken by rapids. The
rainfall, also, is limited and uncertain. The largest of this group of
small rivers is the Parahyba do Norte, belonging to the state of
Parahyba, whose length is said to be less than 200 m., only 5 or 6 m.
of which are navigable for small steamers. The Sao Francisco, which
belongs to the inland plateau region, is the largest river of the
eastern coast of Brazil and exists by virtue of climatic conditions
wholly different from those of the coast where it enters the Atlantic.
The tributaries of the lower half of this great river, which belong to
the Atlantic coast region, are small and often dry, but the upper
river where the rainfall is heavier and more regular receives several
large affluents. The river is navigable up to the Paulo Affonso falls,
192 m. from the coast, and above the falls there is a much longer
stretch of navigable water.

From the Sao Francisco to Cape Frio there are many short rivers rising
on the slopes of the plateau and crossing the narrow coastal plain to
the sea. There are also a few of greater length which rise far back on
the plateau itself and flow down to the plain through deeply cut,
precipitous courses. The navigable channels of these rivers are
restricted to the coastal plain, except where a river has excavated
for itself a valley back into the plateau. The more important of these
rivers are the Itapicuru, Paraguassu, Contas or Jussiape, Pardo or
Patype, and Jequitinhonha, of Bahia; the Mucury, and Doce, of Espirito
Santo; and the Parahyba do Sul of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Of the
Bahia group, the Jequitinhonha, sometimes called the Belmonte on its
lower course, is the longest and most important, rising near Serro in
the state of Minas Geraes and flowing in a curving north-east
direction for a distance of about 500 m., 84 of which are navigable
inland from the sea. The Mucury and Doce also rise in Minas Geraes,
and are much broken in their descent to the lower plains, the former
having a navigable channel of 98 m. and the latter of 138 m. The
Parahyba, or Parahyba do Sul, which enters the sea about 30 m. north
of Cape S. Thome, is the largest and most important of the Atlantic
coast rivers south of the Sao Francisco. It rises on an elevated
tableland in the state of Sao Paulo and flows across the state of Rio
de Janeiro from west to east, through a broad fertile valley producing
coffee in its most elevated districts and sugar on its alluvial
bottom-lands nearer the sea. It has a total length of 658 m., 57 of
which are navigable between S. Fidelis and its mouth, and about 90 m.
of its upper course.

South of Cape Frio there are no large rivers along the coast because
of the proximity of the Serra do Mar--the coastal plain being very
narrow and in places disappearing altogether. There are many short
streams along this coast, fed by heavy rainfalls, but they have no
geographic importance and no economic value under existing conditions.
The largest of these and the only one of commercial value is the
Ribeira de Iguape, which has its source on the tablelands of Parana
and after receiving several affluents west of the Serra do Mar breaks
through a depression in that range and discharges into the Atlantic
some miles below Santos on the southern boundary of the state of Sao
Paulo. This river has a navigable channel of 118 m. below Xiririca,
and communicates with an inland canal or waterway extending for many
miles along this coast and known as the Iguape, or Mar Pequeno. In Rio
Grande do Sul the Atlantic coastal plain extends westward more than
half-way across the state, and is well watered by numerous streams
flowing eastward to the Lagoa dos Patos. Of these only two are of
large size--the Guayba and Camaquam. The first is formed by the
confluence of the Jacuhy, Cahy, Sinos and Gravatahy, and is known
under this name only from Porto Alegre to the Ponta de Itapua, where
it enters the Lagoa dos Patos. This river system drains a large part
of the northern mountainous region of the state, and has a
considerable extension of navigable channels between the plateau
margin and the lake. In the extreme southern part of the state, the
Lagoa Mirim empties into the Lagoa dos Patos through a navigable
channel 61-1/2 m. long, called the Rio Sao Goncalo.

The Brazilian rivers of the Rio de la Plata system are numerous and
important. Those of the Paraguay drain the south-western part of Matto
Grosso, and the tributaries of the Parana cover the western slopes of
the Serra do Mar from Rio Grande do Sul north to the south-west part
of Minas Geraes, and include the south-east part of Matto Grosso and
the south part of Goyaz within their drainage basin. This is one of
the most important fluvial systems of Brazil, but its economic value
is impaired by the great waterfalls of Guayra, or Sete Quedas, and
Uribu-punga, and by the rapids and waterfalls in the majority of its
affluents near their junction with the main stream. Between the two
great waterfalls of the Parana there is an open channel of 276 m.,
passing through a rich and healthy country, and receiving large
tributaries from one of the most fertile regions of Brazil. Among the
larger of these are the great falls of the Iguassu, near the junction
of that river with the Parana. Though the Uruguay plays a less
important part, its relations to the country are similar to those of
the Parana, and its tributaries from the plateau region are similarly
broken by falls and rapids. The Paraguay is in great part a lowland
river, with a sluggish current, and is navigable by large river
steamers up to Corumba, and by smaller steamers to Cuyaba and the
mouth of the Jauru.

Lakes.

Compared with the number, length and volume of its rivers, Brazil has
very few lakes, only two of which are noticeable for their size. There
are a number of lakes in the lowland region of the Amazon valley, but
these are mainly overflow reservoirs whose areas expand and contract
with the rise and fall of the great river. The coastal plain is also
intersected by lagoons, lakes and inland channels formed by uplifted
beaches. These inland channels often afford many miles of sheltered
navigation. The lakes formed in this manner are generally shallow, and
are sometimes associated with extensive swamps, as in southern Bahia.
The lakes of the Alagoas coast, however, are long, narrow and deep,
occupying valleys which were deeply excavated when the land stood at a
higher level, and which were transformed into lakes by the elevation
of the coast. The largest of these are the Lagoa do Norte, on whose
margin stands the city of Maceio, and the Lagoa do Sul, a few miles
south of that city. Both have outlets to the sea, and the former is
salt There is a large number of these lakes along the coasts of
Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, some of them of considerable size.
The two largest lakes of this class are on the coast of Rio Grande do
Sul and are known as the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim. Both of
these lakes lie nearly parallel with the coast line, are separated
from the ocean by broad sand beaches filled with small lakes, and
communicate with the ocean through the same channel. The Lagoa dos
Patos is about 124 m. long with a maximum width of 37 m., and Lagoa
Mirim is 108 m. long with a maximum width of 15 m. Both are navigable,
though comparatively shallow and filled with sandbanks. So far as
known, there are no lakes of noteworthy size in the interior of the
country. There are a few small lakes in Maranhao and Piauhy, some in
Goyaz in the great valley of the Araguaya, and a considerable number
in Matto Grosso, especially in the Paraguay basin, where the sluggish
current of that river is unable to carry away the rainfall in the
rainy season.

Coast.

The coast of Brazil is indented with a number of almost landlocked
bays, forming spacious and accessible harbours. The larger and more
important of these are Todos os Santos, on which is located the city
of Sao Salvador or Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro or Guanabara, beside
which stands the capital of the republic. These two are freely
accessible to the largest ships afloat. The bays of Espirito Santo,
Paranagua and Sao Francisco have similar characteristics, but they are
smaller and more difficult of access. The first is the harbour for the
city of Victoria, and the other two for ports of the same name in
southern Brazil. The port of Pernambuco, or Recife, is formed by a
stone reef lying across the entrance to a shallow bay at the mouth of
two small rivers, Beberibe and Capibaribe, and is accessible to
steamers of medium draught. Santa Catharina and Maranhao have
well-sheltered harbours formed by an island lying in the mouth of a
large bay, but the latter is shallow and difficult of access. Para,
Parnahyba, Parahyba, Santos and Rio Grande do Sul are river ports
situated near the sea on rivers having the same name; but, with the
exception of Para and Santos, they are difficult of access and are of
secondary importance. There are still other bays along the coast which
are well adapted for commercial purposes but are used only in the
coasting trade. Many of the Atlantic coast rivers would afford
excellent port facilities if obstructions were removed from their
mouths.

_Geology._--Brazil is a region which has been free from violent
disturbances since an early geological period. It has, indeed, been
subject to oscillations, but the movements have been regional in
character and have not been accompanied by the formation of any
mountain chain or any belt of intense folding. From the Devonian
onwards the beds lie flat or dip at low angles. They are faulted but
not sharply folded. The mountain ranges of the east of Brazil, from
Cape St Roque to the mouth of the river Plate, are composed chiefly of
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. Some of the metamorphic rocks may
belong to the older Palaeozoic period, but the greater part of the
series is probably Archaean. Similar rocks cover a large area in the
province of Goyaz and in the south of the Matto Grosso, and they form,
also, the hills which border the basin of the Amazon on the confines
of Venezuela and Guiana. They constitute, in fact, an incomplete rim
around the basin of sedimentary beds which occupies the Amazonian
depression. In a large part of this basin the covering of sedimentary
deposits is comparatively thin. The crystalline floor is exposed in
the valleys of the Madeira, Xingu, &c. Some of the rocks thus exposed
are, however, eruptive (e.g. in the Tapajoz), and probably do not
belong to the Archaean. The crystalline rocks are succeeded by beds
which have been referred to the Cambrian and Silurian systems. In the
valley of the Trombetas, one of the northern tributaries of the
Amazon, fossils have been found which indicate either the top of the
Ordovician or the bottom of the Silurian. In the Maecuru, another
northern affluent, graptolites of Ordovician age have been discovered,
and Silurian fossils are said to have been found in the Maraca.
Elsewhere the identification of the Silurian and older systems does
not rest on palaeontological evidence. Devonian beds cover a much more
extensive area. They crop out in a band some 25 to 50 m. north of the
lower Amazon and in another band at a still greater distance south of
that river. These bands are often concealed by more recent deposits,
but it is clear that in this region the Devonian beds form a basin or
synclinal with the Amazon for its axis. Devonian beds also lie upon
the older rocks in the Matto Grosso and other provinces in the
interior of Brazil, where they generally form plateaux of nearly
horizontal strata. Fossils have been found in many localities. They
belong to either the lower or the middle division of the Devonian
system. The fauna shows striking analogies with that of the Bokkeveld
beds of South Africa on the one hand and of the Hamilton group of
North America on the other. The Carboniferous system in Brazil
presents itself under two facies, the one marine and the other
terrestrial. In the basin of the Lower Amazon the Carboniferous beds
lie within the Devonian synclinal and crop out on both sides of the
river next to the Devonian bands. There is a lower series consisting
of sandstone and an upper series of limestone. The former appears to
be almost unfossiliferous, the latter has yielded a rich marine fauna,
which belongs to the top of the Carboniferous or to the
Permo-carboniferous. In southern Brazil, on the other hand, in Rio
Grande do Sul, Parana, &c., the beds of this period are of terrestrial
origin, containing coal seams and remains of plants. Some of the
plants are European forms, others belong to the Glossopteris flora
characteristic of India and South Africa. The beds are homotaxial with
the Karharbari series of India, and represent either the top of the
Carboniferous or the base of the Permian of Europe. The only Mesozoic
system which is represented in Brazil by marine beds is the
Cretaceous, and the marine facies, is restricted to the coasts and the
basin of the Amazon. In the province of Sergipe, on the east coast,
the beds are approximately on the horizon of the Cenomanian; in the
valley of the Amazon they belong to the highest parts of the
Cretaceous system, and the fauna shows Tertiary affinities. In the
interior of Brazil, the Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid by a
series of red sandstones, &c., which appear to be of continental
origin and of which the age is uncertain. Tertiary beds cover a
considerable area, especially in the Amazonian depression. They
consist chiefly of sands and clays of aeolian and freshwater origin.
Of the Pleistocene and recent deposits the most interesting are the
remains of extinct animals (_Glyptodon_, _Mylodon_, _Megatherium_,
&c.) in the caves of the Sao Francisco.

From the above account it will appear that, excepting near the coast
and in the basin of the Amazon, there is no evidence that any part of
Brazil has been under the sea since the close of the Devonian period.
During the Triassic and Jurassic periods even the basin of the Amazon
appears to have been dry land. Eruptive rocks occur in the Devonian
and Carboniferous beds, but there is no evidence of volcanic activity
since the Palaeozoic epoch. The remarkable "stone reefs" of the
north-east coast are ancient beaches hardened by the infiltration of
carbonate of lime. They are quite distinct in their formation from the
coral reefs of the same coast.

_Climate._--Brazil lies almost wholly within the torrid zone, less
than one-twelfth of its area lying south of the tropic of Capricorn.
In general terms, it is a tropical country, with sub-tropical and
temperate areas covering its three southern states and a great part of
the elevated central plateau. The forest-covered, lowland valley of
the Amazon is a region of high temperatures which vary little
throughout the year, and of heavy rainfall. There is no appreciable
change of seasons, except that produced by increased rainfall in the
rainy season. The average temperature according to Castelnau is about
78 deg.F., or 82.40 deg. to 84.20 deg. F. according to Agassiz. There
is an increase in the rainfall from August to October, and again from
November to March, the latter being the regular rainy season, but the
time varies considerably between the valley of the upper Amazon and
those of the upper Madeira and Negro. There is usually a short dry
season on the upper Amazon in January and February, which causes two
annual floods--that of November-December, and the great flood of
March-June. The subsidence of the latter usually lasts until October.
The average rainfall throughout the whole Amazon valley is estimated
by Reclus as "probably in excess of 2 metres" (78.7 in.), and the
maximum rise of the great flood is about 45 ft. The prevailing winds
in the Amazon valley are easterly and westerly (or south-westerly),
the former warm and charged with moisture, the latter dry and cold.
The easterly winds, which are deflections of the trade winds, blow
upstream with great regularity and force, more especially in the
winter or dry season, and are felt as far inland as the mouths of the
Madeira and Negro. Above these they are less regular and are attracted
northward by the heated _llanos_ of Venezuela in winter, or southward
by the heated _campos_ of Matto Grosso in summer. The cold
south-westerly winds are felt when the sun is north of the equator,
and are most severe, for a few days, in the month of May, when a
_tempo da friagem_ (cold period) causes much discomfort throughout the
upper Amazon region. There are winter winds from the Andes, but in the
summer season there are cold currents of air from up-river (_ventos da
cima_) which are usually followed by downpours of rain.

The coastal plain as far south as Santos is a region of high
temperatures and great humidity. The year is usually divided into a
winter (_inverno_) and summer (_verao_), corresponding approximately
to a dry and wet season. The "dry" season, however, is a season of
moderate rainfall, except on the north-east coast where arid
conditions prevail. Another exception is that of the Pernambuco coast,
where the rainy season comes between March and August, with the
heaviest rainfall from May to July, which is the time of the southern
winter. Going southward there is also a gradual decrease in the mean
annual temperature, the difference between Rio de Janeiro and the
Amazon being about 5 deg. The north-east coast, which is sandy and
barren, shows an average mean annual temperature (at Fortaleza) of
nearly 80 deg. F., which is slightly higher than those of Maranhao and
Para. At Pernambuco the mean summer temperature is 79.5 deg. and that
of winter 76.8 deg., which are about 3 deg. lower than the mean
temperature of Bahia in summer, and 5 deg. higher than the Bahia mean
in winter. South of Bahia there is a gradual increase in the rainfall,
that of Rio de Janeiro exceeding 43 in. per annum. At Santos the
rainfall is exceptionally heavy and the mean temperature high, but
below that point the climatic conditions are considerably modified,
the range in temperature being greater, the mean annual temperature
lower, and the rainfall more evenly distributed throughout the year.
The winds are more variable, and the seasons are more sharply defined.
In Rio Grande do Sul the range in temperature is from 26 deg. to 80
deg., the climate being similar to that of Uruguay. At Pelotas, a
sea-level port on Lagoa dos Patos, the mean annual temperature is
about 63 deg. and the annual rainfall about 42 in. Extreme variations
in temperature are often produced by cold south-west storms from the
Argentine pampas, which sweep across southern Brazil as far north as
Cape Frio, the fall in temperature sometimes being 22 deg. to 27 deg.
These storms usually last from two to three days and cause much
discomfort. Winter rains are more frequent in southern Brazil, and
violent storms prevail in August and September. At Blumenau, on the
Santa Catharina coast, the annual rainfall is 53 in.

The climatic conditions of the Brazilian plateau are widely different
from those of the coast in many respects. There is less uniformity in
temperature, and the elevated _chapadas_ are generally hotter during
the day and cooler at night than are localities of the same latitude
on the coast. The Brazilian Guiana plateau, lying immediately north of
the equator, is in great part a hot, stony desert. Geographically it
belongs to the Amazon basin, as its western and southern slopes are
drained by tributaries of that great river. Climatically, however, it
is a region apart. It lies in the north-east trade winds belt, but the
mountain chain on its northern frontier robs these winds of their
moisture and leaves the greater part of the Brazilian plateau
rainless. Its eastern and western extremities, however, receive more
rain, the former being well forested, while the latter is covered with
grassy _campos_. South of the Amazon valley and filling a great part
of the eastern projection of the continent, is another arid,
semi-barren plateau, lying within the south-east trade winds belt, and
extending from Piauhy southward to southern Bahia. It covers the state
of Piauhy and the western or inland parts of the states of Ceara, Rio
Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco and Bahia. The year is divided
into a dry and wet season, the first from June to December, when rain
rarely falls, the streams dry up and the _campos_ are burned bare, and
the second from January to May when the rains are sometimes heavy and
the _campos_ are covered with luxuriant verdure. The rains are neither
regular nor certain, however, and sometimes fail for a succession of
years, causing destructive _seccas_ (droughts). The interior districts
of Ceara, Pernambuco and Bahia have suffered severely from these
_seccas_. The sun temperature is high on these barren tablelands, but
the nights are cool and refreshing. The prevailing winds are the
south-east trades, which have lost some of their moisture in rising
from the coastal plain. In summer, becoming warmed by the heated
surface of the plateau, they sweep across it without a cloud or drop
of rain. In winter the plateau is less heated, and cold currents of
air from the west and south-west cause precipitation over a part if
not all of this region. South and south-west of this arid plateau lie
the inhabited tablelands of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Minas
Geraes, where the climate is greatly modified by a luxuriant
vegetation and southerly winds, as well as by the elevation. Minas
Geraes is forested along its water courses and along its southern
border only; its sun temperature, therefore, is high and the rainfall
in its northern districts is comparatively light. Sao Paulo is partly
covered by open _campos_, and these also serve to augment the maximum
temperature. In both of these states, however, the nights are cool,
and the mean annual temperature ranges from 68 deg. to 77 deg., the
northern districts of Minas Geraes being much warmer than the
southern. In Sao Paulo and southern Minas Geraes there are sometimes
frosts. In the Parahyba valley, which extends across the state of Rio
de Janeiro, the mean temperature is somewhat higher than it is in Sao
Paulo and Minas Geraes, and the nights are warmer, but the higher
valleys of the Serra do Mar enjoy a delightfully temperate climate.
The rainfall throughout this region is abundant, except in northern
Minas Geraes, where the climatic conditions are influenced to some
extent by the arid eastern plateau. South of Sao Paulo the tablelands
of Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul enjoy a temperate
climate, with an abundant rainfall. There are occasional frosts, but
snow is never seen. Of Goyaz and Matto Grosso very little can be said.
The lower river valleys of the Tocantins-Araguaya, Xingu, Tapajos and
Paraguay are essentially tropical, their climate being hot and humid
like that of the Amazon. The higher valleys of the Parana and its
tributaries, and of the rivers which flow northward, are sub-tropical
in character, having high sun temperatures and cool nights. Above
these, the _chapadas_ lie open to the sun and wind and have a cool,
bracing atmosphere even where high sun temperatures prevail. The mean
annual temperature at Goyaz (city), according to a limited number of
observations, is about 77 deg. There is no absolutely dry season in
this part of the great Brazilian plateau, though the year is
customarily divided into a dry and wet season, the latter running
from September to April in Goyaz, and from November to April in Matto
Grosso. The prevailing winds are from the north-west in this region,
and westerly winds in the rainy season are usually accompanied by
rain.