Chapter XIII: Part 13

_Fauna._--The indigenous fauna of Brazil is noteworthy not only for
the variety and number of its genera and species, but also for its
deficiency in the larger mammals. Of this, one of the best authorities
on the subject (H.W. Bates in _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_)
says: "Brazil, moreover, is throughout poor in terrestrial mammals,
and the species are of small size." It is noteworthy, also, for the
large number of species having arboreal habits, the density and extent
of the Amazon forests favouring their development rather than the
development of those of terrestrial habits. Of Quadrumana there are
about fifty species in Brazil, all arboreal, thirty-eight of which
inhabit the Amazon region. They belong mostly to the _Cebidae_ family,
and are provided with prehensile tails. The Carnivora are represented
by six species of the _Felidae_, the best known of which is the onca,
or jaguar (_F. onca, L_.), and the cougar, or puma (_F. concolor_);
three species of the _Canidae_, the South American wolf (_C.
jubatus_), and two small jackals (_C. brasiliensis_ and _C. vetulus_);
and a few species of the Mustelina including two of the otter, two
_Galictis_ and one _Mephitis_. Of the plantigrades, Brazil has no
bears, but has the related species of raccoon (_Nasua socialis_ and
_N. solitaria_), popularly called _coatis_. The opossum (_Didelphis_)
is represented by three or four species, two of which are so small
that they are generally called wood rats. The rodents are numerous and
include several peculiar species. Only one species of hare is found in
Brazil, the _Lepus brasiliensis_, and but one also of the squirrel
(_Scyurus_). Of the amphibious rodents, the prea (_Cavia aperea_),
moco (_C. rupestris_), paca (_Coelogenys paca_), cutia (_Dasyprocta
aguti_) and capybara (_Hydrochoerus capybara_) are noteworthy for
their size and extensive range. Their flesh is used as an article of
food, that of the paca being highly esteemed. Of the Muridae there are
several genera and a large number of species, some of them evidently
importations from the Old World. Brazil has three groups of animals
similar to the common rat--the _Capromydae_, _Loncheridae_ and
_Psammoryctidae_--the best known of which is the "tuco-tuco"
(_Clenomys brasiliensis_), a small burrowing animal of Rio Grande do
Sul which excavates long subterranean galleries and lives on roots and
bulbs. One of the characteristic orders of the Brazilian fauna is that
of the Edentata, which comprises the sloth, armadillo and ant-eater.
These animals are found only in the tropical regions of South America.
The range of the sloth is from the Guianas south into Minas Geraes,
the armadillo as far south as the Argentine pampas and the ant-eater
from the Amazon south to Paraguay, though it is found in the Amazon
region principally. The sloth (_Bradypus_) is an arboreal animal which
feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of the Cecropias. It includes
two recognized genera and half a dozen species, the best known of
which is _B. didactylus_. The common name in Brazil is _preguica_,
which is equivalent to its English name. Of armadillos, commonly
called _tatu_ in Brazil, the largest species is the _Dasypus gigas_,
but the best known is the _tatu-ete_ (_D. octocinctus_), which is
highly esteemed for its flesh. The ant-eaters (_Myrmecophaga_) are
divided into three or four species, one of which (_M. jubata_) is
exclusively terrestrial, and the others arboreal. The popular name for
the animal is _tamandua_. The _M. jubata_, or _tamandua bandeira_, is
sometimes found as far south as Paraguay. Of the ruminants, Brazil has
only four or five species of _Cervidae_, which are likewise common to
other countries of South America. The largest of these is the marsh
deer (_C. paludosus_), which in size resembles its European congeners.
The others are the _C. campestris_, _C. nemorivagus_, _C. rufus_ and a
small species or variety called _C. nanus_ by the Danish naturalist Dr
P.W. Lund. The pachyderms are represented by three species of the
peccary (_Dicotyles_) and two of the anta, or tapir (_Tapirus_). The
former are found over a wide range of country, extending into Bolivia
and Argentina, and are noted for their impetuous pugnacity. The tapir
also has an extensive range between the coast and the foothills of the
Andes, and from northern Argentina to south-eastern Colombia. It is
the largest of the Brazilian mammals, and inhabits densely forested
tracts near river courses. The two species are _T. americanus_, which
is the larger and best known, and the _anta chure_, found in Minas
Geraes, which is said to be identical with the _T. Roulini_ of
Colombia. Perhaps the most interesting mammal of Brazil is the
_manati_, or sea-cow (_Manatus americanus_), which inhabits the lower
Amazon and sometimes reaches a length of 15 to 20 ft. It is taken with
the harpoon and its oil is one of the commercial products of the
Amazon valley.

The avifauna of Brazil is rich in genera, species and individuals,
especially in species with brilliantly-coloured plumage. It is
estimated that more than half the birds of Brazil are insectivorous,
and that more than one-eighth are climbers. The range in size is a
wide one--from the tiny humming-bird to the ema, rhea, or American
ostrich. Although the order which includes song-birds is numerous in
species and individuals, it is noticeably poor in really good
songsters. On the other hand it is exceptionally rich in species
having strident voices and peculiar unmusical calls, like the _paco_
(_Coracina scuttata_) and the _araponga_ (_Chasmorhynchus
nudicollis_). Two species of vultures, twenty-three of falcons and
eight of owls represent the birds of prey. The best known vulture is
the common _urubu_ (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig), which is the
universal scavenger of the tropics. The climbers comprise a large
number of species, some of which, like those of the parrot
(_Psittacidae_) and woodpecker (_Picus_), are particularly noticeable
in every wooded region of the country. One of the most striking
species of the former is the brilliantly-coloured _arara_
(_Macrocercus_, L.), which is common throughout northern Brazil.
Another interesting species is the toucan (_Ramphastos_), whose
enormous beak, awkward flight and raucous voice make it a conspicuous
object in the great forests of northern Brazil. In strong contrast to
the ungainly toucan is the tiny humming-bird, whose beautiful plumage,
swiftness of flight and power of wing are sources of constant wonder
and admiration. Of this smallest of birds there are fifty-nine
well-known species, divided into two groups, the _Phaethorninae_,
which prefer the forest shade and live on insects, and the
_Trochilinae_, which frequent open sunny places where flowers are to
be found. One of the Brazilian birds whose habits have attracted much
interest is the _Joao de Barro_ (Clay John) or oven bird (_Furnarius
rufus_), which builds a house of reddish clay for its nest and
attaches it to the branch of a tree, usually in a fork. The thrush is
represented by a number of species, one of which, the _sabia_
(_Mimus_), has become the popular song-bird of Brazil through a poem
written by Goncalves Dias. The dove and pigeon have also a number of
native species, one of which, the _pomba jurity_ (_Peristera
frontalis_), is a highly-appreciated table luxury. The gallinaceous
birds are well represented, especially in game birds. The most
numerous of these are the _perdiz_ (partridge), the best known of
which is the _Tinamus maculosa_ which frequents the _campos_ of the
south, the _inhambu_ (_Crypturus_), _capoeira_ (_Odontophorus_), and
several species of the penelope family popularly known as the
_jacutinga, jacu_ and _jacu-assu_. The common domesticated fowl is not
indigenous. Among the wading and running birds, of which the _ema_ is
the largest representative, there are many species of both
descriptions. In the Amazon lowlands are white herons (_Ardea
candidissima_), egrets (_A. egretta_), bitterns (_A. exilis_), blue
herons (_A. herodias_) scarlet ibises (_Ibis rubra_), roseate
spoonbills (_Platalea ajaja_); on higher ground the beautiful peacock
heron (_A. helias_) which is easily domesticated; and on the dry
elevated _campos_ the _ceriema_ (_Dicholophus cristatus_) which is
prized for its flesh, and the _jacamin_ (_Psophia crepitans_) which is
frequently domesticated. Prominent among the storks is the great
black-headed white crane, called the _jaburu_ (_Mycteria americana_),
which is found along the Amazon and down the coast and grows to a
height of 4-1/2 ft. Of the swimmers, the number of species is smaller,
but some of them are widely distributed and numerous in individuals.
There are but few species of ducks, and they are apparently more
numerous in southern Brazil than on the Amazon.

The reptilian fauna exhibits an exceptionally large number of
interesting genera and species. A great part of the river systems of
the country with their flooded areas are highly favourable to the
development of reptilian life. Most prominent among these is the
American alligator, of which there are, according to Netterer, two
genera and eight species in Brazil. They are very numerous in the
Amazon and its tributaries and in the Paraguay, and are found in all
the rivers of the Atlantic coast. Three of the Brazilian species are
voracious and dangerous. The largest of the Amazon species are the
_jacare-assu_ (_Caiman niger_), _jacare_ (_C. fissipes_) and
_jacare-tinga_ (_C. sclerops_). The Amazon is also the home of one of
the largest fresh-water turtles known, the _Emys amazonica_, locally
called the _jurara-assu_ or _tartaruga grande_. These turtles are so
numerous that their flesh and eggs have long been a principal food
supply for the Indian population of that region. Another Amazon
species, the _E. tracaxa_, is still more highly esteemed for its
flesh, but it is smaller and deposits fewer eggs in the sandy river
beaches. Lagartos (_Iguanas_) and lizards are common everywhere. The
ophidians are also numerous, especially in the wooded lowlands
valleys, and the poisonous species, though less numerous than others,
include some of the most dangerous known--the rattlesnake _surucucu_
(_Lachesis rhombeatus_), and _jararaca_ (_Bothrops_). The Amazon
region is frequented by the _giboia_ (boa constrictor), and the
central plateau by the _sucuriu_ (_Eunectes murinus_), both
distinguished for their enormous size. The batrachians include a very
large number of genera and species, especially in the Amazon valley.

The fauna of the rivers and coast of Brazil is richer in species and
individuals than that of the land. All the rivers are richly stocked,
and valuable fishing grounds are to be found along the coast,
especially that of southern Bahia and Espirito Santo where the
_garoupa_ (_Serranus_) is found in large numbers. Some of the small
fish along the coast are highly esteemed for their flavour. Whales
were once numerous between Capes St Roque and Frio, but are now rarely
seen. Of the edible river fish, the best known is the _pirarucu_
(_Sudis gigas_), a large fish of the Amazon which is salted and dried
for market during the low-water season. Fish is a staple food of the
Indian tribes of the Amazon region, and their fishing season is during
the period of low water. The visit of Professor Louis Agassiz to the
Amazon in 1865 resulted in a list of 1143 species, but it is believed
that no less than 1800 to 2000 species are to be found in that great
river and its tributaries.

In strong contrast to the poverty of Brazil in the larger mammals is
the astonishing profusion of insect life in every part of the country.
The Coleoptera and Lepidoptera are especially numerous, both in
species and individuals. A striking illustration of this extraordinary
profusion was given by the English naturalist H.W. Bates, who found
7000 species of insects in the vicinity of only one of his collecting
places on the Amazon (Ega), of which 550 species were of butterflies.
Within an hour's walk of Para are to be found, he says, about 700
species of butterflies, "whilst the total number found in the British
Islands does not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supports only
321." (H.W. Bates, _The Naturalist on the River Amazons_.) One of the
rare species of the Amazon _Morphos_ (_M. hecuba_) measures 8 to 9 in.
across its expanded wings. Dipterous insects are also very numerous in
species, especially in those of sanguinary habits, such as the
mosquito, _pium_, _maroim_, _carapana_, _borochudo_, &c. In some
places these insects constitute a veritable plague, and the infested
regions are practically uninhabitable. The related species of the
_Oestridae_ family, which include the widely disseminated _chigoe_ or
_bicho do pe_ (_Pulex penetrans_), and the equally troublesome _berne_
(_Cutiterebra noxialis_), which is so injurious to animals, are
equally numerous. The most numerous of all, however, and perhaps the
most harmful to civilized man, are the termites and ants, which are
found everywhere in the uninhabited campo and forest regions, as well
as in the cultivated districts. Nature has provided several species of
animals, birds and reptiles, to feed upon these insects, and various
poisonous and suffocating compounds are used to destroy them, but with
no great degree of success. It is not uncommon to find once cultivated
fields abandoned because of their ravages and to see large _campos_
completely covered with enormous ant-hills. The termites, or "white
ants," are exceptionally destructive because of their habit of
tunnelling through the softer woods of habitations and furniture,
while some species of ants, like the _sauba_, are equally destructive
to plantations because of the rapidity with which they strip a tree of
its foliage. Spiders are represented by a very large number of
species, some of which are beautifully coloured. The largest of these
is the _Mygale_ with a body 2 in. in length and outstretched legs
covering 7 in., a monster strong enough to capture and kill small
birds. A large _Mygale_ found on the island of Siriba, of the Abrolhos
group, feeds upon lizards, and has been known to attack and kill young
chickens. One of the most troublesome pests of the interior is a
minute degenerate spider of the genus _Ixodes_, called _carrapato_, or
bush-tick, which breeds on the ground and then creeps up the grass
blades and bushes where it waits for some passing man or beast. Its
habit is to bury its head in its victim's skin and remain there until
gorged with blood, when it drops off. Scorpions are common, but are
considered less poisonous than some European species.

_Flora._--Brazil not only is marvellously rich in botanical species,
but included at the beginning of the 20th century the largest area of
virgin forest on the surface of the earth. The flora falls naturally
into three great divisions: that of the Amazon basin where exceptional
conditions of heat and moisture prevail; that of the coast where heat,
varying rainfall, oceanic influences and changing seasons have greatly
modified the general character of the vegetation; and that of the
elevated interior, or _sertao_, where dryer conditions, rocky
surfaces, higher sun temperatures and large open spaces produce a
vegetation widely different from those of the other two regions.
Besides these, the flora of the Paraguay basin varies widely from that
of the inland plateau, and that of the Brazilian Guiana region is
essentially distinct from the Amazon. The latter region is densely
forested from the Atlantic to the Andes, but with a varying width of
about 200 m. on the coast to about 900 m. between the Bolivian and
Venezuelan _llanos_, and thus far civilization has made only a very
slight impression upon it. Even where settlements have been located,
constant effort is required to keep the vegetation down. Along the
coast, much of the virgin forest has been cut away, not only for the
creation of cultivated plantations, but to meet the commercial demand
for Brazil-wood and furniture woods.

The chief characteristic of the Amazonian forest, aside from its
magnitude, is the great diversity of genera and species. In the
northern temperate zone we find forests of a single species, others of
three or four species; in this great tropical forest the habit of
growth is solitary and an acre of ground will contain hundreds of
species--palms, myrtles, acacias, mimosas, cecropias, euphorbias,
malvaceas, laurels, cedrellas, bignonias, bombaceas, apocyneas,
malpigias, lecythises, swartzias, &c. The vegetation of the lower
river-margins, which are periodically flooded, differs in some
particulars from that of the higher ground, and the same variation is
to be found between the forests of the upper and lower Amazon, and
between the Amazon and its principal tributaries. The density of the
forest is greatly augmented by the _cipos_, or lianas, which overgrow
the largest trees to their tops, and by a profusion of epiphytes which
cover the highest branches. As a rule the trees of the Amazon forest
are not conspicuously high, a few species rarely reaching a height of
200 ft. The average is probably less than one-half that height. This
is especially true of the flood plains where the annual inundations
prevent the formation of humus and retard forest growth. The largest
of the Amazon forest trees are the _massaranduba_ (_Mimusops elata_),
called the cow-tree because of its milky sap, the _samauma_
(_Eriodendron samauma_) or silk-cotton tree, the _pau d' arco_
(_Tecoma speciosa_), _pau d' alho_ (_Catraeva tapia_), _bacori_
(_Symphonea coccinea_), _sapucaia_ (_Lecythis ollaria_), and
_castanheira_ or brazil-nut tree (_Bertholletia excelsa_). The Amazon
region has a comparatively narrow frontage on the Atlantic. In
Maranhao, which belongs to the coast region, open spaces or _campos_
appear, though the state is well wooded and its forests have the
general characteristics of the lower Amazon. South-east of the
Parnahyba the coast region becomes dryer and more sandy and the
forests disappear. The coast and tide-water rivers are fringed with
mangrove, and the sandy plain reaching back to the margin of the
inland plateau is generally bare of vegetation, though the carnahuba
palm (_Copernicia cerifera_) and some species of low-growing trees are
to be found in many places. The higher levels of this plain are
covered with shrubs and small trees, principally mimosas. The slopes
of the plateau, which receive a better rainfall, are more heavily
forested, some districts being covered with deciduous trees, forming
_catingas_ in local parlance. This dry, thinly-wooded region extends
south to the states of Parahyba, where a more regular rainfall favours
forest growth nearer the coast. Between Parahyba and southern Bahia
forests and open plains are intermingled; thence southward the narrow
coastal plain and bordering mountain slopes are heavily forested. The
sea-coast, bays and tide-water rivers are still fringed with mangrove,
and on the sandy shores above Cape Frio grow large numbers of the
exotic cocoa-nut palm. Many species of indigenous palms abound, and in
places the forests are indescribably luxuriant. These are made up, as
Prince Max zu Neuwied found in southern Bahia in 1817, "of the genera
_Cocos_, _Melastoma_, _Bignonia_, _Rhexia_, _Mimosa_, _Inga_,
_Bombax_, _Ilex_, _Laurus_, _Myrthus_, _Eugenia_, _Jacaranda_,
_Jatropha_, _Visinia_, _Lecythis_, _Ficus_, and a thousand other, for
the most part, unknown species of trees." Further inland the higher
country becomes more open and the forests are less luxuriant. Giant
cacti and spiny scrub abound. Then come the _catinga_ tracts, and,
beyond these, the open _campos_ of the elevated plateau, dotted with
clumps of low growing bushes and broken by tracts of _carrasco_, a
thick, matted, bushy growth 10 to 12 ft. in height. Formerly this
coast region furnished large quantities of Brazil-wood (_Caesalpinia
echinata_), and the river valleys have long been the principal source
of Brazil's best cabinet-wood--rosewood (_Dalbergia nigra_), jacaranda
(_Machaeriumfirmum_, Benth.), vinhatico (_Plathymenia foliosa_,
Benth.), peroba (_Aspidosperma peroba_), cedro, &c. The exotic
_mangabeira_ (mango) is found everywhere along the coast, together
with the bamboo, orange, lemon, banana, cashew, &c.

Of the great inland region, which includes the arid campos of the
north, the partially-wooded plateaus of Minas Geraes, Goyaz and Matto
Grosso, the temperate highlands of the south, and the tropical
lowlands of the Paraguay basin, no adequate description can be given
without taking each section in detail, which can be done to better
advantage in describing the individual states. In general, the
_carrasco_ growth extends over the whole central plateau, and heavy
forests are found only in the deep river valleys. Those opening
northward have the characteristic flora of the Amazon basin. The
Paraguay basin is covered with extensive marshy tracts and open
woodlands, the palms being the conspicuous feature. The vegetation is
similar to that of Paraguay and the Chaco, and aquatic plants are
specially numerous and luxuriant. On the temperate uplands of the
southern states there are imposing forests of South American pine
(_Araucaria brasiliensis_), whose bare trunks and umbrella-like tops
give to them the appearance of open woodland. These forests extend
from Parana into Rio Grande do Sul and smaller tracts are also found
in Minas Geraes. Large tracts of _Ilex paraguayensis_, from which
_mate_, or Paraguay-tea, is gathered, are found in this same region.

The economic plants of Brazil, both indigenous and exotic, are
noticeably numerous. Coffee naturally occupies first place, and is
grown wherever frosts are not severe from the Amazon south to Parana.
The states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes are the
largest producers, but it is also grown for export in Espirito Santo,
Bahia and Ceara. The export in 1905 was 10,820,604 bags of 132 lb.
each, with an official valuation of L21,420,330. Sugar cane, another
exotic, has an equally wide distribution, and cotton is grown along
the coast from Maranhao to Sao Paulo. Other economic plants and fruits
having a wide distribution are tobacco, maize, rice, beans, sweet
potatoes, bananas, cacao (_Theobroma cacao_), mandioca or cassava
(_Manihot utilitissima_), _aipim_ or sweet mandioca (_M. aipi_),
guavas (_Psidium guayava_, Raddi), oranges, lemons, limes, grapes,
pineapples, _mamao_ (_Carica papaya_), bread-fruit (_Artocarpus
incisa_), jack fruit (_A. integrifolia_), and many others less known
outside the tropics. Among the palms there are several of great
economic value, not only as food producers but also for various
domestic uses. The fruit of the _pupunha_ or peach palm (_Guilielma
speciosa_) is an important food among the Indians of the Amazon
valley, where the tree was cultivated by them long before the
discovery of America. Humboldt found it among the native tribes of the
Orinoco valley, where it is called _pirijao_. The ita palm,
_Mauritia_, _flexuosa_ (a fan-leaf palm) provides an edible fruit,
medullary meal, drink, fibre, roofing and timber, but is less used on
the Amazon than it is on the lower Orinoco. The _assai_ (_Euterpe
oleracea_) is another highly-prized palm because of a beverage made
from its fruit along the lower Amazon. A closely-related species or
variety (_Euterpe edulis_) is the well-known palmito or cabbage palm
found over the greater part of Brazil, whose terminal phylophore is
cooked and eaten as a vegetable. Another highly useful palm is the
_carnauba_ or _carnahuba_ (_Copernicia cerifera_) which supplies
fruit, medullary meal, food for cattle, boards and timber, fibre, wax
and medicine. The fibre of the _piassava (Leopoldinia piassava_, or
_Attalea funifera_) is widely used for cordage, brushes and brooms.
There are many other palms whose fruit, fibre and wood enter largely
into the domestic economy of the natives, but the list given shows how
important a service these trees rendered to the aboriginal inhabitants
of tropical America, and likewise how useful they still are to the
people of tropical Brazil. Another vegetable product of the Amazon
region is made from the fruit of the _Paullinia sorbilis_, Mart., and
is known by the name of _guarana_. It is largely consumed in Bolivia
and Matto Grosso, where it is used in the preparation of a beverage
which has excellent medicinal properties. The Brazilian flora is also
rich in medicinal and aromatic plants, dye-woods, and a wide range of
gum and resin-producing shrubs and trees. The best known of these are
sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, cinchona, jaborandi and copaiba; vanilla,
tonka beans and cloves; Brazil-wood and anatto (_Bixa orellana_);
india-rubber and balata. India-rubber is derived principally from the
_Hevea guayanensis_, sometimes called the _Siphonia elastica_, which
is found on the Amazon and its tributaries as far inland as the
foothills of the Andes. Other rubber-producing trees are the
_manicoba_ (_Jatropha Glasiovii_) of Ceara, and the _mangabeira_
(_Hancornia speciosa_), of the central upland regions.

_Population._--The first explorers of Brazil reported a numerous Indian population, but, as the sea-coast afforded a larger and more easily acquired food supply than did the interior, the Indian population was probably numerous only in a comparatively small part of this immense territory, along the sea-coast. Modern explorations have shown that the unsettled inland regions of Brazil are populated by Indians only where the conditions are favourable. They are to be found in wooded districts near rivers, and are rarely found on the elevated _campos_. The immediate result of European colonization was the enslavement and extermination of the Indians along the coast and in all those favoured inland localities where the whites came into contact with them. The southern districts and the Amazon and its tributaries were often raided by slave-hunting expeditions, and their Indian populations were either decimated, or driven farther into the inaccessible forests. But there is no record that the inland districts of western and north-western Brazil were treated in this manner, and their present population may be assumed to represent approximately what it was when the Europeans first came. According to the census of 1890 the Indian population was 1,295,796, but so far as the migratory tribes are concerned the figures are only guesswork. A considerable number of these Indians have been gathered together in _aldeas_ under the charge of government tutors, but the larger part still live in their own villages or as nomads.

Down to the beginning of the 19th century the white colonists were almost exclusively Portuguese. The immigration from countries other than Portugal during the first half of that century was small, but before its close it increased rapidly, particularly from Italy. Fully nine-tenths of these immigrants, including those from the mother country, were of the Latin race. The introduction of African slaves followed closely upon the development of agricultural industries, and continued nominally until 1850, actually until 1854, and according to some authors until 1860. About 1826 it was estimated that the negro population numbered 2,500,000 or three times the white population of that period. The unrestricted intermixture of these three races forms the principal basis of the Brazilian population at the beginning of the 20th century. Brazil has never had a "colour line," and there has never been any popular prejudice against race mixtures. According to the census of 1872 the total population was 9,930,478, of which 1,510,806 were slaves; the race enumeration gave 3,787,289 whites, 1,959,452 Africans, 386,955 Indians, and 3,801,782 mixed bloods. The Indian population certainly exceeded the total given, and the white population must have included many of mixed blood, the habit of so describing themselves being common among the better classes of South American mestizos. The census of 1890 increased the total population to 14,333,915, which, according to an unofficial analysis (_Statesman's Year Book_, 1905), was made up of 6,302,198 whites, 4,638,495 mixed bloods, 2,097,426 Africans, and 1,295,796 Indians. This analysis, if correct, indicates that the vegetative increase of the whites has been greater than that of the Africans and mixed races. This is not the conclusion of many observers, but it may be due to the excessive infant mortality among the lower classes, where an observance of the simplest sanitary laws is practically unknown. The census of the 31st of December 1900 was strikingly defective; it was wholly discarded for the city of Rio de Janeiro, and had to be completed by office computations in the returns from several states. The compilation of the returns was not completed and published until May 1908, according to which the total population was 17,318,556, of which 8,825,636 were males and 8,492,920 females. Not including the city of Rio de Janeiro, whose population was estimated at 691,565 in conformity with a special municipal census of 1906, the total population was 16,626,991, of which 15,572,671 were Roman Catholics, 177,727 Protestants, 876,593 of other faiths. The returns also show a total of 3,038,500 domiciles outside the federal capital, which gives an average of 5.472 to the domicile. These returns will serve to correct the exaggerated estimate of 22,315,000 for 1900 which was published in Brazil and accepted by many foreign publications.

The racial character of the people is not uniform throughout the republic, the whites predominating in the southern states, the Indians in Amazonas and, probably, Matto Grosso, and the mixed races in the central and northern coast states. The excess of whites over the coloured races in the southern states is due to their smaller slave population and to the large number of immigrants attracted to them. Slavery was not abolished until the 13th of May 1888, but a number of successful colonies had already been founded in these states. Other colonies were founded in Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro during the same period, but they were unsuccessful, partly because of the competition of slave labour. Since the abolition of slavery immigration has poured a large number of labourers into the coffee-producing states, and with beneficial results. This strengthening of the white population of the South with fresh European blood must eventually divide Brazil into two distinct sections: the white states of the south, and the mixed or coloured states of the north. The introduction of European immigrants dates from 1818 when a Swiss colony was located at Nova Friburgo, near Rio de Janeiro, and it was continued under the direction and with the aid of the imperial government down to the creation of the republic. Since then the state governments have assumed charge of immigration, and some of them are spending large sums in the acquisition of labourers. The old system of locating immigrants in colonies, or colonial nuclei, which involved an enormous outlay of money with but slight benefit to the country, has been superseded by a system of locating the immigrants on the large plantations under formal contracts. In some of the coffee districts these contracts have resulted very profitably to the Italian labourers. The total number of colonists and immigrants entering Brazil between 1804 and 1902, inclusive, according to official returns, was 2,208,353. The arrivals fluctuate greatly in number from year to year, influenced by the prevailing economic conditions in the country. At first the Portuguese outnumbered all other nationalities in the immigration returns, but since the abolition of slavery the Italians have passed all competitors and number more than one-half the total arrivals. Of the 700,211 immigrants located in the state of Sao Paulo from 1827 to the end of 1896, no less than 493,535 were Italians, and their aggregate throughout the republic was estimated in 1906 at more than 1,100,000. The German immigration, of which so much has been written for political ends, has been greatly over-estimated; trustworthy estimates in 1906 made the German contingent in the population vary from 350,000 to 500,000. They are settled chiefly in colonies in the southern states, and form a most desirable body of settlers.

_Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into twenty states and one federal district, which are the same as the provinces and "municipio neutro" of the empire. Their names also remain unchanged, except that of the federalized district in which the national capital is located, which is called the "districto federal." The republic has no territories, although Amazonas, Matto Grosso, Para and Goyaz cover an immense region of uninhabited and only partially explored territory. The states are subdivided into _comarcas_, or judicial districts, and into _municipios_, or townships, which is the smallest autonomous division. The constitution provides for the autonomy of the municipalities in order to safeguard the permanence of representative institutions. The _parochia_, or parish, an ecclesiastical division, is often used for administrative purposes, but it has no political organization. The names, areas, and populations of the states, together with the names and populations of their capitals, are as follows:--

+--------------------+---------+-----------------------+-----------------------+--------+
| |Area,[1] | Population[2] | |Popula- |
| States. | Sq. +-----------+-----------+ State Capitals. |tion,[3]|
| | miles. | Census | Census | | Census |
| | | 1890. | 1900. | | 1890. |
+--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+
| Alagoas | 22,584 | 511,440 | 649,273 | Maceio | 31,498 |
| Amazonas | 742,123 | 147,915 | 249,756 | Manaos | 38,720 |
| Bahia | 164,650 | 1,919,802 | 2,117,956 | Sao Salvador[4] |174,412 |
| Ceara | 40,253 | 805,687 | 849,127 | Fortaleza | 40,902 |
| Espirito Santo | 17,313 | 135,997 | 209,783 | Victoria | 16,887 |
| Federal District | 538 | 522,651 | 691,565 | Rio de Janeiro |522,651 |
| Goyaz | 288,549 | 227,572 | 255,284 | Goyaz[4] | 17,181 |
| Maranhao | 177,569 | 430,854 | 499,308 | S. Luiz do Maranhao[4]| 29,308 |
| Matto Grosso | 532,370 | 92,827 | 118,025 | Cuyaba | 17,815 |
| Minas Geraes | 221,961 | 3,184,099 | 3,594,471 | Ouro Preto[5] | 59,249 |
| Para | 443,922 | 328,455 | 445,356 | Belem[4] | 50,064 |
| Parahyba | 28,855 | 457,232 | 490,784 | Parahyba | 18,645 |
| Parana | 85,455 | 249,491 | 327,136 | Curityba | 24,553 |
| Pernambuco | 49,575 | 1,030,224 | 1,178,150 | Recife[4] |111,556 |
| Piauhy | 116,529 | 267,609 | 334,328 | Therezina | 31,523 |
| Rio de Janeiro | 26,635 | 276,884 | 274,317 | Nictheroy | 34,269 |
| Rio Grande do Norte| 22,196 | 268,273 | 1,149,070 | Natal | 13,725 |
| Rio Grande do Sul | 91,337 | 897,455 | 926,035 | Porto Alegre | 52,421 |
| Santa Catharina | 28,633 | 283,769 | 320,289 | Desterro[6] | 30,637 |
| Sao Paulo | 112,312 | 1,384,753 | 2,282,279 | Sao Paulo | 64,934 |
| Sergipe | 15,093 | 310,926 | 356,264 | Araraju | 16,336 |
| +---------+-----------+-----------+ | |
| Brazil |3,228,452|14,333,915 |17,318,556 | | |
+--------------------+---------+-----------+-----------+-----------------------+--------+

_Communications._--Railway construction in Brazil dates from 1852,
when work was initiated on the Maua railway running from the head of
the bay of Rio de Janeiro to the foot of the Serra where Petropolis is
situated. The road is 10 m. long, and its first section was opened to
traffic on April 30, 1854, and its second December 16, 1856. The
mountain section, 5-1/2 m. long, which uses the Riggenbach system from
the terminal to Petropolis, was constructed between 1881 and 1883. The
development of railway construction in Brazil has been impeded to a
great extent by two unfavourable conditions--by the chain of mountains
or plateau escarpments which follow the coast line and obstruct
communication with the interior, and by the detached positions of the
settlements along the Atlantic, which compel the building of lines
from many widely separated points on the coast into a sparsely
populated hinterland. A majority of the ports, from which these roads
are built, are small and difficult of access, and the coasting trade
is restricted to vessels carrying the Brazilian flag. The only ports
having a rich and well-populated country behind them are Rio de
Janeiro and Santos, and these are the terminals of long lines of
railway which are being slowly extended farther into the interior.

The total mileage under traffic at the beginning of 1905 was 10,600
m., divided into 94 separate lines. There were also 745 m. under
construction, 1740 m. under survey, and about 1600 m. projected. Of
the 94 lines under traffic, 45 were operating by virtue of national
and 49 by provincial and state concessions. They were grouped in the
official reports of 1905 as follows:--

Government lines (21):-- Miles.
Administered by the state (6) 2228
Leased to private parties (15) 2174
----- 4402
Private lines (24)--
With national interest guarantees (12) 1290
Without such guarantees (12) 815
----- 2105
Private and state lines operated by
virtue of state concessions, with and
without interest guarantees (49) 4093
------
10,600
======

The policy of the national government has been gradually to lease all
its lines except the Estrada de Ferro Central do Brazil, which is
retained for sentimental reasons. This great railway runs from the
city of Rio de Janeiro westward to the city of Sao Paulo and northward
into the interior of Minas Geraes, with a total length at the
beginning of 1905 of 1002 m., and an extension of about 104 m. to
Pirapora, on the Sao Francisco river. It was formerly known as the "E.
de F. Dom Pedro II.," in honour of the sovereign who encouraged its
construction. The main line has a gauge of 63 in. (1.60 m.) and
affords an outlet for a number of inland metre-gauge lines. The first
two sections of this great railway, which carry it across the coast
range, were opened to traffic in 1858 and 1864. The series of trunk
lines terminating at the port of Santos are owned by private companies
and are formed by the Sao Paulo, Paulista and Mogyana lines, the first
owned by an English company, and the other two by Brazilian companies.
The Mogyana carries the system entirely across the state of Sao Paulo
into the western districts of Minas Geraes. The principal trunk lines
(the Sao Paulo and Paulista) have a broad gauge, while their
extensions and feeders have a narrow gauge. The comparatively short
lines extending inland from the ports of Sao Salvador (Bahia),
Pernambuco, Maceio, Victoria and Paranagua serve only a narrow zone
along the coast. To encourage the investment of private capital in the
construction of railways, the general railway law of 1853 authorized
the national government to grant guarantees of interest on the capital
invested. Under this law companies were organized in England for
building the Sao Paulo railway, and the lines running from Bahia and
Pernambuco toward the Sao Francisco river. Political considerations
also led to the construction of similar lines in the states of Rio
Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Alagoas, Sergipe, Espirito Santo, Parana,
Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul. The result was that the
national treasury became burdened with a heavy annual interest charge,
payable abroad in gold, which did not tend to diminish, and had a long
period to run before the expiration of the contracts. The government
finally determined to take over these guaranteed lines from the
foreign companies owning them, and a statement issued in October 1902
showed that 1335 m. had been acquired at a cost of L14,605,000 in
bonds, the interest on which is L584,200 a year against an aggregate
of L831,750 in interest guarantees which the government had been
paying. In addition to this economy it was calculated that the lines
could be leased for L132,000 a year. The loan finally issued in London
to cover the purchase of these railways aggregated L16,619,320. All
but three of these lines had been leased in 1905.

The use of tramways for the transportation of passengers in cities
dates from 1868, when the first section of the Botanical Garden line
of Rio de Janeiro was opened to traffic. The line was completed with
its surplus earnings and continued under the control of the American
company which built it until 1882, when it was sold to a Brazilian
company. Subsequently the tramways of the city have been mostly
concentrated in the hands of a single Canadian company. All the large
cities of Brazil are liberally provided with tramways, those of the
city of Sao Paulo, where electric traction is used, being noticeably
good. The substitution of electricity for animal traction was begun in
Sao Salvador in 1906. Mules are universally employed for animal
traction, and narrow gauge lines with single-mule trams are generally
used where the traffic is light.

Brazil is lamentably deficient in steamship communication considering
its importance in a country where the centres of population are
separated by such distances of coasts and river. Previous to the
creation of the republic, the coastwise service was performed by two
national companies (now united), and partially by foreign lines
calling at two or more ports. A considerable number of foreign sailing
vessels also carried on an important coasting trade. The coastwise
service centres at Rio de Janeiro, from which port the Lloyd
Brazileiro sends steamers regularly south to Montevideo, and north to
Para and Manaos, calling at the more important intermediate ports.
From Montevideo river steamers are sent up the Parana and Paraguay
rivers to Corumba and Cuyaba, in the state of Matto Grosso. The
company receives a heavy subsidy from the national government. Parts
of this coastwise traffic are covered by other companies, two of which
receive subsidies. There were also six lines of river steamers
receiving subsidies from the national government in 1904, and the
aggregate paid to these and the coastwise lines was 2,830,061 milreis.
The largest of the river lines is the Amazon Steam Navigation Co. (an
English corporation), whose service covers the main river and several
of its principal tributaries. Two subsidized companies maintain
services on the Sao Francisco river--one below the Paulo Affonso
falls, and the other above, the latter covering 854 m. of navigable
channel between Joazeiro and Pirapora. Besides these there are other
companies engaged in the coasting and river traffic, either with
subsidies from the state governments, as feeders for railway lines, or
as private unsubsidized undertakings.

The telegraph lines, which date from 1852, are owned and operated by
the national government, with the exception of the lines constructed
by private railway companies, and the cable lines of the Amazon and
the coast. The government lines extend from Para to the Argentine and
Uruguayan frontiers, where they connect with the telegraph systems of
those republics, and from Rio de Janeiro westward across country, in
great part unsettled, to the capitals of Goyaz and Matto Grosso. At
Para connexion is made with the cable laid in the bed of the Amazon to
Manaos, which is owned and operated by a subsidized English company.
At Vizeu, Para, connexion is made with a French cable to the West
Indies and the United States, and at Pernambuco with two cable lines
to Europe. A coastwise cable runs from Para to Montevideo with double
cables between Pernambuco and Montevideo. There were in 1903 a total
of 15,150 m. of land lines, with 29,310 m. of wire and 1102 telegraph
offices. The government maintains reciprocal rates with most of the
private railway lines.

The Brazilian postal service is under the general supervision of the
minister of communications and public works, and is administered by a
director-general. Owing to the size of the country and the
sparsely-populated state of a large part of the interior, the
transportation of the mails is attended with much difficulty and
expense. Although the postal rates are high, the service is not
self-sustaining, the receipts for 1904 being 7,018,344 milreis,
against a total expenditure of 10,099,545 milreis. There were 2847
post offices (_agencias_), of which 2166 were of the 4th or lowest
grade. Brazil is a member of the Postal Union, and like Argentina
exacts higher nominal rates of postage upon outgoing mail than those
agreed upon to cover the depreciation in her own currency. The letter
rate was at first 200 reis (nearly 5-1/2 d.), but it has been
increased to 300 reis, which is equivalent to 8 d. at par and 4-1/2 d.
at 15 d. exchange. An inland parcel post was in operation long before
the overthrow of the monarchy, and a similar service with Portugal has
been successfully maintained for a number of years, notwithstanding
the difficulties interposed by customs regulations. National and
international money order systems are also in operation.

The constitution of Brazil provides that the coastwise trade shall be
carried on by national vessels, but this provision did not go into
effect until 1896. And even then, because of the insufficient number
of Brazilian vessels it was provided in the regulations that foreign
vessels could be enrolled in that trade by using the Brazilian flag
and employing a certain proportion of Brazilians on the crew. One of
the purposes of this restrictive provision was that of creating a
national merchant marine, but the disinclination of Brazilians for
maritime pursuits has been a serious obstacle to its realization. In
1901 the merchant navy included 228 steamers of 91,465 tons net, and
343 sailing vessels of 76,992 tons net. These vessels are all engaged
in the coasting and river trade of the country. Efforts have been
made, however, to engage in foreign trade, and subsidies were offered
for a passenger and freight service to the United States. On the 23rd
of February 1906 the government completed a new contract with the
Lloyd Brazileiro Company for its coastwise and river service, and
included clauses providing for a line to the United States. This
foreign service (monthly) began in August 1906.

Although the coast of Brazil shows a large number of bays and
tide-water river channels which are apparently suitable for commercial
ports, a close examination of them reduces the number of good ports to
less than a dozen. The others are either difficult of access, or are
rendered practically useless by dangerous reefs, sand bars and shoals.
Important improvements have been undertaken in some of these ports.
Those at Santos and Manaos, for example, have produced good results.
In many cases, as at Rio de Janeiro, Santos and Manaos, the cost and
maintenance of the new port-works are met by an additional tax on
merchandise, though the immediate expenditures are met by advances
from the national treasury, and at Rio de Janeiro by a foreign loan.

_Commerce._--The imports, exports and domestic trade of Brazil are
by reason of their magnitude and peculiar character the most important
in South America, though the _per capita_ aggregate is less than that
of Argentina. Although an agricultural country, Brazil does not
produce all its own bread and meat, and the imports of wheat, wheat
flour, rice, fish, jerked beef and preserved meats, lard, butter,
beans, potatoes, packed fruits and vegetables, Indian corn and other
food-stuffs, are surprisingly large. Since the creation of the
republic, extreme protective measures have caused the creation of a
large number of cotton factories and other manufactures, but these are
able to supply only a part of the consumption, and the importation of
cotton and woollen fabrics, silks, ready-made clothing, boots and
shoes, &c., is large. Modern industrial development in some of the
states has greatly increased the importation of machinery, electric
supplies, materials for construction, coal, &c. Kerosene oil also
figures among the principal imports, and beef cattle are imported for
consumption by some cities. The exports cover a wide range of
agricultural, pastoral and natural productions, including coffee,
rubber, sugar, cotton, cocoa, Brazil nuts, _mate_ (Paraguay tea),
hides, skins, fruits, gold, diamonds, manganese ore, cabinet woods and
medicinal leaves, roots and resins. Coffee and rubber, however,
represent from 80 to 90% of the official valuation of all exports.
High import duties are imposed by the national government and export
duties by the states. The exchange of domestic products between the
states is greatly restricted through lack of cheap transportation
facilities, and by the suicidal imposition of import and export duties
by the states, either for revenue or for the protection of home
industries.

According to a summary for the six years 1901 to 1906, derived from
official sources and published in the annual _Retrospecto_ of the
_Jornal do Commercio_, of Rio de Janeiro, the values of the imports
and exports for those years (exclusive of coin), reduced to pounds
sterling at the average rate of exchange (or value of one milreis) for
each year, were as follows:--

+------+-----------+------------+-------------+
| | Average | | |
| Year.| Value of | Imports in | Exports in |
| |the Milreis|Pounds Ster.| Pounds Ster.|
| | in Pence. | | |
+------+-----------+------------+-------------+
| | | L | L |
| 1901 | 11.33 | 21,377,270 | 40,621,993 |
| 1902 | 11.93 | 23,279,418 | 36,437,456 |
| 1903 | 11.99 | 24,207,811 | 36,883,175 |
| 1904 | 12.22 | 25,915,423 | 39,430,136 |
| 1905 | 15.94 | 29,830,050 | 44,643,113 |
| 1906 | 16.17 | 33,204,041 | 53,059,480 |
+------+-----------+------------+-------------+

Nearly 76-1/2% of the exports of 1906 were of coffee and rubber, the
official valuations of these being: coffee 245,474,525 milreis gold
(L27,615,884), and rubber (including manicoba and mangabeira),
124,941,433 milreis gold (L14,055,911).

Brazil is essentially an agricultural country. No other country has
been able to equal Brazil in the production of coffee, and under
better labour conditions the country might compete with the foremost
in the production of cane sugar, cotton and tobacco. Besides these it
might easily excel in producing many of the tropical fruits for which
there is a commercial demand. During the colonial period sugar cane
was cultivated from Parahyba S. to the vicinity of Santos, and sugar
was the principal export of the colony. Before the middle of the 19th
century coffee became one of the leading exports, and its cultivation
in the states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes has been
so increased since that time that it represents over four-fifths in
value of the total export of agricultural produce. The principal
sugar-producing states are Alagoas, Sergipe, Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio
de Janeiro, and the production is between 200,000 and 300,000 tons,
the greater part of which is consumed in the country. Cotton has been
widely cultivated since early colonial days, principally in the
northern Atlantic states. Tobacco is also widely cultivated, and the
product of some states, such as Bahia, Minas Geraes and Goyaz, has a
high local reputation for its excellence. Cacau (cocoa) is cultivated
extensively in the Amazon Valley and along the coast as far south as
southern Bahia, and forms one of the leading exports. In 1906 Sao
Paulo offered premiums for its cultivation in the state. Rice has been
cultivated in places, but without much success, although the quality
produced compared favourably with the imported article. Indian corn
grows luxuriantly everywhere, but it does not mature well in the humid
regions of the Amazon region and the coast. The product of the
elevated inland regions is good, but the costs of transportation and
the small profits afforded have prevented its extensive cultivation,
and it is imported from the La Plata republics for consumption along
the coast. Much has been said in regard to the production of wheat,
and efforts have been made in various places to promote its
cultivation. It was once cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul with some
success, and it has been grown in Minas Geraes and Sao Paulo, but in
no case have the returns been sufficient to give it a permanent
standing among the productions of the country. The great majority of
the people are unused to wheaten bread, using the coarse flour of the
mandioca root instead, consequently the demand for wheat and flour is
confined to the large cities, which can obtain them from Argentina
more cheaply than they can be produced in the country. One of the most
common and important productions of Brazil is _mandioca_ (_Manihot_),
of which there are two well-known species, _M. utilissima_ and _M.
aipi_. The first named, which is poisonous in its native state, is the
_cassava_ of Spanish America. From it is made _farinha de mandioca_,
which is the bread of the common people of Brazil, and tapioca. The
poison is extracted by soaking the bruised or grated roots in water,
after which the coarse flour is roasted. Mandioca was cultivated by
the natives before the discovery of America, and the wide area over
which it has been distributed warrants the conclusion that the
discovery of its value as a food and the means of separating its
poisonous properties must have occurred at a very remote period. The
peanut, or ground-nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), is another
widely-cultivated plant, dating from pre-Columbian times. Very little
attention has thus far been given to the cultivation of fruit for
exportation, the exceptions being bananas for the Argentine and
Uruguayan markets, and oranges and pineapples for European markets.
The coast region from Ceara to Rio de Janeiro is adapted to the
cultivation of a great variety of fruits of a superior quality. Ceara,
Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro are celebrated for their oranges, and
Pernambuco for its delicious pineapples. Tangerines, lemons, limes,
grapes, guavas, figs, cashews or cajus (_Anacardium occidentale_),
mangabas (_Hancornia speciosa_), joboticabas (_Eugenia cauliflora_ and
_E. jaboticaba_, Mart.), cocoa-nuts, mangos, _fruitas de conde_
(_Anona squamosa_), plantains, &c. are produced in abundance and with
little labour. In some parts of southern Brazil the fruits and
vegetables of the temperate zone do well, but within the tropics they
thrive well only at a considerable elevation above sea-level. Apples,
peaches, quinces, raspberries, strawberries, &c., are produced under
such conditions, but the flavour of their kind grown in colder
climates is usually wanting. The vegetable productions are less
numerous, but they include sweet potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower,
lettuce, beans, peas, onions, garlic, tomatoes, okra, radishes,
cucumbers, couve, chuchu (_Sechium edule_), and aipim (_Manihot
aipi_). The white potato, known as "batata inglez" (English potato),
is grown in elevated localities, but it deteriorates so greatly after
the first planting that fresh imported seed is necessary every second
or third year.