Chapter III: American (12)

_History_.--The Khmers, the ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, are conjectured to have been the offspring of a fusion between the autochthonous dwellers in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, now represented by the Kouis and other savage tribes, and an invading race from the plateaus of central Asia. As early as the 12th century B.C., Chinese chronicles, which are almost the only source for the history of Cambodia till the 5th century A.D., mention a region called Fou-nan, in later times appearing under the name of Tchin-la; embracing the basin of the Menam, it extended eastwards to the Mekong and may be considered approximately coextensive with the Khmer kingdom. Some centuries before the Christian era, immigrants from the east coast of India began to exert a powerful influence over Cambodia, into which they introduced Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language. This Hinduizing process became more marked about the 5th century A.D., when, under S'rutavarman, the Khmers as a nation rose into prominence. The name _Kambuja_, whence the European form Cambodia, is derived from the Hindu _Kambu_, the name of the mythical founder of the Khmer race; it seems to have been officially adopted by the Khmers as the title of their country about this period. At the end of the 7th century the dynasty of S'rutavarman ceased to rule over the whole of Cambodia, which during the next century was divided into two portions ruled over by two sovereigns. Unity appears to have been re-established about the beginning of the 9th century, when with Jayavarman III. there begins a dynasty which embraces the zenith of Khmer greatness and the era during which the great Brahman monuments were built. The royal city of Angkor-Thorn (see ANGKOR) was completed under Yasovarman about A.D. 900. In the 10th century Buddhism, which had existed for centuries in Cambodia, began to become powerful and to rival Brahmanism, the official religion. The construction of the temple of Angkor Vat dates probably from the first half of the 12th century, and appears to have been carried out under the direction of the Brahman Divakara, who enjoyed great influence under the monarchs of this period. The conquest of the rival kingdom of Champa, which embraced modern Cochin-China and southern Annam, and in the later 15th century was absorbed by Annam, may probably be placed at the end of the 12th century, in the reign of Jayavarman VIII., the last of the great kings. War was also carried on against the western neighbours of Cambodia, and the exhaustion consequent upon all these efforts seems to have been the immediate cause of the decadence which now set in. From the last decade of the 13th century there dates a valuable description of Tchin-la[2] written by a member of a Chinese embassy thereto. The same period probably also witnessed the liberation of the Thais or inhabitants of Siam from the yoke of the Khmers, to whom they had for long been subject, and the expulsion of the now declining race from the basin of the Menam. The royal chronicles of Cambodia, the historical veracity of which has often to be questioned, begin about the middle of the 14th century, at which period the Thais assumed the offensive and were able repeatedly to capture and pillage Angkor-Thorn. These aggressions were continued in the 15th century, in the course of which the capital was finally abandoned by the Khmer kings, the ruin of the country being hastened by internal revolts and by feuds between members of the royal family. At the end of the 16th century, Lovek, which had succeeded Angkor-Thorn as capital, was itself abandoned to the conquerors. During that century, the Portuguese had established some influence in the country, whither they were followed by the Dutch, but after the middle of the 17th century, Europeans counted for little in Cambodia till the arrival of the French. At the beginning of the 17th century the Nguyen, rulers of southern Annam, began to encroach on the territory of Cochin-China, and in the course of that and the 18th century, Cambodia, governed by two kings supported respectively by Siam and Annam, became a field for the conflicts of its two powerful neighbours. At the end of the 18th century the provinces of Battambang and Siem-reap were annexed by Siam. The rivalries of the two powers were concluded after a last and indecisive war by the treaty of 1846, as a result of which Ang-Duong, the protege of Siam, was placed on the throne at the capital of Oudong, and the Annamese evacuated the country. In 1863, in order to counteract Siamese influence there, Doudart de Lagree was sent by Admiral la Grandiere to the court of King Norodom, the successor of Ang-Duong, and as a result of his efforts Cambodia placed itself under the protectorate of France. In 1866 Norodom transferred his capital to Pnom-Penh. In 1867 a treaty between France and Siam was signed, whereby Siam renounced its right to tribute and recognized the French protectorate over Cambodia in return for the provinces of Battambang and Angkor, and the Laos territory as far as the Mekong. In 1884 another treaty was signed by the king, confirming and extending French influence, and reducing the royal authority to a shadow, but in view of the discontent aroused by it, its provisions were not put in force till several years later. In 1904 the territory of Cambodia was increased by the addition to it of the Siamese provinces of Melupre and Bassac, and the maritime district of Krat, the latter of which, together with the province of Dansai, was in 1907 exchanged for the provinces of Battambang, Siem-reap and Sisophon. By the same treaty France renounced its sphere of influence on the right bank of the Mekong. In 1904 King Norodom was succeeded by his brother Sisowath.

See E. Aymonier, _Le Cambodge_ (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1904); L. Moura,
_Le royaume de Cambodge_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883); A. Leclere, _Les
codes cambodgiens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898), and other works on
Cambodian law; Francis Gamier, _Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine_
(Paris, 1873).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH

[2] Translated by Abel Remusat, _Noveaux Melanges Asiatiques_ (1829).

CAMBON, PIERRE JOSEPH (1756-1820), French statesman, was the son of a wealthy cotton merchant at Montpellier. In 1785 his father retired, leaving the direction of the business to Pierre and his two brothers, but in 1788 Pierre turned aside to politics, and was sent by his fellow-citizens as deputy _suppleant_ to Versailles, where he was little more than a spectator. In January 1790 he returned to Montpellier, was elected a member of the municipality, was one of the founders of the Jacobin club in that city, and on the flight of Louis XVI. in 1791, he drew up a petition to invite the Constituent Assembly to proclaim a republic,--the first in date of such petitions. Elected to the Legislative Assembly, Cambon became noted for his independence, his honesty and his ability in finance. He was the most active member of the committee of finance and was often charged to verify the state of the treasury. Nothing could be more false than the common opinion that as a financier his sole expedient was to multiply the emissions of _assignats_. His remarkable speech of the 24th of November 1791 is a convincing proof of his sagacity. In politics, while he held aloof from the clubs, and even from parties, he was an ardent defender of the new institutions. On the 9th of February 1792, he succeeded in having a law passed sequestrating the possessions of the _emigres_, and demanded, though in vain, the deportation of refractory priests to French Guiana. He was the last president of the Legislative Assembly. Re-elected to the Convention, he opposed the pretensions of the Commune and the proposed grant of money to the municipality of Paris by the state. He denounced Marat's placards as inciting to murder, summoned Danton to give an account of his ministry, watched carefully over the furnishing of military supplies, and was a strong opponent of Dumouriez, in spite of the general's great popularity. Cambon then incurred the hatred of Robespierre by proposing the suppression of the pay to the clergy, which would have meant the separation of church and state. His authority grew steadily. On the 15th of December 1792 he got the Convention to adopt a proclamation to all nations in favour of a universal republic. In the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for his death, without appeal or postponement. He attempted to prevent the creation of the Revolutionary Tribunal, but when called to the first Committee of Public Safety he worked on it energetically to organize the armies. On the 3rd of February 1793 he had decreed the emission of 800 millions of _assignats_, for the expenses of the war. His courageous intervention in favour of the Girondists on the and of June 1793 served Robespierre as a pretext to prevent his re-election to the Committee of Public Safety. But Cambon soon came to the conclusion that the security of France depended upon the triumph of the Mountain, and he did not hesitate to accord his active co-operation to the second committee. He took an active share in the various expedients of the government for stopping the depreciation of the _assignats_. He was responsible, especially, for the great operation known as the opening of the _Grand Livre_ (August 24), which was designed to consolidate the public debt by cancelling the stock issued under various conditions prior to the Revolution, and issuing new stock of a uniform character, so that all fund-holders should hold stock of the revolutionary government and thus be interested in its stability. Each fund-holder was to be entered in the Great Book, or register of the public debt, for the amount due to him every year. The result of this measure was a rise in the face value of the _assignats_ from 27% to 48% by the end of the year. In matters of finance Cambon was now supreme; but his independence, his hatred of dictatorship, his protests against the excesses of the Revolutionary Tribunal, won him Robespierre's renewed suspicion, and on the 8th Thermidor Robespierre accused him of being anti-revolutionary and an aristocrat. Cambon's proud and vehement reply was the signal of the resistance to Robespierre's tyranny and the prelude to his fall. Cambon soon had reason to repent of that event, for he became one of those most violently attacked by the Thermidorian reaction. The royalist pamphlets and the journals of J.L. Tallien attacked him with fury as a former _Montagnard_. He was charged with being responsible for the discredit of the _assignats_, and even accused of malversations. On the 21st of February 1795 the project which he presented to withdraw four milliards of _assignats_ from circulation, was rejected, and on the 3rd of April he was excluded from the committee of finance. On the 16th Germinal, Tallien procured a decree of accusation against him, but he was already in safety, taking refuge probably at Lausanne. In any case he does not seem to have remained in Paris, although in the riot of the 1st Prairial some of the insurgents proclaimed him mayor. The amnesty of the 4th Brumaire of the year IV. (the 5th of October 1795), permitted him to return to France, and he withdrew to his estate of Terral near Montpellier, where, during the White Terror, he had a narrow escape from an attempt upon his life. At first Cambon hoped to find in Bonaparte the saviour of the republic, but, deceived by the 18th Brumaire, he lived throughout the whole of the empire in peaceful seclusion. During the Hundred Days he was deputy for Herault in the chamber of representatives, and pronounced himself strongly against the return of the Bourbons, and for religious freedom. Under the Restoration the "amnesty" law of 1816 condemned him as a regicide to exile, and he withdrew to Belgium, to St Jean-Ten-Noode, near Brussels, where he died on the 15th of February 1820. (R. A.*)

See Bornarel, _Cambon_ (Paris).

CAMBON, PIERRE PAUL (1843- ), French diplomatist, was born on the 20th of January 1843. He was called to the Parisian bar, and became private secretary to Jules Ferry in the prefecture of the Seine. After ten years of administrative work in France as secretary of prefecture, and then as prefect successively of the departments of Aube (1872), Doubs (1876), Nord (1877-1882), he exchanged into the diplomatic service, being nominated French minister plenipotentiary at Tunis. In 1886 he became French ambassador to Madrid; was transferred to Constantinople in 1890, and in 1898 to London. He was decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and became a member of the French Academy of Sciences.

His brother, JULES MARTIN CAMBON (1845- ), was called to the bar in 1866, served in the Franco-Prussian War and entered the civil service in 1871. He was prefect of the department of Nord (1882) and of the Rhone (1887-1891), and in 1891 became governor-general of Algeria (see Guyot, _L'oeuvre de M. Jules Cambon_, Paris, 1897), where he had served in a minor position in 1874. He was nominated French ambassador at Washington in 1897, and in that capacity negotiated the preliminaries of peace on behalf of the Spanish government after the war with the United States. He was transferred in 1902 to Madrid, and in 1907 to Berlin.

CAMBORNE, a market town in the Camborne parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, on the Great Western railway, 13 m. E.N.E. of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901), 14,726. It lies on the northward slope of the central elevation of the county, and is in the neighbourhood of some of the most productive tin and copper mines. These and the manufacture of mining machinery employ most of the inhabitants. The parish church of St Martin contains several monuments and an ancient stone altar bearing a Latin inscription. There are science and art and mining schools, and practical mining is taught in South Condurrow mine, the school attracting a large number of students. It was developed from classes initiated in 1859 by the Miners' Association, and a three years' course of instruction is provided.

Camborne (_Cambron, Camron_) formed a portion of the extensive manor of Tehidy, which at the time of the Domesday Survey was held by the earl of Mortain and subsequently by the Dunstanville and Basset families. Its interests were economically insignificant until the beginning of the 18th century when the rich deposits of copper and tin began to be vigorously worked at Dolcoath. It has been estimated that in 1788 this mine alone had produced ore worth L2,000,000 and in 1882 ore worth L5,500,000. As the result of the prosperity of this and other mines in the neighbourhood the population in 1860 was double that of 1830, six times that of 1770 and fifteen times that of 1660. Camborne was the scene of the scientific labours of Richard Trevithick (1771-1833), the engineer, born in the neighbouring parish of Illogan, and of William Bickford, the inventor of the safety-fuse, a native of Camborne. Three fairs on the feasts of St Martin and St Peter and on 25th of February were granted in 1708. The two former are still held, the last has been transferred to the 7th of March. A Tuesday market formed the subject of a judicial inquiry in 1768, but since the middle of the 19th century it has been held on Saturdays.

CAMBRAI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Nord, 37 m. S.S.E. of Lille on the main line of the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,791. Cambrai is situated on the right and eastern bank of the Scheldt (arms of which traverse the west of the town) and at one extremity of the canal of St Quentin. The fortifications with which it was formerly surrounded have been for the most part demolished. The fosses have been filled up and the ramparts in part levelled to make way, as the suburbs extended, for avenues stretching out on all sides. The chief survivals from the demolition are the huge square citadel, which rises to the east of the town, the chateau de Selles, a good specimen of the military architecture of the 13th century, and, among other gates, the Porte Notre-Dame, a stone and brick structure of the early 17th century. Handsome boulevards now skirt the town, the streets of which are clean and well-ordered, and a large public garden extends at the foot of the citadel, with a statue of Enguerrand de Monstrelet the chronicler. The former cathedral of Cambrai was destroyed after the Revolution. The present cathedral of Notre-Dame is a church of the 19th century built on the site of the old abbey church of St Sepulchre. Among other monuments it contains that of Fenelon, archbishop from 1695 to 1715, by David d'Angers. The church of St Gery (18th century) contains, among other works of art, a marble rood-screen of Renaissance workmanship. The Place d'Armes, a large square in the centre of the town, is bordered on the north by a handsome hotel de ville built in 1634 and rebuilt in the 19th century. The Tour St Martin is an old church-tower of the 15th and 18th centuries transformed into a belfry. The triple stone portal, which gave entrance to the former archiepiscopal palace, is a work of the Renaissance period. The present archbishop's palace, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of an old Benedictine convent.

Cambrai is the seat of an archbishop and a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions include communal colleges, ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of drawing and music. The library has over 40,000 volumes and there is a museum of antiquities and objects of art. The chief industry of Cambrai is the weaving of muslin (_batiste_) and other fine fabrics (see CAMBRIC); wool-spinning and weaving, bleaching and dyeing, are carried on, as well as the manufacture of chicory, oil, soap, sausages and metal boxes. There are also large beet-sugar works and breweries and distilleries. Trade is in cattle, grain, coal, hops, seed, &c.

Cambrai is the ancient Nervian town of _Camaracum_, which is mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary. In the 5th century it was the capital of the Frankish king Raguacharius. Fortified by Charlemagne, it was captured and pillaged by the Normans in 870, and unsuccessfully besieged by the Hungarians in 953. During the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries it was the scene of frequent hostilities between the bishop and his supporters on the one hand and the citizens on the other; but the latter ultimately effected their independence. In 1478 Louis XI., who had obtained possession of the town on the death of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, handed it over to the emperor, and in the 16th century Charles V. caused it to be fortified with a strong citadel, for the erection of which the castles of Cavillers, Escaudoeuvres and many others were demolished. From that date to the peace of Nijmwegen, 1678, which assigned it to France, it frequently passed from hand to hand by capture or treaty. In 1793 it was besieged in vain by the Austrians. The League of Cambrai is the name given to the alliance of Pope Julius II., Louis XII., Maximilian I., and Ferdinand the Catholic against the Venetians in 1508; and the peace of Cambrai, or as it is also called, the Ladies' Peace, was concluded in the town in 1529 by Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., and Margaret of Austria, aunt of Charles V., in the name of these monarchs. The bishopric of Cambrai dates from the 5th century, and was raised in 1559 to the rank of an archbishopric, which continued till the Revolution, and has since been restored. The bishops received the title of count from the emperor Henry I. (919-936), and in 1510 were raised to the dignity of dukes, their territory including the town itself and its territory, called Cambresis.

See E. Bouly, _Histoire de Cambrai et du Cambresis_ (Cambria, 1843).

CAMBRIA, the Med. Lat. name for Wales. After the end of the western Roman empire the Cymric Celts held for a while both Wales and the land round the Solway (now Cumberland and adjacent regions), and the former came to be called Cambria, the latter Cumbria, though the two names were sometimes interchanged by early medieval writers.

CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name now universally employed to designate the earliest group of Palaeozoic rocks which possesses a connected suite of fossils. The strata of this system rest upon the Pre-Cambrian, and are succeeded by the Ordovician system. Until the fourth decade of the 19th century all stratified rocks older than the Carboniferous had been grouped by geologists into a huge and indefinite "Transition Series." In 1831 Adam Sedgwick and Sir Roderick I. Murchison began the herculean task of studying and sub-dividing this series of rocks as it occurs in Wales and the bordering counties of England. Sedgwick attacked the problem in the Snowdon district, where the rocks are highly altered and displaced and where fossils are comparatively difficult to obtain; Murchison, on the other hand, began to work at the upper end of the series where the stratigraphy is simple and the fossils are abundant. Murchison naturally made the most of the fossils collected, and was soon able to show that the transition series could be recognized by them, just as younger formations had fossils peculiar to themselves; as he zealously worked on he followed the fossiliferous rocks further afield and continually lower in the series. This fossil-bearing set of strata he first styled the "fossiliferous greywacke series," changing it in 1835 to "Silurian system."

In the same year Sedgwick introduced the name "Cambrian series" for the older and lower members. Murchison published his Silurian system in 1839, wherein he recognized the Cambrian to include the barren slates and grits of Harlech, Llanberis and the Long Mynd. So far, the two workers had been in agreement; but in his presidential address to the Geological Society of London in 1842 Murchison stated his opinion that the Cambrian contained no fossils that differed from those of the Lower Silurian. Whereupon Sedgwick undertook a re-examination of the Welsh rocks with the assistance of J.W. Salter, the palaeontologist; and in 1852 he included the Llandeilo and Bala beds (Silurian) in the Upper Cambrian. Two years later Murchison brought out his _Siluria_, in which he treated the Cambrian system as a mere local facies of the Silurian system, and he included in the latter, under J. Barrande's term "Primordial zone," all the lower rocks, although they had a distinctive fauna.

Meanwhile in Europe and America fossils were being collected from similar rocks which were classed as Silurian, and the use of "Cambrian" was almost discarded, because, following Murchison, it was taken to apply only to a group of rocks without a characteristic fauna and therefore impossible to recognize. Most of the Cambrian rocks were coloured as Silurian on the British official geological maps.

Nevertheless, from 1851 to 1855, Sedgwick, in his writings on the British palaeozoic deposits, insisted on the independence of the Cambrian system, and though Murchison had pushed his Silurian system downward in the series of rocks, Sedgwick adhered to the original grouping of his Cambrian system, and even proposed to limit the Silurian to the Ludlow and Wenlock beds with the May Hill Sandstone at the base. This attitude he maintained until the year of his death (1873), when there appeared his introduction to Salter's _Catalogue of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils._

It is not to be supposed that one of these great geologists was necessarily in the wrong; each had right on his side. It was left for the subsequent labours of Salter and H. Hicks to prove that the rocks below the undoubted lower Silurian of Murchison did indeed possess a characteristic fauna, and their work was confirmed by researches going on in other countries. To-day the recognition of the earliest fossil-bearing recks, below the Llandeilo formation of Murchison, as belonging to the Cambrian system, and the threefold subdivision of the system according to palaeontological evidence, may be regarded as firmly established.

It should be noted that A. de Lapparent classifies the Cambrian as the lowest stage in the Silurian, the middle and upper stages being Ordovician and Gothlandian. E. Renevier proposed to use _Silurique_ to cover the same period with the Cambrian as the lowest series, but these differences of treatment are merely nominal. Jules Marcou and others have used _Taconic_ (Taconian) as the equivalent of Cambrian, and C. Lapworth proposed to apply the same term to the lowest subdivision only; he had also used "Annelidian" in the same sense. These names are of historical interest alone.

_Cambrian Rocks._--The lithological characters of the Cambrian rocks possess a remarkable uniformity in all quarters of the globe. Muds, sands, grits and conglomerates are the predominant types. In Scotland, North America and Canada important deposits of limestone occur and subordinate limestones are found in the Cambrian of central Europe.

In some regions, notably in the Baltic province and in parts of the United States, the rocks still retain their original horizontality of deposition, the muds are scarcely indurated and the sands are still incoherent; but in most parts of the world they bear abundant evidence of the many movements and stresses to which they have been exposed through so enormous a period of time. Thus, we find them more frequently, folded, tilted and cleaved; the muds have become shales, slates, phyllites or schists, the grey and red sands and conglomerates have become quartzites and greywackes, while the limestones are very generally dolomitized. In the Cambrian limestones, as in their more recent analogues, layers and nodules of chert and phosphatized material are not wanting.

Igneous rocks are not extensively developed; in Wales they form an important feature and occur in considerable thickness; they are represented by lavas of olivine-diabase and by contemporaneous tuffs which are traversed by later granite and quartz felsite. In the Cambrian of Brittany there are acid lavas and tuffs. Quartz porphyry, diabase and diorite appear in the Ardennes. In Bohemia, North America and Canada igneous rocks have been observed.

In China, on the Yang-tse river, a thick deposit has been found full of boulders of diverse kinds of rock, striated in the manner that is typical of glacial action. A similar deposit occurs in the Gaisa beds near the Varanger Fjord in Norway. These formations lie at the base of the lowest Cambrian strata and may possibly be included in the pre-Cambrian, though in Norway they are clearly resting upon a striated floor of crystalline rocks.

_Cambrian Life._--In a general survey of the life of this period, as it is revealed by the fossils, three outstanding facts are apparent: (1) the great divergence between the Cambrian fauna and that of the present day; (2) the Cambrian life assemblage differs in no marked manner from that of the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian periods; there is a certain family likeness which unites all of them; (3) the extraordinary complexity and diversity not only in the assemblage as a whole but within certain limited groups of organisms. Although in the Cambrian strata we have the oldest known fossiliferous rocks--if we leave out of account the very few and very obscure organic remains hitherto recorded from the pre-Cambrian--yet we appear to enter suddenly into the presence of a world richly peopled with a suite of organisms already far advanced in differentiation; the Cambrian fauna seems to be as far removed from what must have been the first forms of life, as the living forms of this remote period are distant from the creatures of to-day.

With the exception of the vertebrates, every one of the great classes of animals is represented in Cambrian rocks. Simple protozoa appear in the form of Radiolaria; Lithistid sponges are represented by such forms as _Archaeoscyphia_, Hexactinellid sponges by _Protospongia_; Graptolites (_Dictyograptus (Dictyonema)_) come on in the higher parts of the system. Medusa-like casts have been found in the lower Cambrian of Scandinavia (_Medusina_) and in the mid-Cambrian of Alabama (_Brooksella_). Corals, _Archaeocyathus, Spirocyathus_, &c., lived in the Cambrian seas along with starfishes (_Palaeasterina_), Cystideans, _Protocystites, Trochocystites_ and possibly Crinoids, _Dendrocrinus_. Annelids left their traces in burrows and casts on the sea-floor (_Arenicolites, Cruziana, Scolithus_, &c.). Crustacea occupied an extremely prominent place; there were Phyllocarids such as _Hymenocaris_, and Ostracods like _Entomidella_; but by far the most important in numbers and development were the Trilobites, now extinct, but in palaeozoic times so abundant. In the Cambrian period trilobites had already attained their maximum size; some species of _Paradoxides_ were nearly 2 ft. long, but in company with these monsters were tiny forms like _Agnostus_ and _Microdiscus_. Many of the Cambrian trilobites appear to have been blind, and they had not at this period developed that flexibility in the carapace that some forms acquired later.

Brachiopods were fairly abundant, particularly the non-articulated forms (_Obolus, Lingulella, Acrotreta, Discinopsis_, &c.); amongst the articulate genera are _Kutorgina, Orthis, Khynchonella._ It is a striking fact that certain of these non-articulate "lamp-shells" are familiar inhabitants of our present seas. Each of the principal groups of true mollusca was represented: Pelecypods (_Modioloides_); Gasteropods (_Scenella, Pleurotomaria, Trochonema_); Pteropods (_Hyohthellus, Hyolithes, Salleretta_); Cephalopods (_Orthoceras, Cystoceras_). Of land plants no traces have yet been discovered. Certain markings on slates and sandstones, such as the "fucoids" of Scandinavia and Scotland, the _Phycoides_ of the Fichtelgebirge, _Eophyton_ and other seaweed-like impressions, may indeed be the casts of fucoid plants; but it is by no means sure that many of them are not mere inorganic imitative markings or the tracks or casts of worms. _Oldhamia_, a delicate branching body, abundant in the Cambrian of the south-east of Ireland, is probably a calcareous alga, but its precise nature has not been satisfactorily determined.

_Cambrian Stratigraphy._--Wherever the Cambrian strata have been carefully studied it has now been found possible and convenient to arrange them into three series, each of which is characterized by a distinctive genus of trilobite. Thus we have a Lower Cambrian with _Olenellus_, a middle series with _Paradoxides_ and an Upper Cambrian with _Olenus_. It is true that these fossils are not invariably present in every occurrence of Cambrian strata, but this fact notwithstanding, the threefold division holds with sufficient constancy. An uppermost series lies above the _Olenus_ fauna in some areas; it is represented by the Tremadoc beds in Britain or by the _Dictyonema_ beds or _Euloma-Niobe_ fauna elsewhere. Three regions deserve special attention: (1) Great Britain, the area in which the Cambrian was first differentiated from the old "Transition Series"; (2) North America, on account of the wide-spread occurrence of the rocks and the abundance and perfection of the fossils; and (3) Bohemia, made classic by the great labours of J. Barrande.

_Great Britain and Ireland._--The table on p. 88 contains the names
that have been applied to the subdivisions of the Cambrian strata in
the areas of outcrop in Wales and England; at the same time it
indicates approximately their relative position in the system.

In _Scotland_ the upper and middle series are represented by a thick
mass of limestone and dolomite, the Durness limestone (1500 ft.). In
the lower series are, in descending order, the "Serpulite grits" or
"Salterella beds," the "Fucoid beds" and the "Eriboll quartzite,"
which is divided into an upper "Pipe rock" and lower "Basal
quartzite."

The Cambrian rocks of _Ireland_, a great series of purple and green
shales, slates and grits with beds of quartzite, have not yet yielded
sufficient fossil evidence to permit of a correlation with the Welsh
rocks, and possibly some parts of the series may be transferred in the
future to the overlying Ordovician.

_North America._--On the North American continent, as in Europe, the
Cambrian system is divisible into three series: (1) the lower or
"Georgian," with _Olenellus_ fauna; (2) the middle or "Acadian," with
_Paradoxides or Dikelocephalus_ fauna; (3) the upper or "Potsdam,"
with _Olenus_ fauna (with Saratogan or St Croix as synonyms for
Potsdam). The lower division appears on the Newfoundland and Labrador
coasts, and is traceable thence, in a great belt south-west of those
points, through Maine and the Hudson-Champlain valley into Alabama, a
distance of some 2000 m.; and the rocks are brought up again on the
western uplift, in Nevada, Idaho, Utah, western Montana and British
Columbia. The middle division covers approximately the same region as
the lower one, and in addition it is found in the states of Texas,
Oklahoma, and Arizona, in western Montana, and possibly in western
Wisconsin. The lower division, in addition to covering the areas
already indicated, spreads over the interior of the United States.

_Bohemia_.--The Cambrian rocks of this country are now recognized by
J.F. Pompesk; to comprise the Paradoxidian and Olenelledian groups.
They were made famous through the researches of Barrande. The Cambrian
system is covered by his stages "B" and "C"; the former a barren
series of conglomerates and quartzites, the latter a series of grey
and green fissile shales 1200 ft. thick with sandstones, greywackes
and conglomerates.

+----------------+--------------------+---------------+----------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | | Midland and West of England. |
| | North Wales. | South Wales. +--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
| | | | Shropshire. | Malvern Hills. | Nuneaton. |
+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
| Upper Cambrian,| Tremadoc slates | Tremadoc beds | Shineton shales | Bronsil shales, | Upper Stockingford |
| _Olenus_ fauna | (_Euloma-Niobe_ | | and shales with | gray (_Niobe_ | shale |
| | fauna) | | _Dictyonema_ | fauna) | (Merivaleshales) |
| | Lingula flags | Lingula flags | | Malvern black | |
| | | | | shales | |
| | | | | (White-leaved-oak | |
| | | | | shales) | |
| | (1) Dolgelly beds | | | | |
| | (2) Ffestinieg beds| | | | Middle Stockingford |
| | | | | | shales (Oldbury |
| | | | | | shales) |
| | (3) Maentwrog beds | | | | |
+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
| Middle Cambrian| Menevian beds | Menevian beds | | | |
| _Paradoxides_ | | | | | |
| fauna | | Solva group | Comley or Hollybush| Hollybush sandstone | Lower Stockingford |
| | | | sandstone with | | shales (Purley |
| | | | upper Comley | | shales) |
| | | | limestone | | |
+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
| Lower Cambrian | Harlech grits and | Caerfai group | Lower Comley | Hollybush sandstone | Upper Hartshill |
| _Olenellus_ | Llanberis slates | | limestone | with Malvern | quarzite. |
| fauna | | | | quarzite and | _Hyolithes_ shales |
| | | | | conglomerate at | and limestone |
| | | | | the base | |
| | | | Wrekin quarzite | | Middle and lower |
| | | | | | Hartshill quarzite |
| | | | | | and the quarzite of|
| | | | | | the Lickey Hills |
+----------------+--------------------+---------------+--------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

_Scandinavia_.--Here the Cambrian system is only distinguished clearly
on the eastern side, where the three subdivisions are found in a thin
series of strata (400 ft.), in which black concretion-bearing shales
play an important part. Limestones and shales with the _Euloma-Niobe_
fauna come at the top. The upper series (_Olenus_) has been minutely
zoned by W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg and J.C. Moberg. In the middle
series (_Paradoxides_) three thin limestone bands have been
distinguished, the Fragmenten-Kalk, the Exulans-Kalk and the
Andrarums-Kalk.

On the Norwegian side the Cambrian is perhaps represented by the Roros
schists which lie at the base of a great series of crystalline
schists, the probable equivalent of Ordovician and Silurian rocks.

_Baltic Province._--The Cambrian rocks in this region are nearly all
soft sediments, some 600 ft. thick; they reach from the Gulf of
Finland towards Lake Ladoga. At the base is the so-called "blue clay"
(really greenish) with ferruginous sandstones and with a fucoidal
sandstone at its summit. This division is the equivalent of the Lower
Cambrian. Above the fucoidal sandstone an important break appears in
the system, for the _Paradoxides_ and _Olenus_ divisions are absent.
The upper members are the "Ungulite grit" and about 20 ft. of
Dictyonema shale. Cambrian rocks have been traced into Siberia (lat.
71 deg.) and on the island of Vaigatch.

_Central Europe._--Besides the Bohemian region previously mentioned,
Cambrian rocks are present in Belgium and the north of France, in
Spain and the Thuringer Wald. In the Ardennes the system is
represented by grits and sandstones, shales, slates and quartz
schists, and includes also whet slates and some igneous rocks. A.
Dumont has arranged the whole series (_Terrain ardennais_) into three
systems, an upper "Salmien," a middle "Revinien" and a lower
"Devillien," but J. Gosselet has subsequently proposed to unite the
two lower groups in one.

_France_.---In northern France Cambrian rocks, mostly purple
conglomerates and red shales, rest with apparent unconformability upon
pre-Cambrian strata in Brittany, Normandy and northern Poitou. In the
Rennes basin limestones--often dolomitic--are associated with
quartzites and conglomerates; silicious limestones also occur in the
Sarthe region. Farther south, around the old lands of Languedoc,
equivalents of the two upper divisions of the Cambrian have been
recorded; and the uppermost members of the system appear in Herault.
Patches of Cambrian rocks are found in the Pyrenees.

In _Spain_ slates and quartzites, the slates of Rivadeo, more than
9000 ft. thick, are followed by the middle Cambrian beds of La Vega,
thick quartzites with limestone, slates and iron ores. Cambrian rocks
occur also in the provinces of Seville and Ciudad-Real. Upper Cambrian
strata have been found in upper Alemtejo in Portugal.

In _Russian Poland_ is a series of conglomerates, quartzites and
shales; Some of the beds yield a _Paradoxides_ fauna.

In the _Thuringer Wald_ are certain strata, presumably Cambrian since
the uppermost beds contain the _Euloma-Niobe_ fauna.

_Sardinia_ contains both middle and upper Cambrian. The Cambrian
system is represented in the Salt Range of India by the Neobolus or
Khussack beds, which may possibly belong to the middle subdivision.
The same group is probably represented in Corea and the Liao-tung by
the thick "Sinisian" formation of F. von Richthofen.

In _South America_ upper Cambrian rocks have been recorded from north
Argentina.

The Lower Cambrian has been found at various places in _South
Australia_; and in _Tasmania_ a thick series of strata appears to be
in part at least of Upper Cambrian age.

_General Physical Conditions in the Cambrian Period._--The Cambrian rocks previously described are all such as would result from deposition, in comparatively shallow seas, of the products of degradation of land surfaces by the ordinary agents of denudation. Evidences of shallow water conditions are abundant; very frequently on the bedding surfaces of sandstones and other rocks we find cracks made by the sun's heat and pittings caused by the showers that fell from the Cambrian sky, and these records of the weather of this remote period are preserved as sharply and clearly as those made only to-day on our tidal reaches. Ripple marks and current bedding further point, to the shallowness of the water at the places where the rocks were made.

No Cambrian rocks are such as would be formed in the abysses of the sea--although the absence of well-developed eyes in the trilobites has led some to assume that this condition was an indication that the creatures lived in abyssal depths.

At the close of the pre-Cambrian, many of the deposits of that period must have been elevated into regions of fairly high ground; this we may assume from the nature of the Cambrian deposits which are mainly the product of the denudation of such ground. Over the land areas thus formed, the seas in Cambrian time gradually spread, laying down first the series known as Lower Cambrian, then by further encroachment on the land the wider spread Upper Cambrian deposits--in Europe, the middle series is the most extensive. Consequently, Cambrian strata are usually unconformable on older rocks.

During the general advance of the sea, local warpings of the crust may have given rise to shallow lagoon or inland-lake conditions. The common occurrence of red strata has been cited in support of this view.

Compared with some other periods, the Cambrian was free from extensive volcanic disturbances, but in Wales and in Brittany the earlier portions of this period were marked by voluminous outpourings; a condition that was feebly reflected in central and southern Europe.

No definite conclusions can be drawn from the fossils as to the climatic peculiarities of the earth in Cambrian times. The red rocks may in some cases suggest desert conditions; and there is good reason to suppose that in what are now Norway and China a glacial cold prevailed early in the period.

Considerable variations occur in the thickness of Cambrian deposits, which may generally be explained by the greater rapidity of deposition in some areas than in others. Nothing could be more striking than the difference between the thicknesses in western and eastern Europe; in Brittany the deposits are over 24,000 ft. thick, in Wales at least 12,000 ft., in western England they are only 3000 ft., and in northern Scotland 2000 ft., while no farther east than Scandinavia the complete Cambrian succession is only about 400 ft. thick. Again, in North America, the greatest thicknesses are found along the mountainous regions on the west and on the east--reaching 12,000 ft. in the latter and probably nearly 40,000 ft. in the former (in British Columbia)--while over the interior of the continent it is seldom more than 1000 ft. thick.

Any attempt to picture the geographical conditions of the Cambrian period must of necessity be very imperfect. It was pointed out by Barrande that early in Palaeozoic Europe there appeared two marine provinces--a northern one extending from Russia to the British Isles through Scandinavia and northern Germany, and a southern one comprising France, Bohemia, the Iberian peninsula and Sardinia. It is assumed that some kind of land barrier separated these two provinces. Further, there is a marked likeness between the Cambrian of western Europe and eastern America; many fossils of this period are common to Britain, Sweden and eastern Canada; therefore it is likely that a north Atlantic basin existed. Prof. Kayser suggests that there was also a Pacific basin more extensive than at present; this is borne out by the similarity between the Cambrian faunas of China, Siberia and Argentina. The same author postulates an Arctic continent, bordering upon northern Europe, Greenland and North America; an African-Brazilian continent across the present south Atlantic, and a marine communication between Australia and India, where the faunas have much in common.

REFERENCES.--The literature devoted to the Cambrian period is very
voluminous, important contributions having been made by A. Sedgwick,
Sir R.I. Murchison, H. Hicks, C. Lapworth, T. Groom, J.W. Salter, J.E.
Marr, C.D. Walcott, G.F. Matthew, E. Emmons, E. Billings, J. Barrande,
F. Schmidt, W.C. Brogger, S.A. Tullberg, S.L. Torngrist, G. Linnarsson
and many others. A good general account of the period will be found in
Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_, vol. ii. 4th ed. 1903 (with
references), and from an American point of view, in T.C. Chamberlin
and R.D. Salisbury's _Geology_, vol. ii., 1906 (references to American
sources). See also J.E. Marr, _The Classification of the Cambrian and
Silurian Rocks_, 1883 (with bibliography up to the year of
publication); A. Geikie _Q.J. Geol. Sac._, 1891, xlvii., Ann. address,
p. 90; F. Frech, "Die geographische Verbreitung und Entwickelung des
Cambrium," _Compte Rendu. Congres Geol. Internal. 1897,
St-Petersbourg_ (1899); _Geological Literature added to the Geological
Society's Library_, published annually since 1893. (J. A. H.)

CAMBRIC, a word derived from _Kameryk_ or _Kamerijk_, the Flemish name of Cambrai, a town in the department of Nord, France, where the cloth of this name is said to have been first made. It was originally made of fine linen. There is a record of a privy purse expenditure in 1530 for cambric for Henry VIII.'s shirts. Cambric has been used for many years in the manufacture of handkerchiefs, collars, cuffs, and for fine underclothing; also for the best shrouds, and for fine baby linen. The yarns for this cloth are of very fine quality, and the number of threads and picks often reaches and sometimes exceeds 120 per inch. Embroidery cambric is a fine linen used for embroidery. Batiste, said to be called after Baptiste, a linen-weaver of Cambrai, is a kind of cambric frequently dyed or printed. All these fabrics are largely copied in cheaper materials, mixtures of tow and cotton, and in many cases cotton alone, taking the place of the original flax line yarns.

CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings of England the earldom of Cambridge was united with that of Huntingdon, which was held among others by David I., king of Scotland, as the husband of earl Waltheof's daughter, Matilda. As a separate dignity the earldom dates from about 1340, when William V., count (afterwards duke) of Juliers, was created earl of Cambridge by King Edward III.; and in 1362 (the year after William's death) Edward created his own son, Edmund of Langley, earl of Cambridge, the title being afterwards merged in that of duke of York, which was bestowed upon Edmund in 1385. Edmund's elder son, Edward, earl of Rutland, who succeeded his father as duke of York and earl of Cambridge in 1402, appears to have resigned the latter dignity in or before 1414, as in this year his younger brother, Richard, was made earl of Cambridge. In the following year Richard was executed for plotting against King Henry V., and his title was forfeited, but it was restored to his son, Richard, who in 1415 became duke of York in succession to his uncle Edward. Subsidiary to the dukedom of York the title was held by Richard, and after his death in 1460 by his son Edward, afterwards King Edward IV., becoming extinct on the fall of the Yorkist dynasty.

In 1619 King James I., anxious to bestow an English title upon James Hamilton, 2nd marquess of Hamilton (d. 1625), created him earl of Cambridge, a title which came to his son and successor James, 3rd marquess and first duke of Hamilton (d. 1649). In 1651 when William, 2nd duke of Hamilton, died, his English title became extinct.

Again bestowed upon a member of the royal house, the title of earl of Cambridge was granted in 1659 by Charles II. to his brother Henry, duke of Gloucester, only to become extinct on Henry's death in the following year. In 1661 Charles, the infant son of James, duke of York, afterwards King James II., was designated as marquess and duke of Cambridge, but the child died before the necessary formalities were completed. However, two of James's sons, James (d. 1667) and Edgar (d. 1671), were actually created in succession dukes of Cambridge, but both died in childhood. After the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701 it was proposed to grant an English title to George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, who, after his grandmother, the electress Sophia, and his father, the elector George Louis, was heir to the throne of England; and to give effect to this proposal George Augustus was created marquess and duke of Cambridge in November 1706. The title lapsed when he became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1727, but it was revived in 1801 in favour of Adolphus Frederick, the seventh son of George III. He and his son are dealt with below.

ADOLPHUS FREDERICK, duke of Cambridge (1774-1850), was born in London on the 24th of February 1774. Having studied at the university of Gottingen, Adolphus Frederick served in the Hanoverian and British armies, and, in November 1801, was created earl of Tipperary and duke of Cambridge, becoming a member of the privy council in the following year. The duke is chiefly known for his connexion with Hanover. In 1815, on the conclusion of the war, the electorate of Hanover was raised to the rank of a kingdom, and in the following year the duke was appointed viceroy. He held this position until the separation of Great Britain and Hanover in 1837, and displaying tact and moderation, appears to have ruled the country with great success during a difficult period. Returning to England the duke became very popular, and was active in supporting many learned and benevolent societies. He died in London on the 8th of July 1850. In 1818 he married Augusta (1797-1889), daughter of Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. He left three children: his successor, George; Augusta Caroline (b. 1822), who married Frederick William, grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and Mary Adelaide (1833-1897), who married Francis, duke of Teck.

GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK CHARLES, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), was born at Hanover on the 26th of March 1819. He was thus about two months older than his cousin, Queen Victoria, and was for that period in the line of succession to the British throne. He was educated at Hanover by the Rev. J.R. Wood, a canon of Worcester. In November 1837, after he had served for a short time in the Hanoverian army, the rank of colonel in the British army was conferred upon him, and he was attached to the staff at Gibraltar from October 1838 to April 1839. After serving in Ireland with the 12th Royal Lancers, he was appointed in April 1842 colonel of the 17th Light Dragoons (now Lancers). From 1843 to 1845 he was colonel on the staff in the Ionian Islands, and was then promoted major-general. In October 1846 he took command of the Limerick district, and shortly afterwards of the Dublin district. In 1850 his father died, and he succeeded to the dukedom. Being appointed inspector of cavalry in 1852, he held that post until 1854, when, upon the outbreak of the Crimean War, he was placed in command of the 1st division (Guards and Highland brigades) of the British army in the East. In June of the same year he was promoted lieutenant-general. He was present at the battles of the Alma, Balaklava and Inkerman, and at the siege of Sevastopol. On the 15th of July 1856 he was appointed general commanding-in-chief, on the 9th of November 1862 field marshal, and by letters patent, 1887, commander-in-chief. The long period during which he held the command of the army was marked by many changes. The Crimean War brought to light great administrative defects, and led to a regrouping of the departments, which, with the whole personnel of the army, were brought under the authority of the secretary of state for war. The constitutional changes involved did not, however, affect seriously the organization of the military forces. Only in 1870, after the successes of Prussia had created a profound impression, were drastic changes introduced by Cardwell into the entire fabric of the army. The objects of the reformers of 1870 were undoubtedly wise; but some of the methods adopted were open to question, and were strongly resented by the duke of Cambridge, whose views were shared by the majority of officers. Further changes were inaugurated in 1880, and again the duke found much to criticize. His opinions stand recorded in the voluminous evidence taken by the numerous bodies appointed to inquire into the condition of the army. They show a sound military judgment, and, as against innovations as such, a strong attachment to the old regimental system. That this judgment and this attachment were not so rigid as was generally supposed is proved by his published correspondence. Throughout the period of change, while protesting, the duke invariably accepted and loyally endeavoured to carry out the measures on which the government decided. In a memorandum addressed to Mr Childers in 1880 he defined his attitude as follows:--"Should it appear, however, that for reasons of state policy it is necessary that the contemplated changes should be made, I am prepared to carry them out to the best of my ability." This attitude he consistently maintained in all cases in which his training and associations led him, rightly or wrongly, to deprecate changes the need for which was not apparent to him. His judgment was especially vindicated in the case of an ill-advised reduction of the artillery carried out by Mr. Stanhope. Under the order in council of February 1888, the whole responsibility for military duties of every kind was for the first time centred upon the commander-in-chief. This, as pointed out by the Hartington commission in 1890, involved "an excessive centralization" which "must necessarily tend to weaken the sense of responsibility of the other heads of departments, and thus to diminish their efficiency." The duke of Cambridge, whose position entailed many duties apart from those strictly appertaining to a commander-in-chief, could not give personal attention to the vast range of matters for which he was made nominally responsible. On the other hand, the adjutant-general could act in his name, and the secretary of state could obtain military advice from officials charged with no direct responsibility. The effect was to place the duke in a false position in the eyes of the army and of the country. If the administration of the army suffered after 1888, this was due to a system which violated principles. His active control of its training during the whole period of his command was less hampered, and more directly productive of good results.